
aass_LL2A_ 
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ILLUSTRATED 



v^y 



ivERSAL History, 



A CLEAIi AND CONCISE 



HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS, 

WITH A FULL HISTORY OP 

The United States 



TO THE CLOSE OF THE 



FIRST 100 YEARS 



NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE. 

TO WHICH IS ADDED A HISTORY OF ALL RECENT 
IMPORTANT EVENTS, INCLUDING 

THE TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR, 

I ^, f"^ ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HAYES, ETC. 

"y BY ^ 

ISRAEL SMITH CLARE. 



Illustrated with Portraits and full-page Engri 




P. W. ZIEGLER & CO., PUBLISHERS.^ 

518 ARCH ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

180 E. ADAMS ST.. CHICAGO, ILL. 620 OLIVE STREET, ST. LOUIS. MO. 

ODD FELLOWS' BUILDING, CINCINNATI, O. 

1878. 

fir 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by 

ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washingtoal 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



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PREFACE. 



'T^IIE author of this work, havhig, in common with others, felt the want of 
-^ a book which could truly be called a treatise on universal history, has un- 
dertaken the task of supplying such want; and, as the result of a gi-eat expense of 
time and labor, this volume is presented to the public. 

For convenience, though somewhat arbitrarily, the work is divided into three 
parts, each containing the record of an important era in the history of the world. 
Book First contains an liistorical account of the ancient world, embracing the period 
from the Creation of Man to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, A. D. 476. 
Book .Second embraces the histoiy of the Middle Ages, comprising the time from 
the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Discovery of America, inclusive. 
Book Third comprises a record of the modern period, describing the epoch from 
the Discovery of America to the present time. 

Great historical events have been arranged logically rather than chronologically, 
and great care has been taken to detail facts in proportion to their relative impor- 
tance. The author has also taken great pains to omit what is irrelevant, and he 
has selected from the great mass of historical matter those events which have exerted 
a controlling influence upon the destinies of the world. 

The greatest prominence is given to the annals of those nations of ancient and 
modern times which have acted a leading part on the stage of the world's history; 
and, with this view, Greece and Rome are made to stand out with their due prom- 
inence among the nations of antiquity, while Germany, France, England, and 
America are exhibited as the leading actors in the modern drama. 

To enable the reader or student to easily acquire and retain a knowledge of the 
facts related, and to observe their relation, the subject-matter of this work is arranged 
m many divisions and subdivisions; and each subject is minutely analyzed, and 
tlie outlines of the various subjects furnish appropriate headings for the different 
pai-agraphs. 

In addition to a full account of the annals of the nations of the Old World, a 
complete history of the United States, up to the present time, is given ; also a gen- 
eral history of the Spanish American Republics, — subjects which are not treated of 
to the same extent in other works of this kind. 



iv PREFACE. 

The history of the United States is made to embrace the period of the first cen- 
tury of our existence as an independent nation; and a separate title-page is given 
to it. The history of our country is divided into three periods: — ist. The period 
of the American Rcvohition; 2d. The period of national development, extending 
fiom the lime of the adoption of our National Constitution in 1789 to the close of 
the war with Mexico; 3d. The period of the slavery agitation and the civil war, 
and recent events. All the leading events of each AdminisU'ation ar^ narrated, 
according to their relative importance, or their bearing upon the destinies of ouj 
countiy. 

The Table of Contents embraces a general outline of the book, and is analyti- 
cal. In the Chronological Index, the great events in the history of the human 
race are arranged in chronological order, and reference is made to the pages on 
which the events named, are found. In the Alphabetical Index, all the proper 
names found in the book are arranged alphabetically, with their pronunciation, and 
reference is also made to the pages on which they occur. The book, as arranged, 
is well adapted for general reading, for reference, and for private study. 

With these few introductory remarks, the author submits the volume to the 
public, with the hope that it may prove of valuable service to the student of history 
and to the general reader. I. S. Clare. 

Millersvilkf Pa., 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK FIRST-ANCIENT HISTORY. 



THE EARLIEST AGES. 



1. Antedilxtvian History, 

2. The Dispersion of Mankind, 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



1. China, 

2. India, 

5. Assyria and Babylonia, 

4. Egypt, 

5. Phcenicia, 

6. The Hebrews or Israelites, 

I. The Pati-iarchs, . 
77^1? Hebrews hi Egypt, 
The Exodus of the Israelites, 
The Period of the yiidges, 
The Reign of Said, 
The Reign of David, 
The Reign of Solomon, . 

8. The Kingdom of Israel, 

9. The Kingdom of jndah, 

7. Media and Persia, 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 

1. Geography of Ancient Greece, 

2. Grecian Mythology, ..... 

3. Legendary Period of Greece, 

1. Early Settlements in Greece, 

2. The Heroic Age, ..... 

3. The Amphictyonic Council and the Olympic Festival, 

4. GreeJz Colonies, ..... 
4 The Period of the Lawgivers, 

1. Lycurgus, the Spartan Lawgiver, 

2. 77/1? Messenian Wars, .... 

(v) 



PAGE. 
21 
21 



22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
27 
28 
28 
29 

30 
30 
31 
31 
32 



35 
36 
37 
37 
Zl 
39 
40 
40 
40 
42 



CONTENTS. 

3. Draco and Solon^ the Law^ivefs of Athens, 

4. The Tyrants of Athens, .... 

5. The Seven Wise Men of Greece, 
Thf Flourishing Period of Greece, 

1. The Persian IVar, ..... 

2. Affairs of Athens and Sparta, 

3. The Peloponnesian War, . . . 

4. Retreat of the Ten Thousand and Peace of Antalcidas, 

5. The Olynthian and Theban Wars, 

The Macedonian Period, .... 

1. Philip of Macedon, ..... 

2. Alexander the Great, .... 
3 Antipater and Alexander' s Successors, 

4. The Achaian League and the Fall of Greece, 

5. The Ptolemies, the Seleitcidis, and the Maccabees, 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



I. Ancient Italy, 



Rome under the Kings, 

1. Romulus, ..... 

2. The Successors of Romulus, ■• 
The Roman Republic, , . 

1. Wars with the Etruscans and with Porsenna, 

2. Contests between the Patricians and the Plebeians, 

3. Conquest of Veii and the Invasion of the Gauls, 

4. The Laws of Caius Licinius Stolo, 
5- Wars with the Samnites and the Latins, 

6. The War with Pyrrhus, . 

7. The First Punic War, 

8. Illyrian and Gallic Wars, 
g. The Second Punic War, 

ID. Alaccdonian, Syrian, and Grecian Wars, 

11. The Third Punic War, 

12. Roman Conquest of Spain, 

13. Sedition of the Gracchi, 

14. Age of Caius Marius and Ccmclius Sylla, 

15. Civil War of Marius and Sylla, 

16. Age of Cnccus Ponipey and jlulius Ccesar, 

17. Civil War of Pompey and Ccesar, 

18. Cvsar's Dictatorship, 

19. Mark Antony and Octavius Ca:sar, . 

20. Civil IVar of Octavius and Antony, 
The Roman Empire, . . 

I. The Reigus of the Cctsars, 

1 . The Reign of Augustus, . 

2. Reign of Tiberius, . 

3. Reign of Caligula, 



CONTENTS. 



4- 


Reign of Claudius, . 


5- 


Reign of Nero, . . • • 


6. 


Reign of Galba, 


7- 


Reign of OLho, . . • • 


8. 


Reign of Vitellius, . 


9- 


Reign of Vespasian, 


lO. 


Reign of Titus, 


II. 


Reign of Domitian, 


The 


Five Good Emperors, 


I. 


Reign of Nerva, 


2. 


Reign of Trajan, 


3- 


Reign of Adrian, 


4- 


Reign of Antoninus Pius, . 


5- 


Reign of Marcus Aurelius, 


T/if 


Period of Military Despotism, 


1. 


Reign of Commodus, 


2. 


Reign of Pertinax, . 


3- 


Reign of Didius Julianus, 


4- 


Reign of Septimius Severus,- 


5- 


Reign of Caracalla, 


6. 


Reign of Macrinus, . 


7- 


Reign of Heliogabalus, . . 


8. 


Reign of Alexander Severus, 


9- 


Reign of Maximin, 


lO. 


Reign of Gordian, . 


II. 


Reign of Philip, 


12. 


Reign of Decius, 


13- 


Reign of Callus, 


14. 


Reign of Valerian, . 


15- 


Reign of Gallienus, 


16. 


Reign of Flavius Claudius, . 


17- 


Reign of Aurelian, 


18. 


Reign of Tacitus, 


19 


Reign of Probus, 


20 


Reign of Carus, 


21 


Reign of Diocletian, 


22 


Reign of Constantine the -Great, 


23 


Reign of Constanlius IT., 


24 


Reign of Julian the Apostate, 


25 


. Reign of Jovian, 


Barbarian Inroads rmci Fail of the IVeslern . 


I 


. Reign of Valentinian and Valens, 


2 


. Reign of Theodosius the Great, 


3 


. Reign of Ilonorius, ~ . 


4 


. Reign of Valentinian III., . 


5 


. Reign of Maximus, 


6 


. The Last Roman Emperors of the West, 



Ro7nai 



Empir 



Vll 

PAGE. 
95 

95 
96 
96 
97 
97 
98 
98 
99 
99 
99 
99 
100 
100 
100 
100 

lOI 

lOI 

lOI 

lOI 

102 

102 

102 

102 

103 

103 

103 

104 

104 

104 

104 

105 

105 

105 

105 

105 

106 

108 

108 

109 

109 

1 00 

1 10 
no 
III 

112 
112 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK SECOND-THE MIDDLE AGES. 



THE DARK AGES. 

I. Italy and the Byzantine Empire, 

1. Italy under the Heruli and the Ostrogoths, 

2. 77/1? Bysantine Empire under Justv.iian, 

3. The Lombard Kingdom in Northern Italy, 

2 The Angles and Saxons in Britain, . 

3 The Saracen Empire, 

1. Mohammed, .... 

2. Mohammed's Successors, 

1. Reign of Abubekir, 

2. Reign of Omar, 

3. Reign of Othman, 

4. Reign of All, 

5. Reigns of the Ommiyades, 

6. Reigns of the Abbassides, 

4. The Frank Empire, 

1. The Reigns of the Merovingians, 

2. The Reigns of the Carlovingians, 

1. Reign of Pepin the Little, . 

2. Reign of Charlemagne, . 

3. Charlemagne's Successors, . 

5. BARr>ARiAN Ravages in Europe, 

EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS 

1. The Feudal System, 

2. Chivalry, .... 

3. The Papacy and Hierarchy, 

4. Monachism, .... 



THE CRUSADES. 



1. The First Crusade, 

2. The Second Crusade, . 

3. The Third Crusade, 

4. The Fourth Crusade, . 

5. The Fifth Crusade, 

6. The Sixth Crusade, 

7. The Seventh Crusade, 

8. Consequences of the Crusadf^, 



LATIN STATES. 



I Italian States, 

1. The Papal States of Rome, 

2. The Duchy of Milan, 



PA(?E. 
117 
117 
117 
119 
120 
120 
120 
121 
121 
122 
123 
123 
123 
124 
125 

126 
126 
126 
129 
129 



130 
132 



134 
137 

»37 
138 
139 
139 
140 
140 



142 
142 
142 



CONTENTS. 

3. 77?^ Republic of Venice, 

4. The Republic of Genoa ^ . 

5. T/ic RepiMic of Florence, 

6. The Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, 
Kingdom of France, 

1. Carlovingian Kings of France, . 

2. France under Ilozise of Capet, 

1. Reign of Hugh Capet, 

2. Reign of Robert, 
3 Reign of Heniy I., . 

4. Reign of Philip I., 

5. Reign of Louis VI., 

6. Reign of Louis VII., 

7. Reign of PhiHp Augustus, . 

8. Reign of Louis VIII., . 

9. Reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis 

10. Reign of Philip the Hardy, 

11. Reign of Philip the Fair, 

12. Reign of Louis X., 

13. Reign of Philip the Tall, 

14. Reign of Charles the Fair, 

3. France under the House of Valois, 

1. Reign of Philip of Valois, 

2. Reign of John the Good, 

3. Reign of Charles the Wise, 

4. Reign of Charles VI., 

5. Reign of Charles the Victorious, 

6. Reign of Louis XL, 

7. Reign of Charles the Courteous, 

8. Reign of Louis XII., 



3. Iberian Kingdoms, 



GERMANIC STATES 



I. The Holy Roman Empire of Germany, . 

1 . Carlovingian Sovereigns of Germany, 

2. Germany under the Saxon and Frankish 

1. Reign of Conrad I., of Franconia, 

2. Reign of Heniy the Fowler, 

3. Reign of Otho the Great, 

4. Reign of Otho II., . 

5. Reign of Otho III., 

6. Reign of^Henry the Saint, . 

7. Reign of Conrad II., 

8. Reign of Henry III., 

9. Reign of Henry IV., 

10. Reign of Henry V., 

11. Reign of Lothaire the Saxon, 



Empi 



IX 

PAGE. 

144 

144 

146 
146 
146 
146 
147 
147 
147 
I4S 
148 
149 

ISO 
150 
151 
151 
151 
152 
152 
153 
154 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 
158 



159 
»S9 
159 
159 
160 
160 
160 
.60 
160 
160 
161 
161 
162 
162 



CONTENTS. 



3. Germany tinder (he Hohenstauffens, 

1. Reign of Conrad III., , 

2. Reign of Frederic Barbarossa, 

3. Reign of Henry VI., 

4. Reign of Otho IV. and Philip of Swabia, 

5. Reign of Frederic II., . 

4. The Interregmun, . , 

5. Emperors of Different Houses, 

1. Reign of Rodolph of Hapsburg, 

2. Reign of Adolph of Nassau, 

3. Reign of Albert of Austria, . 

4. Reign of Henry VII., of Luxemburg, . 

5. Reign of Louis the Bavarian and Frederic the 

6. Germany under the House of Litxeiuhurg, 

1. Reign of Charles IV., 

2. Reign of Wenceslaus, 

3. Reign of Rupert of the Palatinate, 

4. Reign of Sigismund, 

7. Gerinany nnder the House of Hapsburg, 

1. Reign of Albert II., 

2. Reign of Frederic III., . 

3. Reign of Maximilian I., 
2. Thk Kingdom of England, 

1. England under the Saxon and Danish Kings, 

1. The Reigns of the Anglo-Saxon Kings, 

2. The Danish Kings of England, 

3. The Restored Saxon Dynasty, . 

2. England under the N'orman Dynasty, 

1. Reign of William the Conqueror, 

2. Reign of William Rufus, 

3. Reign of Ileniy I., 

4. Reign of Stephen of Blois, . 

3. England icndcr the Plantage^iets, 

1. Reign of Henry II., 

2. Reign of Richard the Lion-hearted, 

3. Reign of John, 

4. Reign of Henry III., 

5. Reign of Edward I., 

6. Reign of Edward II., 

7. Reign of Edward HI., 

8. Reign of Richard II., . 

4. Englajid under the House of Lancaster, 

1. Reign of Hemy IV., 

2. Reign of Ileiny V., 

3. Reign of Henry VI., 

5. England under the House of York, 

I. Reign of Edward IV., . 



Fair 



of Austri 



CONTENTS. 

2. Reign of Edward V., 

3. Reign of Richard III., . 

6. England under the House of Tudor, 
I. Reign of Henry VII., 
J. The Scandinavian Kingdoms, 

SLAVONIC STATES. 

» The Kingdom of Poland, 

2, The Russian or Muscovite Empire, 

TARTARIC STATES. 

1. The Kingdom of Hungary, 

2. The Mogul and Ottoman Empires, 



XI 

page. 

184 
. 184 

i8s 
. 185 

185 



186 

1 88 



189 
190 



DISCOVERIES. 

1. Important Inventions, . - 

2. The Sea-Passage to India, 

3. The Discovery of America, 

1. Spanish Expediiions and Discoveries, 

2. English and French Expeditions and Discoveries, 



192 
193 
193 
193 

195 



BOOK THIRD-MODERN HISTORY. 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

\ge of Charles V. and Henry VIII., .... 199 

1. 77^1? German Reformation, . . . . .199 

2. The Wars between Charles V. and Francis I., . . . 202 

1. Cliarles v., Francis I., and Henry VIII., . . . 202 _ 

2. First War between Qiarles V. and Francis I., . . 202 

3. Second War between Charles V. and Francis I., . . 203 

4. Wars against the Infidels, ..... 204 

5. Third War between Charles V. and Francis I., . . 205 

6. Fourth War between Charles V. and Francis I., . . 205 

7. War between Charles V. and Henry 11. of France, . 206 

3. The Religious War in Germany, ..... 206 

4. The Reformation in England, ..... 209 

1. Reign of Henry VIII., ...... 209 

2. Reign of Edward VI., . . . . . 21 1 

3. Reign of Mary, ....... 212 

5. The Reformation i)i the Scandinavian Kingdoms, . . 213 

6. The Society of Jesuits, . . . . . • 213 

7. Spanish Conquests in America, . . . . . 214 

8. Persia and India, . . . . . . • 215 



i CONTENTS. 

Age of Philip II. and Elizabeth, . 

1 . Spain and Poi-iugal, 

2. 17ie War of Independence in ike Nether-lands, 

3. Civil and Religious Wars in France, 

1. Reign of Heniy II., 

2. Reign of Francis II., 

3. Reign of Charles IX., 

4. Reign of Henry III., 

5. House of Bourbon — Reign of Henry IV., 

4. Elizabeth of England and Alary of Scotland, 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

The Thirty Years' War, .... 

1. Causes and Origin of the War, 

2. Palatine Period of the War, 

3. Danish Period of the War, , 

4. Swedish Period of the War, 

5. French Period of the War, . 
The English Revolution, . 

1 . England under the House of Stuart, 

1. Reign of James I., . 

2. Reign of Charles I., 

3. The Civil War, 

2. The Conttnonwealth of England, 

3. The Restored Hotise of Stuart, 

1. Reign of Charles II., 

2. Reign of James II., . 

3. The Revolution of 1688, 

4. Reign of William and Mary, 
The Wars of Louis XIV., 

1 . France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 

1. Richelieu's Administration, 

2. Mazarin's Administration, 

2. 7"-^!? Government and Wars of Louis XIV., 

1. Louis XIV., and his War with Spain, 

2. The War with Holland, 

3. Turkish Invasion of Austria, 

4. Persecution of the Huguenots, . 

5. The War of the League of Augsburg, 
The Anglo-American Colonies, 

1. Virginia, .... 

1. Virginia under the London Company, 

2. Virginia a Royal Province, . 

2. Massachusetts, 

1. The Plymouth Colony, . , 

2. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, 



CONTENTS. 


xiii 




page. 


3. N'ew York, ...... 


259 


r. The Dutch Colony of New Nctherland, 


. 259 


2. The English Province of New York, 


26c 


4. New Hampshire, ...... 


. 261 


5. Maryland, ...... 


201 


6, Connecticut, ....... 


. 262 


7. Rhode Island, ...... 


263 


8. Delaware, ...... 


. 264 


9. North and South Carolina, .... 


264 


I, North Carolina, . . . . * . 


. 264 


2. South Carolina, ..... 


265 


10. N'ew Jersey, ...... 


. 266 


II. Pennsylvania, . . . . , .' 


266 


12. Georgia, ...... 


. 267 


• EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 




The Age of Peter the Great and Charles VI., 


. 268 


I. The War of the Spanish Succession, 


268 


I. Causes and Origin of the War, 


. 268 


2. Events of 1 702 and 1 703, .... 


269 


3. Events of 1704, .... 


. 269 


4. Events of 1705, 


270 


5. Events of 1706, .... 


. 270 


6. Events of 1707, ..... 


271 


7. Events of 1708, .... 


. 271 


8. Events of 1709, ..... 


271 


9. Events of 17 10, 


. 271 


10. Events of 1711, ..... 


272 


II. Events of 1712, 1713, and 1714, 


. 272 


2. The Northirn War, ..... 


273 


3. General AJf airs of Europe, .... 


. 278 


4. Persia and India, ..... 


281 


The Age of Frederic the Great and Catharine II., 


. 281 


I. The War of the Austrian Succession, 


281 


I . Causes and Origin of the War, . 


. 281 


2. Events of 1741, ..... 


282 


3. Events of 1742, .... 


. 283 


4. Events of 1743, . , . 


283 


5. Events of 1744, . . . . , 


. 284 


6. Events of 1745, 1746, 1747, and 1748, 


284 


2. The Seven Years' War, .... 


. 286 


I. Causes and Origin of the War, 


286 


2. Events of 1756, .... 


. 287 


3. Events of 1757, ..... 


287 


■4. Events of 1758, 


. 289 


5. Events of 1759, ..... 


290 


6. Events of 1760, .... 


. 291 


7. Events of 1761, 1762, and 1763, 


29a 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



3- 
4- 
5- 
3- The 
I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 
5- 



77/^ ParlUiorts of Poland and Jiusso- Turkish Wars, 
General Affairs of Europe, 
Cotiqucsts of Ike English East- India Company, 
Anglo-French Colonial Wars, 
French SettlemeKls in North America^ 
King William's War, .... 
Queen Anne's War, 

King George's War, .... 
The French and Indian War, 



6. 
4. The 
I. 
2. 



1. Causes and Origin of the War, . 

2. Events of 1754, 

3. Events of 1755, .... 

4. Events of 1756, 

5. Events of 1757, .... 

6. Events of 1758, 

7. Events of 1759, .... 

8. Events of 1760, 

9. Events of 1761, 1762, 1763, 
The War of the American Revolution, 
French Revolution, .... 
Causes of the Fevohttion, 
The Time pfthe French Naiional Assembly, 

1. Events of 1789, 

2. Events of 1790 and 1791, . 
The Period of the French Legislative Assembly, 

1. Events of 1792, .... 

The French Republic under the National Coni'ention 

1. Events of 1792, .... 

2. Events of 1793, 

3. Events of 1794, .... 

4. Events of 1795, 
77/1? French Republic under the Directory, 

1. Events of 1796, 

2. Events of 1797, .... 

3. Events of 1798, 

4. Events of 1799, .... 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

I, The Government and Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
I. Napoleon, First Consul of the French Republic, 

1. Events of 1800, .... 

2. Events of 1801, .... 

3. Events of 1802, .... 

4. Events of 1S03, .... 

5. Events of 1804, .... 
3. Napoleon, Emperor of the French, 

I. Events of 1804, ..... 



CONTENTS. 

2. Events of 1805, 

3. Events of 1806, 

4. Events of 1S07, 

5. Events of 1808, 

6. Events of 1S09, 

7. Events of 1810, 

8. Events of 181 1, 

9. Events of 181 2, 

10. Events of 1813, 

11. Events of 1814, 
3. The Restored Bourbons and the Hundred Days, 

2. Political Revolutions in Europe, 

r. Condition of Europe after Bonaparte' s Fall, 

1. The Holy Alliance, 

2. The Royalist Reaction in France, 

3. The Social Struggle in England, 

2. European Revolutions of l%20 and 1821, 

1. The Revolution in Spain, 

2. The Revolution in Portugal, 

3. The Revolution in Naples, 

4. The Revolution in Piedmont, 

3. The Greek Revolution, 

1. Events of 182 1, 

2. Events of 1822, 

3. Events of 1823, 

4. Events of 1824 and 1825, 

5. Events of 1826, 

6. Events of 1827, 

7. Events of 1828, 

8. Events of 1829, 

9. Events of 1831, 1832, and 1833, 

4 Eziropean Revolutions of \^t,0 and 1 83 1, 

1. The French Revolution of 1830, 

2. The Belgian Revolution, 

3. The Polish Insurrection of 1830 and 1 83 1, 

4. Insurrections in Germany and Italy, 

5. English Reforms, 

6. The Spanish Civil JFar of 1833-39, 

7. Dissensions in Turko- Egyptian Empire^ 

8. Growth of the Anglo-Indian Empire, 

9. European Revolutions of 1848 and 1849, 

1. The French Revolution of 1848, 

2. Revolutions in Germany, Austria, and Prussia, 

3. Revolutions in Italy, 

4. The Hungarian Rebellion of 1848, 1849, 

3. The Latest Wars and Revolutions, 

I . The Coup d^ Etat of Louis Napoleon, 



XV 

PAGE. 

335 

337 

33 > 
340 

34 f 

342 
342 
346 
•348 
350 
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353 
354 
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355 
356 
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358 
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359 
359 
360 
360 
360 
360 
363 
364 
365 
366 

367 
368 
368 
370 
370 
374 
378 
380 
384 
384 



xvi CONTENTS. 

VKGT. 

2. The Crimean War, ...... 386 

3. T/ie Sepoy Mutiny in British India, .... 389 

4. The Italian War, . . . . . . -391 

5. The Italian Revohitiott 0/ 12>()0 and 1Z61, . . . 394 

6. 77^1? Greek Revolution of \%i>2, ..... 394 

7. Thi Polish Insurrection of l2>62, i2,6t„ and l^()^, . . 395 

8. Russian Serf Emancipation, .... 395 

9. The Schleswig-Holstein War of 1864, .... 39^ 

10. The Seven Weehs' War, ...... 397 

11. English Reforms, . . . . . -399 

12. The Spanish Revolution of 1 868, ..... 400 

13. The Franco-German War, ..... 401 

14. The Italian Revolution of 1870, . . . . .412 

15. The French Civil War of xZ-jX, . . . . 414 

16. The Spanish Revolution of iS"] 2)y • • • • .421 

17. Recent Affairs of European Nations, . . , . 430 
4. The Spanish American Republics, ..... 433 

1. The Spanish American War of Independence, . . . 433 

1. Causes of the Spanish American Revolution, . . . 433 

2. The Revolution in Mexico, .... 434 

3. The Revolution in Colombia, . ... . . 435 

4. The Revolution in La Plata, .... 438 

5. The Revolution in Bolivia, ..... 438 

6. The Revolution in Chili, ..... 439 

7. The Revolution in Peru, ..... 439 

2. South Atnerica since the Revolution, .... 440 

3. The Republic of the United States of Alexico, . . . 441 

1. The Administration of General Victoria, . . . 441 

2. Administrations of Guerrera, Bustamente, and Pedraza, . 442 

3. First Presidency and Dictatorship of Santa Anna — The Texan 

Revolution, ..... . 443 

4. Bustamente's Second Administration, .... 444 

5. Santa Anna's Second Presidency and Dictatorship, . . 445 

6. Administrations of Herrera, Paredes, and Santa Anna — The War 

with the United States, ..... 446 

7. Administrations of Herrera, Arista, Santa Anna, Alvarez, Com- 

onfort, and Zuloaga, ..... 447 

8. The Administration of Benito Juarez — The French Invasion and 

the Emperor Maximihan, ..... 448 



HISTORY OF THE FIRST ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICAN 
INDEPENDENCE. 



I. The Amf:rican Revolution, 

1. Causes of the Revolution, . , 

2. The War of American Independence, 

1. Events of 1775, 

2. Events of 1776, 



455 
455 
460 
460 
462 



CONTENTS. 

3. Events of 1777, 

4. Events of 1778,^ 

5. Events of 1779, 

6. Events of 17 So, 

7. Events of 1781, 

8. Events of 1782 and 1783, 
3. The Constitution of the United States, 

1. Formation of the Constitution, 

2. The Constitution, 

3. Adoption of the Constitution, 
The Growing American Union, 

1. Washington' s Admitiistration, . 

2. John Adams's Administration, 

3. yefferson'' s Administration, . 

4. Madison's Administration, 

1. The War with Great Britain — Events of 

2. Events of 1813, 

3. Events of 1814 and 1815, 

5. Monroe's Administration, 

6. yohn Quincy Adams's Administi-ation, 

7. yackson's Administration, 

8. Van Biiren's Administration, 

9. Ha7'rison''s and Tyler^s Administration?,, 
ID. Pilk's Administration, 

I. The War with Mexico, . 
Slavery Agitation and the Civil War, . 

1. Taylor's and Fiilmoi'e's Administrations, 

2. Pierce's Admi^iistration, 

3. Buchanan' s Administration, 

4. Lincoln's Administration, 

1. Tlie Civil War — Events of 1S61, 

2. Events of 1862, , . . * 

3. Events of 1863, 
\. Events of 1864, 
5. Events of 1865, 

5. yohnson's Administration, 

6. Grant's Administi-ation, . , 
The New States, .... 
A Historical Retrospect, 
The Centennial Exhibition, 
Chronological Index, , 
Alphabetical Index and Pronouncing Dictionary, 



PjiGE. 

463 

469 

47' 

472 

475 
475 
475 
476 

477 
478 

478 
480 
481 
483 
484 
485 
488 
491 
493 
493 
495 
496 

497 
498 
500 
500 
501 
502 

505 
505 
508 

513 

516 
520 
522 
524 
529 
532 
538 
544 
569 



ARMS OF THE NATIONS 




AU STRALIA 



ECUADOR. NEW GRANADA. 




GUATEMALA. 



^m 

Mn^ 





GR . BRITAIN 



ARMS OF THE NATIONS 




SWEDEN 




RUSSIA . 






LI_Ili 




NOR WAY 



I R ELAKI D . 



"^m 



BAVARIA. FRANKFORT 




IONIAN ISLES. 



CHINA . 



FLAGS OF THE NATIONS. 




SPAIN, MERCH. 







MEXICO MCRCH 




li ITALY, ROY 




PORTUGAL, ROY. 




(JAPAN , IMP. 




HAYTI. 



I'W 



URUGUAY. 



■ 


1 « 






^^H iB^B 


1 


' SAN DOfy 


INGO. MERCH 






OCCO.TRIPOLI.TUNIS 



1 




e- 






1 


1 












1 




GUATEMALA. 





TURKEY, MAN orWAR 





tlBERIA 



VENEZUELA. MERCH. 



TURKEY, MERCH. 




NI8. MAN or WAR. 



FLAGS OF THE NATIONS 




ARGENTINE REP 




BAAZIL, IMPERIAL. 



BELGIUM .MERCH. 




GR. BRITAI N . ROY 




DENMARK. MERCH. 




NORWAY, ROYAL. 







AUSTRIA , MERCH. 






^^^S 




1 


^^mi^i 






^mss^c 






GERM/>MY IMP. 




r 




GERMANY, MERCH. 




SWEDEN. MEftC«. 




NETHERLANDS, ROY. 



RUSSIA , IMP. 




USSIA, MERCH. 



BOOK I. 

ANCIENT HISTORY, 



THE EARLIEST AGES. 



ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY. 

The Creation — The Antediluvians. — After God had created the heaven 
and the earth; had separated the land from the water; and had created the beasts 
of the field, the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea; and had clothed the earth 
with verdure and vegetatioij, he created man in his own image, and endowed him 
.with the gifts of reason and speech, to be the niler of the world. The first pair, 
Adam and Eve, were placed in the beautiful Garden of Eden, on the River 
Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, where they remained until, contrary to the command 
of the Creator, they ate of the forbidden fruit, and thus lost their purity and 
childlike innocence. Their eldest son, Cain, killed his brother Abel, and became 
"a fugitive and vagabond in the earth." In the course of time, the descendant? 
of Adam and Eve became very numerous. All that we know of the histoiy of 
the Antediluvians, or the people who lived before the Deluge, is contained in iht 
first six chapters of the book of Genesis. 

The Deluge. — In the course of many centuries after the Creation, mankind 
grew so extremely wicked, that the Almighty determined to destroy, by a great 
deluge of water, every human being that dwelt on the face of the earth, with the 
exception of Noah and his wife, and his three sons and their wives, who accord- 
ingly saved themselves during the Deluge by having gone into the Ark which 
Noah had built by direction of the Lord. When the waters, which after a rain 
of forty days and forty nights had covered the face of the earth, had subsided, the 
Ark rested on a lofty mountain in Armenia, called Ararat. At length Noah and 
those that were with him came forth from the Ark, and their descendants multi- 
plied. 

THE DISPERSION OF MANKIND. 

The Tower of Babel — -The Confusion of Tongues. — In the course of 
more than a century after the Deluge, the descendants of Noah became very 
numerous, and inhabited a region watered by the Euphrates, and known as the 
"Land of Shinar." In this country they commenced building a city, and also 
the great Tower of Babel, whose top, they boasted, should "reach to heaven.'' 
hut after the tower had been built to a considerable height, the Lord suddenly 
confounded the language of the presumptuous children of men, whereupon they 
abandoned their foolish and wicked attempt and dispersed over the face of the 
earth, dividing into many tribes and nations, each having a language peculiar to 
itself. This is known as the " Confusion of Tongues." 

(21) 



2 2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Noah and his three sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. — After the dis- 
persion of mankind from the Tower of liabel, Noah is supposed to have traveled 
eastward and founded China. Noah's tliree sons were Ham, Sliem, and Japheth. 
Ham is tliought to have journeyed to Africa, which became peopled with his 
descendants; while Shem remained in Asia, where his descendants for a long time 
continued to inhabit the Land of Shinar; and Japheth is believed \o have peopled 
Asia Minor and Northern Asia, and thence his descendants spread over Europe. 



ORIENTAL iNATIONS. 



CHINA. 

Antiquity and Civilization of China. — China ranks as the oldest nation on 
the face of the earth. Its authentic histoiy dates back to a period of four thousand 
years from the present time. It is supposed to have been founded by Noah soon 
after the dispersion of mankind from the Tower of Babel. The Chinese of ancient 
times had attained to a considerable degree of civilization, but when they had 
reached .a certain point they made no further progress, and have remained in 
nearly the same condition up to the present time. The ancient Chinese knew 
nothing of Egypt, Greece, Rome, or the great nations of western Asia. 

Confucius. — Chinese annals are very obscure until the time of Confucius, who 
lived about five hundred years before Christ. Confucius was the most famous 
character that China has ever produced. His virtues were as great as his talents 
and learning. For the purpose of reforming the people, he traveled about the 
country, lecturing to them, and instructing them on the benefit of virtue and 
morality, and in a short time he had numerous disciples and converts, who followed 
his precepts. His great works on moral philosophy, which have been held in 
great reverence by the Chinese up to the present time, teach the people to be 
virtuous and orderly, and to do unto others as they would that others should do 
unto them, and define the duties of the emperor to his people, and also the duties 
of the people to their emperor. 

Building of the Great Wall. — About three centuries after the time of Con- 
fucius, and about two centuries before Christ, a great warrior, called Chi-hoang-ti, 
was emperor of China. For the purpose of putting a stop to the inroads of the 
Tartars into the Chinese territories, Chi-hoang-ti caused the Great Wall, fifteen 
hundred miles in length, to be erected on the northern frontiers of his dominions. 
This wall is now mostly in ruins. It is said that after the Great Wall had been 
completed, Chi-hoang-ti entertained the desire of being regarded by future genera 
tions as the founder of the great Chinese monarchy, and that for this purj^ose he 
ordered all historical and other writings to be destroyed, so that nothing might 
thereafter be known of Chinese history previous to his time. Some learned men 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 23 

were punished with death for attempting to hide some valuable books. Some oi 
the worlds of Confucius and other eminent writers were, however, concealed, and 
after tlie death of the vain-glorious emperor, they were taken from their places ol 
concealment. From the time of Clii-hoang-ti to the present, many dynasties h."ve 
occupied the throne of China. 



INDIA. 

Antiquity of Hindoo Civilization — Hindoostan and the Deccan. — India 
:>r Hindoostan was one of the most ancient seats of civilization. India was not 
like China, united into a single monarchy, but it was divided into numerous petty 
states, of which but verj' little is known. The period of the settlement of the 
Hindoos in India is not known. That portion of India north of the Vindyha 
mountains was called Hindoostan, while that part of the countiy south of those 
mountains was named Deccan. 

The Brahmins. — It is supposed that the first form of government that existed 
in India was that of a powerful priesthood, and that the first code of laws was 
compiled by priests or Brahmins, who were celebrated for their learning, and who 
were held in great reverence by all classes of Hindoos. Their laws were drawn 
from the Vedas or sacred writings. 

Hindoo Castes. — According to the Brahminical code, the Hindoos, or Indians, 
were divided into four distinct classes or castes. The members of each caste were 
not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of another caste. This rule has 
been strictly adhered to by the Hindoos up to the present time. The first caste 
was that of the priests or PJrahmins, who possessed the chief power in political as 
well as religious affairs, and who were held in greater respect and veneration than 
the princes. The second caste was the warrior class, to which the princes belonged. 
The third caste was composed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and 
mechanic?. The fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers. Every man 
was obliged to pursue the occupation of his father, and it was considered worse than 
death to violate any of the rules of caste. 

Hindoo Religion — Brahma and Buddha. — The Hindoos worshiped one 
supreme deity known as Brahma, whom they regarded as Creator. The two gods, 
Siva, the Preserver, and Vishnu, the Destroyer, were reverenced as forms of the 
chiei deity. The Hindoos also made the sun, moon, and stars objects of adoration. 
The Brahmins taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. 
The Brahminical religion was refonned by Buddha, who appeared in India about 
five centuries before Christ. Buddha labored with gi-eat zeal to lessen the powei 
of the priesthood, and to abolish the distinctions of caste. 

Hindoo Literature and Art — Productions and Trade. — The Hinloos 
made great advancement in literature, and many of their works, all ot which are 
written in the sacred and now obsolete Sanscrit language, are about 3,000 years 
nl I. The ruins of stately temples and grottoes bear witness to the degree of arti.-tic 
skill posessed by the Hindoos. The great abundance of the natural and artifici.d 
pioductions of India has always kept that country the grand centre and emporium 
of the maritime and caravan trade, and has also made it a constant prey to foreign 
invasion and conquest. 



24 ORIENTAL NATIONS. 

ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA. 

Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea — Foundings of Nineveh. — Among 
the most ancient, the most civilized, and the most powerful nations of the ancient 
world, were Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea. Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, 
is regarded by many as the founder of the Assyrian empire, and also of its capital, 
the famed city of Nineveh. This great and magnificent city, which is supposed ti* 
have been situated on the east bank of the river Tigris, was surrounded by a wai. 
lOO feet high, flanked with 1,500 towers, each 200 feet high. Nineveh is believed 
to have had, at one time, a population of about 800,000 souls. 

Founding of Babylon by Nimrod. — The gi-eat city of Babylon, which stood 
on both sides of the river Euphrates, was the capital of the Babylonian Empire, 
and it far surpassed Nineveh in size, power, and magnificence. The walls of 
Babylon were 350 feet high and 87 feci 'hick, flanked with high towers, and pierced 
with 100 gates of brass. Babylon was founded by Nimrod, "the mighty hunter 
before the Lord," a grandson of Ham. There are some who also regard Nimrod 
as the founder of Nineveh. After his death, Nimrod was deified for his great 
actions, and worshiped as "Belus," or "Baal." 

Reign of Ninus. — Some consider Ninus as the son and successor of Nimrod, 
Assyria and Babylonia forming one great empire; while others regard Ninus as an 
Assyrian king, who conquered Chaldea and united it with Asspia more than four 
centuries after the time of Nimrod. 

Conquests of Queen Semiramis. — Queen Semiramis, the wife and successor 
of Ninus, is said to have greatly extended the Assyrian empire by conquest, carrying 
her victorious arms as far as the borders of India on the east, and to the deserts of 
Central Africa on the west. This famous queen adorned Babylon with magnificent 
works, such as the hanging gardens, and she devoted some attention to the internal 
improvement of her extensive dominions. 

Decline and Fall of the First Assyrian Empire. — The Assyrian empire 
rapidly declined under the weak successors of Semiramis; and in the year 888 B. C, 
the governor of the Medes rebelled against the Assyrian king, Sardanapalus. Being 
besieged in Nineveh by his rebellious subject, and unable to defend his capital with 
success, Sardanapalus set fire to his palace and perished with it in the flames. Thus 
fell the first Assyrian empire. (B. C. 888.) 

The Second Assyrian Empire — Destruction of Nineveh. — More than a 
century after the fall of the first Assyrian empire, Assyria again became a powerful 
and extensive empire under such warlike kings as Shalmanezar and Sennacherib, 
who are celebrated for their wars against the Israelites. The second Assyrian 
empire, like the first, was of short duration. Its overthrow took place in the year 
606 B. C, when the united armies of the Medes and the Chaldeans took and 
destroyed the great city of Nineveh. 

Rise of the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar. — The Baby' or. 
lan empire, which was erected on the ruins of the great Assyrian monarchy, acquired 
great power under the wai-like Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered Jerusalem and 
carried the Jews into the seventy years' Babylonian captivity, and who also subjected 
the Ph jenician kingdom of Tyre to the Babylonian dominion. 




ASSYRIAN WAR CHARIOT. 




EGYPTIAM WAR CHARIOT. 



ORIENTAL NA TIONS. 



25 



Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great of Persia. — The Babylonian 
empire was overthrown by the conquering Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, who, in 
the year 538 B. C, took Babylon and caused the last Persian king, Belshazzar, who 
was at the time feasting with his nobles, to be put to death. The Babylonians were 
then subjected to the sway of the Persians. (B. C. 538.) 



EGYPT. 

Divisions of Ancient Egypt — Misraim or Menes. — The ruins and monu- 
ments of ancient civilization found in Egypt render that country one of the most 
interesting on the globe. The country is kept fertile by the annual inundations of 
the Nile, occasioned by the heavy rains in the highlands of Abyssinia. Egypt was 
anciently divided into three great divisions ; — namely : Upper Egypf , Middle Egypt, 
and Lower Egypt. Misraim, or Menes, a son of Ham, is regarded by many as the 
founder of the ancient Egyptian nation, and to have been its first king; while others 
believe Menes and Misraim to have been different characters, and that Menes 
flourished about two centuries after the time of Misraim. 

The Great Cities of Memphis and Thebes. — The capital of Middle Egypt, 
or Heptanomis, was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs, the founding of which is 
ascribed to the first Egyptian king, Menes. This great city was located on the 
west bank of the Nile, in the region containing the most splendid of the pyramids, 
which extend for a distance of seventy miles on the west side of the Nile. Among 
the ruins of Memphis are those of the Labyrinth, a building consisting of a number 
of intricate passages communicating with each other. The capital of Upper Egypt, 
or the Thebais, was the magnificent city of Thebes, the founding of which is also 
attributed to Menes by some writers, while others think that Thebes was built many 
centuries later; Thebes is said to have extended over 23 miles, and to have had 
100 gates. Its immense size and great splendor are still attested by the ruins of 
magnificent temples, splendid palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxes, the tombs 
of kings hewn in the solid rock, and the subterranean catacombs. The ruins of 
Thebes extend for seven miles along both banks of the Nile. • 

Egyptian Castes, Religion, Manufactures, Commerce, and Arts. — The 
ancient Egyptians were a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct classes 
or castes. The most respected of these castes were the priests and the warriors; 
next the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and sailors; while the shepherds, 
who composed the lowest caste, were greatly despised. The Egyptian religion was 
a horrible superstition, the lower classes of people worshiping different kinds 
of animals and idojs. The Egyptians showed much skill and dexterity in the 
practice of the useful arts, their principal branches of manufacture being the weav 
ing of cotton and linen cloth, and working in copper and brass. Agriculture also 
received much attention. An extensive commerce was carried on with other coun- 
tines, gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia, incenre 
from Arabia, and spices from India; and in exchange for these articles, grain and 
cloth were exported; but as the Egyptians had not attained much skill in the art of 
ship-building, their trade was carried on principally by the Greek and Persian 
merchants. The Egyptians also made a great degree of progress in the fine aits, 
such as music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The ruins of magnificent 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

columns and grand edifices fully testify to the degree of skill attained by this great 
people in architecture. 

Conquests of King Sesostris. — The most renowned king of Eg^'ptwas Sesos- 
Li-is, whc made extensive conquests in Asia and Africa. In the countries which he 
subdued, Sesostris caused monuments to be erected bearing the inscription, " Sesos- 
tris, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, has conquered this territory by the power 
5f his arms." It is not known with certainty at what period this great king lived. 

Mceris and Cheops. — The most famous of Egyptian kings after Sesostris w^re 
Moeris and Cheops. Mceris caused an immense lake to be constructed to regulate 
the inundations of the Nile. Cheops is noted as the builder of the largest of the 
pyi-amids, which covers eleven acres of ground and is 4S0 feet high, and on which 
100,000 men are said to have been employed for forty years. 

Psammeticus and the Migration to Ethiopia. — Psammeticus, who reigned 
over Egypt about seven centuries before Christ, invited Greek soldiers and settlers 
into his kingdom for the purpose of weakening the power of the priesthood and 
strengthening the authority of the monarch, in consequence of which measure 
240,000 Egyptians left their country and settled in Ethiopia, now Nubia. 

Necho and Psammenitus — Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. — Necho, 
who was king of Egypt about 600 years before Christ, is noted as the founder ol 
the Egyptian naval and maritime power. The last of the Pharaohs, or native kings 
of Egypt, was Psammenitus, who was defeated in the bloody battle of Pelusium by 
the victorious Cambyses, king of Persia, who treated the Egyptians with great 
cruelty and put their unfortunate monarch to a violent death. (B. C. 525.) The 
battle of Pelusium was the death-blow to Egyptian independence; and the land of 
the Pharaohs became a province of the great Persian empire, and so remained until 
it was subdued by the famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. Since 
the loss of its ancient independence, Eg)'pt has been successively subject to the 
sway of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes, 
and the Turks, the last of whom still hold the country tributary. 



PHCENICIA. 

Position and Character of the PhcEnician Territory. — Phoenicia was the 
name applied to a narrow strip of territory bordered on the east by the mountains 
of Lebanon, and on the west by the Mediterranean sea. The surface of the country 
was sandy and hilly, and not adapted to agriculture; but the coasts abounded with 
good harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon supplied material in great abundance for 
ship-building. The Phoenicians therefore devoted their whole attention to manufac- 
tures and commerce; and at a very early period they became the greatest manufac- 
turing, commercial, and maritime people of antiquity. 

Phoenician States and Colonies. — The Phoenician people were not united 
onder one government, but each Phcenician city, with the territory adjacent tr it. 
constituted a small independent state with an hereditary sovereign at its head, the 
political power being shared with the priests and the nobles. The Phoenician 
wornhip of Moloch was attended with horrible human sacrifices, and that of Baal 
with disgraceful ceremonies. Phoenician colonies were established on the Medi 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



27 



terranean islands of Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, on the southern shores of 
Spain, and on the northern coast of Africa. The most celebrated of the Phoenician 
colonial establishments were Gades, now Cadiz, in Southern Spain, the oldest city 
in Europe; and Carthage, in Northern Africa, a commercial city which was founded 
in the year 8S0 B. C, by the Tyrians, under the conduct of Queen Dido, and the 
fame of which soon eclipsed that of the mother country. 

Phoenician Manufactures, Navigation and Commerce. — The Phoenician.^ 
made some important discoveries, such as glass, the art of dyeing purple, and 
writing by means of letters : they were universally noted for their skill in casting 
metals, weaving, and architecture; and their manufactures of glass and linen, 
articles of gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, perfumes and purple dye were sources 
jf great national wealth. Phoenician vessels not only navigated the Mediterranean 
sea for the purpose of trafifidiing in their own productions and in those of the 
remote East, namely spices, frankincense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves; — but they even 
passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and procured tin from the mines of Cornwall, 
in Britain, and traded with the people on the shores of the Baltic sea. The Phoeni- 
cians also had commercial intercourse with the Arabs and the Hindoos, and it is 
said that under the auspices of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, a Phoenician fleet, 
in a voyage of three years, doubled the Cape of Good Hope. 

Tyre and Sidon — Decline and Fall of the Phoenician States. — The 
leading Phcenician cities were Tyre and Sidon. These two kingdoms for a long 
time defended themselves successfully against the attempts of other nations to 
subdue them ; but in the eighth century before Christ, Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, 
conquered Sidon, and Tyre also after a long siege, and compelled the Phoenician? 
to pay tribute. In the year 587 B. C, the famous Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, 
besieged and took Tyre and subdued Phoenicia. When, in the year 538 B. C, 
Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, extended his sway over Western Asia, both Tyre 
and Sidon fell into his power, and Phoenicia became a Persian province. About 
the year 350 B. C, Sidon, heading a rebellion of the Phoenician states, attempted 
to throw off the yoke of Persian supremacy; and when in consequence of this 
revolt, the king of Persia ordered the most prominent of the inhabitants of Sidon 
to be put to death, the Sidon ians set fire to their city, and perished with it in the 
flames. Sidon was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 332 B. C, Tyre was taken and 
destroyed after a seven months' siege by the illustrious Macedonian conqueror, 
Alexander the Great. With the fall of Tyre and the founding of the great com- 
mercial city of Alexandria, in Egypt, Phoenician commerce and maritime glory 
passed away forever. 



THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES. 

THE PATRIARCHS. 

Abranam. — Abraham, a Chaldean shepherd, who remained faithful to the Lord 
while nearly the whole of mankind were sunk in idolatry, is regarded as the 
founder of that chosen race of God, the Hebrews or Israelites. At the command 
of Jehovah, Abraham left his pasture lands on the Euphrates, and, taking with him 
nis herds, settled with his servants and his brother's son, Lot, in the "promised 



28 ORIENTAL NATIONS. 

land" of Canaan (afterwards called Palestine), where they continued theii pastoral 
life, and where they received from the native inhabitants the name " Hebrews," 
meaning, "strangers from the other side." 

Isaac. — Isaac, the son of Abraham and Sarah, continued the chosen race, while 
Ishmael, Abraham's son with Hagar, became the progenitor of the Arabs. Isaac 
took for his wife Rebecca, with whom he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. 

Jacob. — ^Jacob, the younger son of Isaac, persuaded his brother Esau to sell his 
birthright for a mess of pottage. Jacob also obtained a blessing which his fathe: 
'lad intended to bestow on Esau, and was declared the chief of the Hebrew ra^e. 
Jacob had twelve sons, the descendants of each of which formed a distinct tribe 
mong the Israelites, as the Hebrews were a ftei-wards called, from Jacob's surname, 
Israel. 

THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT. 

Joseph sold into Egypt— Settlement of Jacob in Egypt. — As Jacob 

bestowed his chief favor on Joseph, his son with Rachael, his other sons, moved 
with envy, sold their brother as a bond-slave to some merchants who took him to 
Egypt. Joseph remained faithful to God and was finally rewarded for his integrity. 
He at length obtained the favor of Pharaoh, as the king of Egypt was called, was 
made ruler over Egj'pt, and for his instrumentality in saving the land from famine, 
he was permitted by Pharaoh to invite his father and his brethren into Egypt. 
Jacob and his family then settled in the "Land of Goshen," as that part of Egypt 
on the east side of the Lower Nile was called. 

The Israelites Oppressed in Egypt— Moses. — After the death of Joseph, 
other Egj:)ytian kings "who knew not Joseph," treated the Children of Israel with 
cruelty and oppression, and held them in bondage for two centuries. At length the 
king of Egypt gave orders that all the Hebrew male children should be tlirown 
into the Nile the instant that they were bom; but one of them was saved by the 
mercy of the king's daughter, who found the child in an ark of bulrushes by the 
side of the river, and who named him Moses, because .she drew him out of the 
water, and brought him up as her own son. Attheageof forty years, Moses was 
obliged to flee for his life to the deserts of Arabia, for slaying an Egyptian whom he 
had seen ill-treating a Hebrew. 

THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. 

The Ten Plagues — Destruction of Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea. — 

At length Moses was inspired with the high purpose of delivering his people from 
the Egyptian bondage. But Pharaoh did not agree to pennit the Israelites to 
depart from Egypt until struck with fear and terror after the Ten Plagues had been 
inflicted upon the land. After the Hebrews, led by Moses an I his brother Aaron, 
had left the shores of Egypt, Pharaoh endeavored to bring them back by force; but 
tne p irsuing hosts of the Egyptian king were destroyed in the Red Sea. 

The Wandering in the Wilderness — The Ten Commandments. — For 
forty years, the discontented Israelites, led by Moses and Aaron, wandered in 
the Wilderness in the northwestern part of Arabia. During this time the Ten 
Commandments were delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai. These and other laws 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



29 



were preserved in the Ark of the Covenant. According to the arrangement of 
Moses, Jehovah was king, and in His name the elders of the tribes conducted the 
government. The affairs of rehgion were watched over by the High Priest and 
the Levites. The sacrifices and feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, and the Taber- 
nacles constituted the bond between the Lord and His chosen people. Instead of 
the nomadic life, Moses determined upon agriculture as the chief occupation of the 
Hebrews. 

Death of Moses — ^Joshua and the Settlement in the Promised Land - 
Moses did not live to lead his people into the Promised Land. After appointing 
Joshua as his successor, the great Hebrew lawgiver gazed from Mount Nebo upon 
the magnificent countiy watered by the River Jordan, and then disappeared from 
among the living. The Children of Israel were faithful to Jehovah all the days of 
Joshua, under whose leadership they at last reached the Promised 'Land of Canaan. 
After subduing the Amorites and other tribes, a distribution by lot took place, by 
which the conquered territory was divided among the Twelve Tribes of the Hebrew 
nation. 

THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES. 

The Rule of the Judges — Idolatry of the Israelites. — Dunng the period 
from the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul as the first king over Israel, the 
Hebrew nation was ruled by Judges. During this period the Children of Israel 
frequently plunged into idolatiy, for which apostasy they suffered heavy punishments 
by being delivered into power of their enemies; but when they again turned to the 
God who by His servant Moses had brought them safely out of Egypt, they were 
delivered from the oppressive yoke of foreign domination by heroic leaders whom 
the Lord had appointed for the purpose. 

Deliverance of the Israelites by Othniel, Ehud, Deborah and Barak. — 
First the Israelites were conquered by the king of Mesopotamia, from whose yoke 
they were delivered by Othniel, whom the Lord had chosen as their leader. After- 
wards they were oppressed by the king of Moab, but were at length liberated by 
the valor of Ehud. Again the Children of Israel offended the Lord by their sin- 
fulness and idolatry and were given into the power of Jabin, king of Canaan, whose 
tyrannical yoke they had borne for twenty years when the Lord chose the prophetess 
Deborah and Barak, her general, to liberate them. The Canaanites were routed 
with heavy loss and their general Sisera was killed by Jael, to whose tent he had 
(led for safety. 

Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon. — The Israelites again abandoned 
the worship of Jehovah, and were in consequence duly punished by being subdued 
and oppressed by the Midianites; but the prophet Gideon, whom the Lord had 
appointed to liberate His people, taking with him a band of three hundred men, 
made a night attack on the immense host of the Midianites, who, struck witli 
terror and consternation, turned their weapons against each other, and left i20,oon 
of their number dead on the field, only 15,000 escaping. 

Liberation of the Israelites by Jephthah and Samson. — The Children ot 
Israel again fell into idolatry, for which the Lord delivered them to the Philistines 
and Ammonites, from whose supremacy they were liberated by the heroism of 



30 



ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 



Jephthah. Afterward, the Israelites suffered forty years from oppression by the 
Philistines, and were delivered from their yoke by the valor of Samson, who was 
celebrated for his wonderful strength. 

Administrations of Eli and Samuel — Saul Anointed King over Israel. 
— On the death of Samson, Eli became Judge over Israel. The wickedness of the 
sons of Eli offended the Lord; and 30,000 Israelites perished in battle against the 
I'hilistines. After Eli's death, the prophet Samuel judged Israel. Samuel ruled 
with wisdom and justice; but the tyranny of his sons, with whom he shared his 
power, caused the Hebrew people to demand a king, who should reign over them 
like the kings of other nations. After vainly endeavoring to dissuade the people 
from their desire for kingly rule, the good Samuel anointed Saul, of the tribe of 
Benjamin, king over Israel. (B. C. 1095.) 

REIGN OF SAUL. 

Defeat of the Ammonites — Divine Displeasure with Saul. — Soon after his 
accession to the throne of Israel, Saul defeated the Ammonites with great slaughter. 
Afterwards, while engaged in a war with the Philistines, Saul took upon himself 
a duty which belonged to the High Priest alone, — that of offering the solemn 
sacrifice. The Divine displeasure at this action was revealed to Saul by the prophet 
Samuel; and the people of Israel became disheartened, and the anny of Saul was 
reduced to 600 men ; but the amiy of the Philistines was at length overthrown by 
Saul's son, Jonathan. 

Saul's Violation of the Divine Command — David Anointed King. — After 
Jonathan's victory over the Philistines, Saul conducted successful wars against other 
nations; and made a prisoner of Agag, king of the Amelekites, and, contrary to the 
Divine command, spared the life of his captive. Because of Saul's disobedience, 
the Lord resolved to transfer the royal power to another family, and the shepherd boy, 
David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed king by Samuel. (B. C. 1055.) 

David Slays Goliath^ — Saul's Jealousy of David — Saul's Death. — Soon 
after David had been anointed king over Israel, a new war broke out between the 
Israelites and the Philistines, in which David slew the Giant Goliath of Gath, the 
champion of the Philistines. Moved by jealousy and resentment, Saul made several 
attempts to take the life of David; and, to seek refuge from the anger of Saul, 
David was obliged to live much of his time in exile in a Philistine city and in the 
dens and caves of the mountains of Palestine. At length the Philistines invaded 
the Hebrew territories, and the Israelites were defeated and several of Saul's sons 
were slain in battle on Mount Gilboa; and, to avoid falling into the hands of the 
Philistines, Saul killed himself by falling on his own sword. 

REIGN OF DAVID. 

Civil War Between the Houses of David and Saul. — Even after Saul's 
death, David did not obtain undisputed possession of the throne of Israel, for some 
of the Hebrew tribes adhered to Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, and for a long time the 
Hebrew nation was rent by a civil war between the Houses of David and Saul, 
until at length Ishbosheth was slain by his own guards, whereupon David was 
acknowledged at Hebron as king by all the tribes of Israel. 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 2 1 

David's Conquests — Damascus and Jerusalem. — After David had been 
acknowledged king of Israel by all the Hebrew tribes, he extended his kingdom 
in every direction by conquests. He conquered the Syrian city of Damascus, and 
humbled the Philistines. He subdued Jebus, or Jerusalem, the strong city of the 
Jebusites, on Mount Zion, and made it the aapital of his kingdom. After the 
conquest of Jerusalem, David waged successful wars against many of the surround- 
ing nations, which he compelled to pay tribute. During the siege of Rabbali, the 
Ammon te capital, David took to himself the wife of Uriah, caused her husband 
to be put to death, and by so doing offended the Lord. David was a great poet, as 
well as a successful warrior, as is is fully attested by the Psalms, or religious songs, 
which he composed. 

Rebellion and Death of Absalom — Death of David. — In the latter part of 
the reign of David, his son Absalom rebelled against his fadier, ^.nd was put to 
death by Joab, David's general. Two others of David's sons, Ammon and Adoni- 
jah, also died violent deaths. David died after a glorious reign of forty years, and 
was succeeded on the throne of Israel by his son Solomon. (B. C. 1015.) 

REIGN OF SOLOMON. 

Visit of the Queen of Sheba. — Solomon reigned over a mighty and extensive 
kingdom, and his alliance and friendship were sought by many of the most powerful 
princes. His fame spread into distant lands ; and the Queen of Sheba, who had 
heard of his wisdom, came to visit him from a far countrj-. The closest friendship 
existed between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. 

Building of the Temple — Commercial Relations. — For seven and a half 
years Solomon was occupied in building at Jerusalem a magnificent Temple to the 
Lord. He also erected a splendid palace for himself. Solomon obtained much 
wealth from commerce, to which he gave great encouragement. His vessels sailed 
to Ophir, a rich country in Southern Asia; and by means of caravans a trade was 
carried on with the people of Central Asia. 

Solomon's Idolatry— Rebellion of Jeroboam. — Solomon took to himself 
wives from foreign nations, permitted them the exercise of their idolatrous worship, 
and even became an idolater himself. Enemies then arose against him on all sides. 
The oppressive taxes which were necessary to support his luxury, magnificence, and 
extravagance, produced a rebellion headed by Jeroboam. The rebellion was, how- 
ever, suppressed, and the Hebrew kingdom was presei"ved from dismembermeii*' 
until the following reign. 

THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Accession of Rehoboam — "Revolt of the Ten Tribes" — The Two 
Kingdoms. — On the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam succeeded to the throne 
of the Hebrew kingdom, when, in accordance with the prophecy of Ahijah, ten o\ 
the Twelve Tribes of the Children of Israel revolted, and chose Jeroboam, of the 
tribe of Ephraim, as their king, thus forming the kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, 
the capitals of which were the cities of Shechem and Samaria. The two tribes ol 
Judah and Benjamin, which remained faithful to Rehoboam, constituted the king- 
dom of Judah, of which Jerusalem was the seat of government. This dismember- 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ment of the Hebrew kingdom took place 975 years before Christ, and is known as 
"The Revolt of the Ten Tribes." 

Idolatry of Jeroboam and his Successors — The Assyrian Captivity. — 
The wicked Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, introduced the worship of idols into 
his kingdom. All his successors were sinful and idolatrous, and brought upon their 
people in consequence the heavy punishments of God. The prophets Elijah, Elisha, 
Hosea, Amos, and Jonah vainly warned them of the consequences of their idolatr)'. 
At length, Shalmanezar, king of Assyria, invaded the kingdom of Israel, tool- 
Samaria, its capital, after a siege of three years, and carried Hoshea, the last king oi 
Israel, and the gi-eater portions of his subjects captive to Assyria. (B. C. 721.) 
With the "Assyrian Captivity," the history of the Ten Tribes ends. The kingdom 
of Judah lasted 130 years longer than that of Israel. 

THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Idolatry of Rehoboam — Capture of Jerusalem by Shishak of Egypt. — 

After the Revolt of the Ten Tribes, Rehoboam, who reigned at Jerusalem as king 
of Judah, and his subjects abandoned the worshrp of Jehovah and fell into idolatry, 
for which sin they suffered a heavy punishment by an invasion of their country by 
Shishak, king of Egypt, who took Jerusalem and carried away the treasures of the 
Temple and the palace. 

Reign of Hezekiah — Miraculous Destruction of the Assyrian Host. — 
At length after the reigns of many wicked kings, the pious Hezekiah was king ot 
Judah. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, the son of Shalmanezar, resolved to subdue 
the kingdom of Judah, because Hezekiah, to escape paying tribute to the Assyrian 
king, had entered into an alliance with the king of Egypt, with whom the Assyrian 
monarch was then at war. Sennacherib led a mighty army against Jerusalem and 
laid siege to the city, but the Assyrian host was almost entirely destroyed in a single 
night by the miraculous interposition of the Lord, and Sennacherib fled from the 
land in dismay. 

Idolatry of Judah — Capture of Jerusalem by Pharaoh Necho. — Again 
the worship of Jehovah was cast aside, and the people of Judah corrupted with 
idolatry, when, as was always the case when they forsook the Lord, they were con- 
quered by their enemies. At one time, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, invaded 
the kingdom of Judah, and carried the wicked king, Jehoahaz, captive to Egj'ptj 
where he died. 

Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar — The Babylonian Captivity. 
— At length the famous Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, invaded the kingdom 
of Judah, took Jerusalem, plundered the Temple, carried the king, Jechoniah, and 
many of his subjects into his own dominions, and oppressed those that remained. 
Among the captives was the prophet Daniel. Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, 
resolved to liberate his people from the Babylonian yoke, whereupon Nebuchadnezzar 
led a mighty army against Jerusalem, which he finally carried by storm at midnight, 
after a siege of eighteen months, during which the inhabitants of the city suffered 
all the horrors of famine. Many of the wretched inhabitants were slaughtered by 
the victorious Babylonians. The city and the Temple of Jerusalem were burned 
to the groimd. The sons of Zedekiah were killed before their father's eyes; and 



ORIENTAL NATIONS. 



33 



after Zedekiah had been deprived of his eyes, he and the greater porticn of his 
subjects were carried into the seventy years' "Babylonian Captivity." (B. C. 588.) 
Edict of Cyrus and Return of the Jev/s to their own Country. — After 
Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, had conquered Babylon, he issued an edict per- 
mitting the Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and Temple 
of Jerusalem. Only a small number, under Zerubbabel, returned at first, and com- 
menced rebuilding the Temple, but the work was not completed until the year 515 
B. C. About the year 406 B. C. Ezra and Nehemiah and a large number of their 
countrymen returned to Palestine, rebuilt the Holy City, and reestablished the laws 
of Moses. The king of Persia appointed Nehemiah governor of Judea, which was 
then a province of the Persian Empire. Judea was afterwards joined to the Pei"sian 
satrapy of Syria. The Jews had been taught that misfortunes and calamities were 
the consequences of idolatry; and from the time of the Babylonian Captivity, they 
were careful to shun idolatry and to avoid intercourse with idolatrous nations. 

MEDIA AND PERSIA. 

,The Median Empire — Dejoces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages. — 
The Medes, coming from the East, settled in the region south of the Caspian Sea, 
and were at first under the Assyrian dominion; but about the year 708 B. C. they 
established their independence, chose Dejoces as their king, and made Ecbatana the 
capital of their kingdom. Phraortes, the son and successor of Dejoces, conquered 
the Persians, a people similar to the Medes in race, language, manners, institutions, 
and religion. Under Cyaxares, the third king of Media, the Median Empire 
acquired great power and territorial extent. liis successor, Astyages, was the last 
of the Median kings. 

Founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. — Cyrus, whose 
mother was a daughter of Astyages, but whose father was a Persian, aroused the 
Persians against the ruling Medes, led an army into Media, deposed Astyages, 
established the independence of the Persians, and in turn subjected the Medes to 
their sway. Cyrus, surnamed "the Great," thus laid the foundations of the great 
Persian Empire, which for more than two centuries was the dominant power in 
Asia. 

Overthrow of Crcesus, King of Lydia, by Cyrus. — After Cyrus the Great 
had founded the Persian kingdom, he became involved in a war with the wealthy 
Crossus, king of Lydia, a country in the western part of Asia Minor. Cyrus 
defeated the Lydians in the battle of Thymbra, took and burned Sardis, the capital 
of Lydia, and made Croesus his prisoner. (B. C. 546.) After the conquest of the 
kingdom of Lydia, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were reduced under the dominion 
of Persia. 

Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. — After his conquests in Asia Minor, Cyrus 
the Great led an army against the proud city of Babylon, which he besieged and 
finally took by entering the city by the channel of the Euphrates, the waters of which 
he had turned off through a new channel which he had caused to. be dug. This 
was the end of the Babylonian Empire. The last Babylonian king, Belshazzar, 
who was feasting with his subjects and defiling the sacred vessels of the Jews when 
the victorious Persians entered the city, was put to death. The fall of Babylon 
3 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

placed Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia under Persian authority; and Cyrus issued an 
edict permitting the captive Jews to return to their own countiy and to rebuild the 
city and the Temple of Jerusalem. 

Invasion of Scythia by Cyrus — His Defeat and Death. — After the con- 
quest of Babylon, the triumphant Cyrus invaded the Scythian territories east of 
the Caspian Sea. Cyrus was at first successful, defeating the Scythians in battle; 
but he was subsequently defeated and taken prisoner. The Scythian queen, 
Thomyris, in revenge for the death of her son, who had fallen in battle, caused the 
great Cyrus to be put to death in a most cruel manner, and his severed head to be 
thrown into a vessel filled with the blood of Persian soldiers. (B. C. 530.) 

Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses — His Losses in Africa. — The mighty 
Cyrus was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son, the cruel and tyrannical 
Cambyses. After his accession to the throne of Persia, Cambyses invaded Egypt 
and defeated the Egyptian king, Psammenitus, in the great battle of Pelusium; 
and the land of the Pharaohs was reduced under Persian sway. The hard-hearted 
Cambyses treated the conquered Egyptians with the most barbarous cruelty and 
tyranny, and put the unfortunate Psammenitus to a violent death. Cambyses nest 
subdued some of the African ti-ibes, and laid the Greek colony of Cyrenaica under 
tribute; but an army which he had sent to conquer the little oasis of Siwah*, in which 
the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon was the centre of a small independent priestly 
state, perished in a simoom in the desert; and another army which he had sent 
against Ethiopia nearly perished from hunger. After a reign of nine years, Camby- 
ses died from the effects of a wound which he had accidentally inflicted upon 
himself with his own sword. (B. C. 521.) 

Accession of Darius Hystaspes — Revolt of Babylon. — On the death of 
Cambyses, Darius Hystaspes was raised to the throne of Persia. Soon after the 
accession of Darius Hystaspes, Babylon revolted against Persian rule; but, after a 
siege of twenty months, Darius reduced the city, and, in consequence of the rebel- 
lion, he caused 3,000 of _the inhabitants to be put to death, and the 100 gates of the 
city to be torn down and the walls to be demolished. 

Invasion of Scythia by Darius Hystaspes — His Disgraceful Retreat. 
— After the suppression of the Babylonian revolt, Darius Hystaspes invaded Scythia, 
a country northeast of the Euxine or Black Sea. The Scythians retreated before 
Darius and his anny, and laid waste the country, that the invaders might find no 
subsistence from it. The consequence of this destructive method of warfare was 
that the Persians were obliged to abandon their scheme of conquest and to make 
a disgraceful retreat to avoid perishing from hunger. 

War with Greece — Great Extent of the Persian Empire. — After his 
unsuccessful expedition into Scythia, Darius Hystaspes returned to Persia and 
carried his conquering arms in the East to the borders of India. A revolt of the 
Greek cities of Asia Minor was next suppressed by Darius. A memorable war 
with Greece then broke out. This war, which through its whole course was 
inglorious for Persia, continued through a period of more thai forty years, and 
terminated dumng the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the second successor of 
Darius Hystaspes. Under Darius Hystaspes and his successors the Persian Empire 
extended from Greece to India, and from the deserts of Africa to Central Asia. 
It included portions of Thrace and Macedon in Europe, Egypt and other portions 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 35 

of Africa, and all that part of Asia embraced by modern Turkey, Persia, Beloochis- 
tan, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. Darius Hystaspes devoted more attention to 
the consolidation of his vast empire than to its enlargement. For purposes of 
government he divided h'is empire into twenty provinces, called satrapies, the 
governors of which were called satraps. He established as the capitals of Ihe 
Persian Empire, Susa in the spring, EcbAana in the summer, and Babylon in Ihe 
winter. 

Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire. — The extensive empire of Persia, 
comprising many countries, held together only by military power and not by any 
Inrmony of interests, feelings or institutions, rapidly declined after the reign of 
Darius Hystaspes. The acquisition of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury for two 
centuries brought upon the Persians effeminacy, indolence, and the loss of all military 
virtue. After the Persian Empire had continued little more than two centuries it 
was invaded and subdued by the conquering Alexander the Great of Macedon. 

Religion of the Medes and the Persians. — The religion of the Medes and 
the Persians was that founded by the ancient sage Zoroaster and explained in the 
sacred books of the Zend-Avesta, according to which there are two principles, a 
good spirit, Ormuzd, and an evil spirit, Ahriman, which shall wage war against 
each other until the end of the world, when the good spirit shall triumph and the 
human race be rendered happy. This religion was represented by a powerful 
priesthood called the Magi ; and the good spirit was worshiped under the form ot 
the sun and of ^ire. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE. 

Extent of Ancient Greece. — Ancient Greece comprised in addition to Modern 
Greece, the whole northern part of the peninsula between the Archipelago and the 
Mediterranean, and some of the temtory beyond, which now constitutes a part of 
the Turkish Empire. Ancient Greece was about 400 miles long, and was divided 
into three parts. 

Peloponnesus, or Southern Greece. — The southern part of Greece, or the 
peninsula, anciently called the Peloponnesus, but now styled the Morea, was about 
140 miles long, and included the states of Laconia, Argolis, Achaia, Arcadia, Elis, 
and Mcssenia. The chief city of this section was Sparta or Lacedsemon, the capital 
of Laconia. 

Hellas, or Central Greece. — The cenh-al part of Greece, called Hellas, was 
less in extent than the Peloponnesus, and embraced the stnles of Attica, Boeotia, 
Euboea, Doris, Phocis, Locris, .<Etolia, and Acarnania. The chief cities of this 
section were Athens, the capital of Attica, and Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. 



. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

30 

Northern Greece.-The northern part of Ancient Greece, not included in 
Modern Greece, but fomiing part of the Turkish Empire, contained the states of 
Thessaly, Epirus, now called Albania, and Macedonia. In this part of Ancient 
Greece was Mount Olympus, the residence of the gods and goddesses. 

GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The Celestial Deities.-The Greeks divided their deities into three classes . 
celestial marine, and infernal. The celestial gods were Jupiter, Apollo, _ Mars, 
MercuiT, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The celestial goddesses were Juno, Mmerva. 
Venus Diana, Ceres', and Vesta. The chief of the celestial deities was Jupiter. 

The Marine and Infernal Deities-Mount Olympus.-Neptune was the 
chief of the marine deities, and Pluto of the infernal. Mount Olympus, in Thes- 
saly was regarded as the heavenly residence of the gods, by whom the affairs of 
mor'tals are governed. These gods and goddesses were worshiped by the Romans, 
a-s well as by the Greeks. 

Origin of the Gods-The Titans.-According to Grecian mythology, first 
came Chaos, a shapeless mass; then Earth, the mother of the gods, who produced 
Uranus or Heaven. Earth married Uranus or Heaven, and from this union sprung 
the Titans, a race of giants. The Titans made war on their father Uranus arid 
dethroned him. His son, Saturn, who reigned in his stead, ordered all his male 
children to be destroyed as soon as they were born, but his wife,nihea, concealed 
from him Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. The Titans made war on $aturn and 
dethroned him. His son, Jupiter, restored him to the throne, but afterwards deposed 
him and reigned in his place. 

Tupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. -Jupiter now divided the dominion of the 
universe with his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto, reserving heaven for himself, 
and assigning the sea to Neptune, and the infernal regions to Pluto. Jupiter was 
the chief and father of the gods. 

Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, and Vulcan.-Apollo was the god o( 
music, poetry and medicine, and driver of the sun. At Delphi there was a temple 
to Apollo, unto which people from all parts of Greece came to find out the events 
of futurity. Mars was the god of war. Mercury was the messenger of the gods 
and the patron of travelers, shepherds, merchants, and orators, the inventor of 
letter^ and the god of merchants and of thieves. Bacchus was the god of wme and 
of drunkards, and a great conqueror, having subdued India and other countnes. 
Vulcan was the god of fire and of blacksmiths, having his forges under Mount Etna, 
in Sicily. 

Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta.-Juno, the queen of 
heaven was the wife and sister of Jupiter, with whom she had many disputes, which 
caused much confusion in heaven. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom. Venus 
wa= the goddess of beauty and the queen of laughter, gi-ace, and pleasure Din-,.3 
was the -oddess of hunting. There was a famous temple to Diana at Ephesus, m 
Asia Minor. Ceres was the goddess of com and of harvests. Vesta was the virgin- 
goddess who presided over the domestic hearth. 



■UlliUJiif 







HISTORY OF GREECE. 37 

THE LEGENDARY PERIOD OF GREECE. 

EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN GREECE. 

The Pelasgians and the Hellenes. — The first inhabitants of Greece were 
tht Pelasgiaas, who were mere savages. They lived in caves and fed on roots and 
acorns, and clothed themselves with the skins of beasts. At an uncertain period, 
the Hellenes, an Asiatic people, found their way into Greece, and drove away, ot 
intermingled with, the Pelasgians. The Hellenes were divided into three ui'ues, 
the Dorians, the lonians, and the ^olians. 

Inachus, Cecrops, Lelex, Cadmus, Danaus, and Pelops. — The olaest city 
in Greece was Argos, the capital of Argolis, which was founded in the year 1856 
B C. by Inachus, a Phoenician. In the year 1556 B. C., three hundred years after 
the founding of Argos, Cecrops, an Egyptian, founded, in Attica, a city which he 
named Athens, in honor of the goddess Athena, or Minerva. Corinth was founded 
in the year 1520 B. C. The Egyptian, Lelex, laid the foundation of the celebrated 
city of Sparta, or Lacedsemon, in Laconia, about the year 1520 B. C. Thebes, the 
capital of Boeotia, with its famous citadel, the Cadmea, was founded about the year 
1493 ^- C- by the Plicenician Cadmus. In the year 1485 B. C, an Egyptian, named 
Danaus, is said to have arrived at Argos with fifty daughters, and to have taught 
the people to dig wells. About the year 1350 B. C, Pelops, a son of a king ol 
Phrygia, a country in Asia Minor, landed in the peninsula of Southern Greece, 
which was named in his honor Peloponnesus, or Island of Pelops. 

THE HEROIC AGE. 

Hercules. — A fabulous personage of the period known as the Heroic Age was 
Hercules, who was celebrated for his wonderful feats of strength. While yet an 
infant he is said to have crushed to death two huge serpents which the goddess 
Juno had sent to destroy him. He is said to have cleansed the stables of the king 
of Elis, which had remained uncleansed for thirty years, by turning into them a 
river which flowed close by. Another of Ms feats was the killing of the Numean 
Lion by putting his arms around its neck. Another of his fabled labors was the 
destruction of the Hydra of Lema, a nine-headed serpent. At first the heads of 
this monstrous serpent would grow on again as soon as they had been cut off; but 
finally, by searing the neck of the serpent with a hot iron, Hercules was enabled 
to destroy the gigantic reptile. It is also said that Hercules traveled to Spain, where 
he kiUed the tyrant Geryon, king of Gades, now Cadiz, who had three heads, six 
legs, and six arms. It is also related that Hercules separated Spain from Africa, 
and connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean by heaping up a 
mountain on each side. These mountains were named the Pillars of Hercules. 
Many other labors and adventures are said to have been performed by Hercules. 

Theseus. — To Theseus, who is said to have been king of Athens, are ascribed 
many feats of strengtn similar to those of Hercules. He ruled with wisdom and 
mildness, and contributed much to the welfare and progress of Athens. In the 
latter part of his life, Theseus became a predatory adventurer and robber, and 
commiited many crimes, among which was the carrying off of Helen, the daughter 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. Helen was rescued by her brothers, Castor and 
Polhix, who were afterwards deified. 

Argonautic Expedition. — In the time of Hercules, Jason, a prince of Thessaly, 
went on the celebrated Argonautic Expedition, so-called from the ship Argo in 
which he sailed. The stoiy of the Argonautic Expedition, according to the Greek 
poets, was as follows : Phryxus, a Theban prince, and his sister, Helle, being 
obliged to leave their ncitive country in order to save themselves from the cruelty 
of their step-mother, mounted on the back of a winged ram with a golden fleece, 
for the purpose of being carried to Colchis, a country on the eastern bordei of the 
Euxine or Black Sea, v*-here an uncle of theirs was king. While they were passing 
over the strait now called the Dardanelles, Helen became giddy, and fell into the 
«ater and was drowned. For this reason the strait was named Hellespont, or Sea 
of Helle. Phryxus arrived safely in Colchis, and sacrificed his winged ram to 
Jupiter in acknowledgment of Divine protection, and put the golden fleece in that 
deity's temple. He was afterward murdered by his uncle, who wished to obtain 
possession of the golden fleece. It was to avenge the death of Phryxus and to 
secure the golden fleece that Jason undertook the Argonautic Expedition. Jason 
not only obtained the golden fleece, bnt married Media, a daughter of the king of 
Colchis. 

The Trojan War. — The most important event of the early period of Grecian 
history was the famous Trojan War, the knowledge of which we derve chiefly from 
Homer's Iliad. The beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, was car- 
cred away by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy or Ilium, in Asia Minor. The 
Greek princes, indignant at this outrage, and bound by a previous promise, assem- 
bled their annies, and having appointed Agamemnon, one of their number, com- 
mander-in-chief, crossed the /Egean Sea and laid siege to Troy (B. C. 1 194). The 
chief of the Greek leaders besides Agamemnon, were Achilles of Thessaly and 
Ulysses of Ithaca. During the siege of Troy many bold exploits are said to have 
been performed by both. Of these exploits the most celebrated was the killing 
of the Trojan Hector by the Grecian Achilles. Finally, after a siege of ten 
years, Troy was taken by a stratagem of Ulysses. The Greeks after having con- 
structed a large wooden horse, filled ft with soldiers, and then retiring a short 
distance, pretended to abandon the siege. The Trojans then brought the wooden 
horse into the city. During the night the Greek soldiers got out of the wooden 
horse and opened the gates of the city, which was then entered by the Grecian 
army. Troy was reduced to ashes, and its inhabitants were driven away or put to 
death (B. C. 1184). But the conquerors met with many misfortunes : Achilles died 
in Troy; Ulysses wandered about for ten years before he was enabled to reach his 
native shores ; and Agamemnon was murdered by his own faithless wife. 

Return of the Heraclidae. — About eighty years after the fall of Troy (1104 
B. C), the Dorians, led by the descendants of Hercules, migrated from their 
mountainous countiy of Doris to the Peloponnesus, of which they took possession, 
driving away its former inhabitants, or reducing them to slavery. This is knov\'n 
as the "Return of the Heraclidce." Corinth, Argolis, Sycyon, Messenia, ar.d 
Laconia were gradually subdued; and thus the fate of the whole of the Pelopcn- 
nesus was changed. 

Patriotic Devotion of Codrus — Athens a Republic. — About the year io6b 



HISTORY OF GREECE. ^g 

B. C, the Doriuns invaded Attica and threatened Athens. The Dorians having 
consulted the oracle of Delphi, were told that they would conquer Athens if they 
did not kill Codrus, the Athenian king. When Codrus was informed of the answer 
of the Delphic oracle, he determined to sacrifice his life for his country; and goin^ 
into the Dorian camp disguised in the dress of a peasant, he provoked a quarrel 
with a Dorian soldier and suffered himself to be killed. WTien the Dorians recog- 
nized the body as that of Codrus, they retreated from Attica and gave up the 
contest in despair. Out of respect to the memory of Codrus, the Athenians declared 
that no one was worthy of succeeding him as king of Athens; and abolishing the 
monarchy altogether, established an aristocratic republic, the chief-magistrates of 
which were called archons. These archons were at first chosen for life from the 
family of Codrus. Afterwards they were appointed for ten years, and still later a 
senate of archons was elected annually. 

INSTITUTION OF THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL AND 
THE OLYMPIC FESTIVAL. 

The Temple of Delphi and the Amphictyonic Council. — While the rest 
of Greece was distracted by intestine wars, Delphi, the chosen spot of Apollo, 
escaped the ravages of contending armies; and, in order to sufficiently secure the 
temple of Delphi from being plundered by warlike bands, that famous sanctuary 
was placed under the special protection of the Amphictyonic Council, so called from 
its reputed founder, the legendaiy Amphictyon, who is asserted by some to have been 
one of the early kings of Attica. This council consisted of two deputies from each of 
the leading states of Greece ; and it assembled twice a year, in the spring at Delphi, 
and in the autumn at the pass of Thermopylte. The duties of the Amphictyonic 
Council were to effect a settlement of all religious and political disputes that might 
arise among the different Grecian states, and to decide upon proposals of peace or 
war with foreign nations. Each deputy took an oath that he would never subvert 
or injure any Amphictyonic city, and that he would oppose by force of arms, any 
such outrage if attempted by others. He also swore that if any party in any way 
injured the sacred temtory of Delphi, or formed designs against the temple to 
Apollo, he would do his utmost to bring the offenders to punishment. The Amphic- 
tyonic Council was sometimes of great advantage to the Greeks, but it very seldom 
exercised much influence in preventing domestic dissensions or civil wars among 
the Grecians. 

Establishment of Grecian Republics and the Olympic Festival. — In 
the process of time nearly all the states of Greece abolished monarchy and estab- 
li ihed republican governments. The division of Greece into as many independent 
republics as there were Grecian towns, and the almost incessant wars that distracted 
the Hellenic race, greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civilization. At length, 
Ephitus, king of EHs, having obtained authority from the Delphic oracle, instituted 
the Olympic Festival, by which the Greeks, nothwithstanding their almost constant 
wars with each other, were enabled to meet on friendly terms once in every four 
years, or Olympiad, as such a period of time was thereafter called, at Olympia, a 
town in EHs. The establishment of the Olympic Festival took place in the year SS4 
B. C, from which time the Greeks thereafter reckoned time. To this festival all 
the people of Greece were invited; and in order to enable them to attend, the 



40 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Delphic oracle commanded that a general armistice should take place some time 
before and after each celebration. The Olympic Festival consisted of religious rites 
to Jupiter, and of various games, such as wrestling and boxing matches, foot and 
chariot races, and other contests requiring strength and agility, and of compositions 
in poetry and music. The victors in the Olympic Games were crowned with olive 
wreaths, which was esteemed by the Greeks as a very high h inor. 

GREEK COLONIES. 

Greek Colonies in Asia Minor — yEolian and Ionian Confederacies.- - 

Many of the former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus who had been expelled by the 
Doriais and the Heraclidse, crossed the yEgean Sea, into Asia Minor, where they 
established flourishing colonies. Thus the ^olians founded the twelve ^olian 
states, which were afterwards united into the ^olian Confederacy; and further south 
were the Ionian colonies, which, in the course of time, were formed into the Ionian 
Confederacy. 

Cyprus, Crete, Thrace, and Macedon — Byzantium. — Greek colonies were 
established in Cyprus, Crete, on the shores of the Euxine (now Black) Sea, the 
Propontis (now Sea of Marmora), the Hellespont (now Dardanelles), in Thrace and 
Macedonia. The city of Byzantium (now Constantinople), founded by Byzas in 
the year 606 B. C, was the most prosperous of the Grecian colonies in this quarter. 

Cyrene — Sj^racuse and Messana — Magna Graecia.— In Northern Africa 
was the flourishing city of Cyrene, corresponding to the modern Barca. The cities 
of Syracuse and Messana, in Sicily, were established by the Greeks; while in 
Southern Italy the number of Grecian settlements was so great that they were 
together named Magna Grsecia, or Great Greece. Tlius in process of time, the 
Grecian race, language, religion, institutions, and manners, were diffused over many 
of the fairest portions of the then known world. 

THE PERIOD OF THE LAV\^GIVERS. 

LYCURGUS, THE SPARTAN LAWGIVER. 

Travels of Lycurgus — Establishment of his Code. — From the time that 
the Dorians had established themselves in the Peloponnesus, two kings reigned 
jointly at Lacedsemon. The kings of Sparta belonged to the race of the Heraclidae. 
At length, in the ninth century before Christ, on the death of Polydectes, one of 
the kings, his brother Lycurgus succeeded him, but soon resigned the royal dignity 
in favor of the infant son of Polydectes, and retired from Greece. Lycurgus went 
to Crete, where he studied the excellent laws of Minos, the Cretan lawgiver. He 
also obtained wisdom from the priests of Egypt and from the Brahmins of India. 
On his return to Greece, he directed his attention to the framing of a constitution 
for Lacedaemon. He had consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him that the 
constitution which he should establish would be the most excellent that ever existed. 
Having secured the support of the most prominent citizens of Sparta, Lycurgus 
obtained the enactment of a code of laws by which the system of government, the 
division of property, and the education of the people were to be estaJalisbed ou a 
new and unchangeable basis. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



41 



Political Institutions of Lycurgus. — Lycurgus estabiished a senate of thirty 
members who were to be elected for life. No one could be chosen a senator until 
he was sixty years of age. The two kings were members of the senate, and always 
presided over its deliberations. Besides being presidents of the senate, the kings 
were always the commanders of the armies. There were also assemblies of the 
people, which had no right to originate any law, but only to approve or reject what 
had been proposed by the senate. To guard against the exercise of unconstitutional 
power, five officers, called Ephori, were yearly chosen by the people of Sparta, fa; 
the purpose of punishing, by fine or flogging, all who violated the constitution and 
the laws, not exempting even senators and kings. 

Social Institutions of Lycurgus. — Lycurgus next devoted himself to a refor- 
mation of the social institutions and manners of the Spartan people. He first 
divided all the lands of Laconia equally among all the free citizens of Sparta. To 
prevent the accumulation of wealth, Lycurgus forbade the use of gold and silver 
for currency, and only allowed iron money to be used, attaching to a great quantity 
a very small value, so that 'a Spartan dollar weighed about fifty pounds. Useless 
arts and foreign commerce were abandoned, and thus was struck the death-blow to 
luxury. In order to still further prevent luxury and to insure sobriety, all Spartans 
of whatever age or rank were required to eat at the public tables, which were sup- 
plied with the plainest and least relishing food, each individual being required to 
contribute monthly a certain portion of provisions for the public use. Regular 
attendance at the public meals was strictly enforced, and no one was permitted to 
eat at home or in private. Lycurgus took great pains to introduce a short and 
forcible style of expression among his countrymen, in which he succeeded so well 
that the Spartans soon became celebrated for the terseness and brevity of their 
speech. Such a style of expression is called laconic, from Laconia, the name of 
the Spartan territory. Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, nor were 
foreigners permitted to spend much time in Sparta. As soon as an infant was born 
it was taken to certain public officers, who examined it; and if it was found to be 
deformed it was considered as of no use to the state, and was consequently destroyed. 
At the age of six years all children were taken from their parents and educated in 
public. The greatest care was taken to develop their physical nature, while very 
little attention was paid to their mental culture. To make them abhor drunken- 
ness the Spartan slaves were made drunk. ^Vhen the Spartan youth beheld the 
rediculous and disgraceful conduct of the slaves, they were careful never to reduce 
themselves to so degrading a condition. The sole objects of Spartan education 
were to prepare the people of Lacedsemon for war, and the aim of Lycurgus was 
to make the Spartans a warlike race, not, however, to enlarge their territory, as he 
dreaded the consequences of an extension of the Lacedaemonian territory beyond 
the borders of Laconia. The Spartan youth were taught to be sober, cunning, per- 
severing, brave, insensible to hardship, patient in suffering, obedient to theil 
superijrs, and unyielding in their devotion to their country. To make them cun- 
nmg in war, they were taught and encouraged to steal provisions ; but if they were 
detecteil in the act they were severely whipped, not, however, for stealing, but foj 
not being careful enough to escape detection. The Spartan slaves, or Helots, as 
they were called, from the town of Helos, where their ancestors had made an 
obstinate resistance to the conquering Dorians, were the property of the state; and 
' to them only were assigned the duties of agriculture and the mechanical arts, while 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

the free citizens of Lacedtemon only employed themselves in war and militan' 
exercises, in superintending the public schools, in conversation, or in religious 
service. The principle underlying the whole system and institutions of lycurgus 
was, — the citizen for the state, and not the state for the citizen. 

Death of Lycurgus. — It is said that after Lycurgus had finished his code of 
laws, he went into voluntary exile; but before leaving Sparta, he made the Lacedae- 
monians swear that they would not violate or change any of his laws until his 
return. But Lycurgus intended never to return. After leaving Laceda;mon, br 
went to Crete, where he died; and so the Spartans, bound by their oath, v\eic 
obliged to abide by his laws forever. 

THE MESSENIAN WARS. 

The First Messenian War. — About a century after the time of Lycurgus 
(743 B. C), a war broke out between the Spartans and the Mcssenians, which 
lasted twenty years. The Messenians, ui^der their valiant leader, Aristodemus, 
fought bravely for their freedom, but were at last conquered and compelled to 
acknowledge the supremacy of the Lacedaemonians. This contest is known as 
the " First Messenian War." 

The Second Messenian War. — The tjranny of die Spartans led to a revolt 
of the Messenians about the year 685 B. C, thirty-nine years after the close of the 
First Messenian War. This was the beginning of the "Second Messenian War." 
The Messenians, under their able general, Aristomenes, successively defeated their 
enemies. The Lacedaemonians, desparing of a successful termination of the wai', 
consulted the Delphic oracle, which told them that they must seek a leader among 
the Athenians if they wished to conquer their enemies. The Athenians, in derision, 
sent the lame schoolmaster and poet, Tyrtseus, to lead the Spartan armies. But 
Tyrtseus proved himself as good a leader as could have been chosen; for, by his 
patriotic appeals, he aroused the martial pride of the Lacedaemonians. After the war 
had continued seventeen years, it ended in the defeat of the Messenians, who were 
reduced to slavery. Many of the conquered Messenians, however, abandoned their 
country and migrated to Sicily, where they founded the city of INIessana. 

DRACO AND SOLON, THE LAWGIVERS OF ATHENS. 

Draco's Code. — While Sparta, under the laws of Lycurgus, was advancing in 
power and prosperity, Athens was gi'catly distracted and nearly brought to the brink 
of ruin by the contests of domestic factions. In this situation of affairs, Draco, 
one of the leading nobles of Athens, framed for the Athenian people a code of 
laws so severe that it was said that "they were written in blood instead of ink." 
He punished even the slightest offenses with death, saying that the smallest .;rimes 
deserved death and that he had no severer punishment for the greatest ones, 
Draco's cruel system, which the Athenian aristocracy intended to use as an instru 
ment for the oppression of the poorer citizens, was soon abolished. 

Wretched State of Affairs in Athens — Solon Frames a Code. — The 
dissensions of the three parties in Athens, and the bitter feeling existing between 
tht rich and the poor, had reduced the state to a deplorable condition. Some of the ^ 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



43 



citizens had become very wealthy; wliile others had been reduced to extreme 
poverty, and were burdened with debts which they could not discharge. "What 
particularly inflamed'the poor against the rich was the existence of a law which 
gave to the ( reditor the right to make a slave of his debtor. An insurrection of 
the poor was feared, when the wise, talented, and virtuous Solon, a descendant of 
Codrus, and one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was requested by many prom- 
inent Athenian citizens to make himself king of Athens, so that he might restore 
order tc the distracted state. This advice Solon declined to follow, but he applied 
himself to the framing of a code of laws which he thought would restore quiet and 
prosperity to his country. 

Solon's Reforms. — Solon first ameliorated the condition of the poorer classes 
by cancelling all their debts, by reducing the rate of interest, and by abolishing 
imprisonment or enslavement for debt; and he restored to freedon; those debtors 
who had been enslaved by their creditors, and repealed all of Draco's laws except 
the one which declared murder punishable with death. 

Four Classes of Citizens in Athens. — Solan next divided the citizens of 
Athens into four classes, according to the sum of their yearly incomes. The two 
higher or aristocratical classes were required to serve as cavalry in time of war, 
while citizens of the two lower classes composed the infantry. The highest offices 
in the state were open only to the highest class, a few of the lowest offices to the 
second and third classes, while citizens of the lowest class could not be chosen to any 
office whatever. The largest amount of the taxes were to be paid by the highest 
class, the remainder by the second and third classes, while the lowest class was 
exempt from all taxation. Laws were to be originated by a senate or council of four 
hundred members, afterward increased to five hundred, while a general assembly 
of the citizens of Athens had the power of approving or rejecting the laws or 
measures proposed by the senate or council. The senators were to be chosen 
annually. 

The Court of Areopagus. — The Court of Areopagus, which held its sittings 
on the eastern side of the Athenian Acropolis, was composed of such individuals 
as had worthily discharged the duties of archonship; and it possessed jDaramount 
jurisdiction in criminal cases. This court also exercised a censorship over the public 
Qjiorals, the affairs of religion, and the education of the people; and it was empow- 
ered to punish impiety, profligacy, and idleness. It also possessed the power of 
annulling or changing the decrees of the general assembly of the people. 

Solon's Travels. — When Solon had finished his code of laws, he made the 
Athenians swear that they would keep them for ten years, after which he traveled 
abroad, visiting Egypt, Crete, and Lydia, and returned to his native countiy at the 
expiration of ten years. 

THE TYRANTS OF ATHENS. 

Usurpation of Pisistratus. — Soon after Solon had established his wise system 
of laws, the government of Athens was usurped by Pisistratus, a relative of Solon's 
and a leader of the democratic party of Athens, who had made himself a great 
favorite with the poor. Having wounded himself, Pisistratus appeared before the 
people, in the public square in Athens, and declared that he would leave Athens if 
he were not allowed a body-guard to protect himself against his political enemies. 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

whom he accused of having attempted to take his life. His partisans immediately 
voted him a body-guard of fifty men. He afterwards seized the Acropolis, or 
citadel of Athens, and made himself master of the city; and usuiped the whole 
powei of the government, and made himself sole ruler, or Tyrant of Athens. Pisis- 
tratus, however, ruled with justice and mildness, and confiniied his power by his 
generous treatment of the poor. He improved Athens, and encomaged art ani 
literature. 

Hippias and Hipparchus. — On the death of Pisistratus, his sons, Hippias and 
ilipparihus, succeeded him in the government of Athens. Like their father, 
Hippias and Hipparchus ruled with mildness and wisdom, doing much for the 
welfare and prosperity of Athens; but from the time that Hipparchus had been 
assassinated by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogiton, Hippias governed 
with the most cruel and unmitigated tyranny, until the Athenian people expelled 
him and his family from Athens (B. C. 510). After his expulsion from Athens, 
Hippias retired into the Persian dominions in Asia Minor, where he did much 
to bring about a war between the Greeks and the Persians. 

THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE. 

Names of the Seven ^A^ise Men.— The Seven Wise Men of Greece were 
Thales of Miletus, Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Bias of Priene, Chilo 
of Lacedsemon, Cleobulus of Lyndus, and Pittacus of Mitylene. Ancient writers 
mention two occasions on which these seven sages met together, — once at Delphi, 
and a second time at Corinth. 

Maxims of the Seven Wise Men. — The Seven Wise Men endeavored to 
enlighten and improve their fellow-men by disseminating a number of moral truths 
and precepts in the form of maxims and proverbs. The following are some of the 
maxims of the philosopher Thales, a native of Miletus, a city of Ionia, who was 
regarded as the greatest of the Seven Wise Men : " Never do that which you blame 
in others;" " It is better to adorn the mind than the face;" "The most difficult 
thing is to know one's self, the easiest to give advice to others." Some of the pre- 
cepts of Solon, the great lawgiver of Athens, were : "Reverence God and your 
parents;" " Mingle not with the wicked." Among the maxims of Bias, who was a 
great orator of Priene, a city of Ionia, were the following : " Endeavor to gain the 
good will of all men;" "Speak of the gods with reverence." Some of the proverbs 
of Chilo, who was one of the Ephori of Sparta, were: "Reverence old age;" 
" Govern your anger;" " Be not over-hasty;" " Seek not impossibilities." A few of 
the maxims of Periander, who was ruler or Tyrant of Corinth, were: "Pleasure is 
fleeting, but honor is immortal;" "The intention of crime is as sinful as the act;" 
"Prudence can accomplish all things;" "Perform what you have promised." Of 
the precepts of Cleobulus, who was king or Tyrant of Lyndus, in the island of 
Rhodes, the following are a few: "Be more attentive than talkative;" "Detect 
ingratitude;" "Educate your children." The following are a few of the proverbs 
of I'ittacus, who was for a short time king of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos: 
"Whatever you do, do it well;" "Know your opportunity." These and many 
other proverbs and rules of life, the Seven Wise Men of Greece sought and 
improved eveiy opportunity of bringing forward and enforcing. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 4^ 

\\\Y FLOURISHING PERIOD OF GREECE. 

THE PERSIAN WAR (B. C. 490-449). 

Revolt ox the Greek Cities of Asia Minor against Persia. — The Greek 

cities of Asia Minoi, which had been subdued by King Cyrus the Great of Persi^a, at 
length attempted tu i-egain their independence. The Athenians, who were at this 
time indignant at the nisolence of the Persian king, Darius Hystaspes, who demanded 
that they should restore the exiled Tyrant Hippias to power in Athens if they die 
not wish to incur the hostility of Persia, assisted the revolted cities in their efforts to 
throw off the Persian yoKt. The Greeks took and burned the city of Sardis, in 
Lydia, but the rebellion was finally crushed, and the revolted cities were again 
brought under the dominion uf Persia. > 

Commencement of the Pctsian War. — When the Persian king heard of the 
burning of Sardis, he became very much exasperated, and resolved to revenge him- 
self on the Athenians by invading their territory, and, if possible, conquer all 
Greece. A large Persian army, under the command of Mardonius, the son-in-law 
of Darius Hystaspes, after being deieaced in a night attack, finally effected the sub- 
jugation of Thrace and Macedonia, bui at length returned to Asia on account of the 
heavy loss sustained by the Persian fleet, off Mount Athos. 

Persian Invasion of Greece. — King Darius Hystaspes again assembled large 
armies for the invasion and conquest of Greece. Heralds were sent to the Greek cities 
demanding earth and water as symbols ol submission. This demand was complied 
with by the smaller Grecian states, which feared the consequences of provoking 
the displeasure of the King of Persia, bui Athens and Sparta treated the Persian 
heralds with the greatest cruelty, throwing them into deep wells and telling them to 
"take there their earth and water." In the year 490 B. C., a Persian fleet con- 
veyed an army of 120,000 men, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, tc 
the shores of Greece. After conquering several islands of the ^gean Sea, and 
after having destroyed the city of Eretria, which had aided the revolted Greek 
cities of Asia Minor, the Persian army landed in Attica, and advanced to the 
plain of Marathon, about twenty miles northeast from Athens. 

Battle of Marathon. — The Athenians, greatly alarmed at the formidable 
invasion of their territoiy by the Persians, applied to the Spartans for aid, but th& 
superstitious Lacedaemonians refused to give any assistance before a full moon. 
The Athenian army of only 10,000 men, assisted by 1,000 Platseans, then marched 
to Marathon to attack the Persian army of more than 100,000 men. By the advice 
of Miltiades, the ablest of the ten Athenian generals, was fought the memorable 
battle of Marathon, in which the Athenians gained a most glorious victory. After 
naving suffered immense losses, the defeated Persian hosts fled in haste and con- 
fusion from the field and took refuge in their ships. Among the killed on the side 
of the Persians was Hippias, the expelled tyrant of Athens. 

Disgrace and Death of Miltiades. — Miltiades was now regarded as the 
savioirr of Greece, but his fickle countrymen soon treated him with the basest 
ingratitude. For having failed in an attempt to subdue the island of Paros, he was 
condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents and to be cast into prison, where he died of a 
wound which he had received at Paros. The fine was finally paid by his son Cimon- 



46 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

Aristides and Themistocles. — After the death of Miltiades, the two most 
remarkable men of Athens were Aristides and Themistocles, both of whom, though 
opposed to each other in everything else, labored alike for the greatness and welfare 
of their country. Aristides was entirely devoid of personal ambition and was 
anxious only for the public welfare. Themistocles, however, wished to make 
Athens gi^eat and powerful in order that he might win for himself an imperishable 
fame. Themistocles, who was bold, artful, and unscrupulous, at length piocured 
by ostracism the banishment of the more candid and conscientious Aristides, who, 
un account of his uprightness, had acquired the surname of "the Just." 

Themistocles makes Athens a Great Naval Power. — Having now secured 
the chief power in Athens in his own hands, Themistocles devoted all his energies 
to the glory and welfare of his country. It was owing to his exertions that the 
Athenian navy was so strengthened and increased that in a short time Athens was 
mistress of the seas. 

Formidable Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — Darius Hystaspes died while 
making preparations for a second invasion of Greece. His plans were, however, 
executed by his son and successor, Xerxes, who, after suppressing a rebellion 
against his authority in Egypt, led an army of two millions of fighting men into 
Greece, in the year 480 B. C., ten years after the battle of Mai^athon. 

Battle of Thermopylae. — No resistance was made to the advance of the 
immense hosts of the Persians until they arrived at the pass of Thermopylae, where 
they found 8,000 Greeks under the command of the Spartan king, Leonidas. 
Xerxes sent a herald to the Greeks, ordering them to lay down their arms. Leoni- 
das replied, "Come and take them." When some one said that the Persians were 
so numerous that their darts would darken the sun, Diences, a Spartan, replied, 
"Then we shall fight in the shade." For several days the Persians had vainly 
endeavored to force their way through the narrow pass of Thermopylje, when, for 
a large bribe, Epialtes, a traitor from the Grecian army, showed them a secret path 
over the mountains. When Leonidas heard of this treacheiy, he sent away all his 
troops, excepting 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, with whom he resolved to die 
rather than flee before the enemy. The little band of Grecians fought with the 
courage of desperation until every one of their number had been slain. Thus 
perished Leonidas and his brave band, — ^winning for themselves an immortal fame. 
The spot where they fell was afterwards marked by a monument, on which were 
inscribed these words, " Go, stranger, and tell at Lacedaemon that we died here in 
obedience to her laws." 

Athens Burned by the Persians. — After the battle of Thennopylse and the 
fall of Leonidas, the Persians spread devastation through Attica, and took Athens, 
which they reduced to ashes, after it had been abandoned by its inhabitants. (B. C. 
480.) 

Battle of Salamis. — The Grecian fleet retired to the promontory of Artemi- 
sium, whither it was pursued by the Persian fleet. Eurybiades, the Spartan admiral, 
was in favor of sailing to the Corinthian isthmus, to act in conjunction with the 
land forces; but the counsels of the Athenian Themistocles and his fonner rival, 
Aristides, whom he soon afterward restored to power, who opposed the plan of 
Eurybiades, finally prevailed, and thus bi-ought about the famous sea-fight of Salamis, 
in which the Persian fleet was thoroughly annihilated by the Grecian fleet. (480 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 47 

B. C.) King Xerxes, who, from a neighboring height, had watched the progi-ess 
of the battle, fled with the utmost haste from Greece with a part of his army. 

Battle of Platsea. — The king of Persia left an army of 300,000 men, tmdei 
[be command of Mardonius, in Greece. The following year (B. C. 479), the 
Persians were defeated and Mardonius was killed in the battle of Plat^a, by the 
Grecians under the Spartan king Pausanias and the Athenian Aristides. The 
numlier of slain on the side of the Persians was 200,000 men. 

Battle of Mycale. — On the very day of the battle of Platzea, the Greek flce< 
annihilated the Persian navy in a great battle off the promontory of Mycale, in 
Asia Minor. Tigi-anes, the Persian admiral, and 40,000 of his men were slain. 

Evacuation of Greece by the Persians. — Greece was now completely freed 
from her foreign invaders, and the dangers which had threatened her independence 
had passed away. From this time to its close, the war was conducted with vigor 
on the seas and in the dominions of the Persian Empire. 

Conquest of Cyprus and Byzantium. — The Greeks, under the Spartan king 
Pausanias and the Athenian leaders, Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon, the soj? 
of Miltiades, continued the war against the Persians with great success. After 
wresting the island of Cyprus from the Persians, the Grecian fleet under the chief 
command of Pausanias proceeded against the city of Byzantium (now Constanti- 
nople), which was taken after a spirited siege. 

Treachery of the Spartan King Pausanias. — After the capture of Byzan 
tium, the Spartan king Pausanias proved a traitor to the liberties of Greece. PIr 
agreed to aid the Persian king in subduing Greece, on condition that Xerxes should 
give him one of his daughters in maixiage and make him governor of Greece 
which was to be a Persian province. The Lacedaemonians recalled their treacher 
ous chief, and tried him for treason, but did not find him guilty. Even at Sparta 
Pausanias carried on a treasonable correspondence with the King of Persia, imtil he 
was obliged to flee for his life to the Temple of Minerva, where he perished from 
hunger. 

Battle of the Eurymedon. — In the year 469 B. C. the Greeks, under the 
command of the Athenian Cimon, inflicted a crushing defeat on the fleet and 
army of the Persians, on the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. Two hundred of 
the Persian ships were taken, and the rest destroyed, while the Persian land force 
was almost entirely cut to pieces. 

Peace with Persia. — The war between Greece and Persia continued twenty 
years after the battle of Euiymedon, and it was only after the death of Cimon that 
3 treaty of peace was made, by which the King of Persia acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. (B. C. 449.) 

AFFAIRS OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. 

Themistocles Causes Athens to be Rebuilt and Fortified. — While the 
vrar with Persia continued, Themistocles caused Athens to be rebuilt and suiToundcd 
by a strong wall, and the harbor of Piraeus to be formed, which was afterwards 
connected with Athens by a double wall. This fortifying and strengthening of 
Athens aroused the jealousy of the Spartans, who accordingly endeavored to pro- 
cure the fall of Themistocles. 



48 ANCIENT niSTOR Y. 

Banishment and Suicide of Themistocles. — About this time the fame of 
Themistocles had aroused the envy of numefous enemies among his own country- 
men, who soon aftei-wards succeeded in having the ambitious statesman banished by 
ostracism for ten years. Themistocles went to the court of tlie King of Persia, by 
whom he was received with great respect and treated with much honor; but when 
the Great King wanted hiir to aid the Persians in conquering Greece, Thf miftocles 
poisoned liimself rather than fight against the liberties of his country. 

Athens Under Aristides and Cimon — Supremacy of Athens.— Itf at 

banishment of Themistocles the destines of Athens were controlled by Aristides and 
Cimon. After the death of Aristides, the chief direction of aifairs was entrusted to 
Cimon alone. Owing to the treacheiy of Pausanias, Sparta lost the influence which 
she had exercised in Grecian affairs; and for a considerable period Athens was the 
leading state of Greece. 

Sparta Destroyed by an Earthquake. — Even before the close of the Persian 
war, the jealousies of Sparta and Athens were aroused to such a degree that a war 
had become imminent between those two states, when, in the year 464 B. C, Sparta 
was destroyed by an earthquake. 

Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians. — Following close 
upon the calamity just related was a rebellion of the Spartan Helots or slaves. 
(B. C. 463.) The Messenians also attempted to free themselves from the Spartan 
yoke, and fortified their citidel of Ithome. In this extremity the Spartans invoked 
the aid of the Athenians. But when the Athenian army arrived at Sparta it was 
dismissed. This proceeding, which showed how little the Lacedaemonians trusted 
the Athenians, so exasperated the latter that they banished Cimon by ostracism, 
because by his direction the Athenian army had been sent to Lacedasmon. He 
was, however, afterwards recalled and again intrusted with the chief power in 
Athens. After a war of ten years' duration, the Messenians submitted to the Spar- 
tans, on condition of being permitted to remove with their families from the Pelo- 
ponnesus to the seaport town of Naupactus, in the state of Locris, on the northern 
shores of the Corinthian gulf (B. C. 453). 

Athens in the Time of Pericles. — After the death of Cimon, the affairs of 
Athens were conducted by the talented and virtuous Pericles, under whom that city 
attained the highest pinnacle of wealth, power, splendor, and refinement. The 
Athenian naw ruled the seas; and island after island in the ^gean sea was com- 
pelled to acknowledge the sway of Athens. 

Wars of Athens with Thebes and Sparta. — In the meantime Athens had 
become involved in wars with several of the minor Grecian cities. For the purpose 
of weakening the power and influence of Athens, Sparta and Thebes joined her 
enemies. The Athenians who marched against the Spartans were defeated in the 
battle of Zanagra; but they afterwards gained a brilliant victory over the Theban 
allies of Sparta, which restored the suoremacy to Athens and closed the contest foi 

short time. 

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (B. C. 431-404). 

War Between Athens and Corinth — The Peloponnesian War. — The 

general peace which Greece had for a short time enjoyed was soon disturbed by a 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



49 



war between Athens and Corinth, which at length became a general Grecian war. 
When Corinth became involved in a war with Corcyra, one of her colonies, Athens 
assisted Corcyra. Soon afterward Potid^ea, a Corinthian colony tributary to Athens, 
revolted, and was aided by Corinth. The Corinthians, accusing Athens of inter- 
fering with them and their colonies, induced most of the Peloponnesian states, with 
Sparta at their head, to join Corinth in the war against Athens and her allies. This 
contest, which is known as the Peloponnesian War, devastated Greece for a period 
<;f twenty-seven years. « 

Invasion of Attica — Devastation of the Peloponnesus. — In the year 431 
B. C, the Lacedaemonian king, Archidamus, with 6,000 Peloponnesian troops, 
invaded and ravaged Attica, while at the same time the Athenian navy committed 
terrible devastations on the Peloponnesian coasts. The Spartans were soon recalled 
to defend their own territory; but in the following year (B. C. 430), they again 
marched into Attica and laid waste the country. 

Plague at Athens — Death of Pericles. — Wliile Athens was threatened by the 
Spartans and their allies, a frightful plague broke out in that city, and carried off 
thousands of the inhabitants. Among those who fell victims to the ravages of this 
pestilence was the distinguished Pericles, whose skillful statesmanship had raised 
Athens to the summit of her renown. 

Reduction of Potidsea — Siege and Fall of Platsea. — The war still con- 
tinued, and the most frightful ravages and cruelties were committed by both parties. 
Potidsea had already been reduced by the Athenians, who drove away the inhabi- 
tants (B. C. 430). Four years after the reduction of Potidsea, Platasa, which was 
in alliance with Athens, was compelled, after a three years' siege, to suiTender to 
the Spartans, who put the garrison to death and reduced the women and children 
to slavery (B. C. 427). 

Peace of Nicias — Renev^ral of the Peloponnesian War. — At length all 
parties became tired of the contest, and a treaty of peace for fifty years, called the 
"Peace of Nicias," was concluded in the year 421 B. C. The Peloponnesian War 
was, however, soon renewed, as the Corinthians and other allies of the Lacedaemo- 
nians refused to accede to the terms of the Peace of Nicias, which they regarded as 
humiliating to them. 

Alcibiades. — Chief among those who were instrumental in increasing the jeal- 
ousy and hatred which existed between Athens and Sparta was the Athenian Alci- 
biades, the wealthy and handsome nephew of Pericles. This remarkable person 
was an eloquent orator, but an ambitious, artful and unjorincipled demagogue. For 
the gratification of his hatred against Sparta, Alcibiades artfully prevented a return 
of friendship between that state and Athens. By his advice, the Athenians subdued 
Ihe island of Melas, an ally of Sparta, and reduced the women and children to 
davery. 

Athenian Expedition to Sicily. — The Athenians were induced by Alcibiades 
to send a land and naval expedition against Sicily, for the purpose of bringing thai 
island under the sway of Athens. The expedition sailed under the command of 
Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. 

Disgrace of Alcibiades.— Before the Athenian fleet and army had reached 
Sicily, Alcibiades, being accused of offenses against religion and designs against the 
4 



5° 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



state, was ordered by the Athenian government to return home; but instead of re- 
turning to Athens, he went to Sparta, where he was honorably received, and his 
proffered services were accepted by the Lacedjemonians. Alcibiades now gi-atified 
his revenge by doing his countnonen all the injury in his power; and by his arti- 
fices he induced the Spartans to make war on the Athenians, and caused the de- 
pendencies of Athens to revolt. 

Siege of Syracuse. — WTien the Athenian fleet and army had reached Sicily 
they laid siege to the city of Syracuse. Lamachus met -with his death during the 
siege. The Syracusans were aided by the Spartans, and the whole Athenian flee* 
was destroyed. The Athenian land force was compelled to surrender; and its gal 
lant general, Nicias, killed himself when he learned that the Syracusans had deter- 
mined to put him to death. His troops were shut up in the prisons of Syracuse for 
seventeeen days, during which time many of them died. Those that survived were 
sold into slavery. 

Recall of Alcibiades. — The condition of Athens was indeed gloomy when 
Alcibiades, who had contributed so much to the misfortunes which had befallen 
his country, quarreled with the Spartans and became reconciled to his countrj'men. 
After annihilating the Lacedaemonian fleet in the battle of Cysicus, Alcibiades en- 
tered Athens, amid the wildest acclamations of the people. 

Revolutions in Athens — The Council of Four Hundred. — At this time 
Athens was torn by the dissensions of the aristocratic and democratic parties. A 
revolution had placed a "Council of Four Hundred" in power by subverting the 
democratic constitution; but in a short time another revolution restored the former 
democratic government. 

Second Disgrace and Assassination of Alcibiades. — The Athenians re- 
warded Alcibiades with a golden crown, and gave him the chief command of the 
land and naval forces of the Athenian Republic; but he enjoyed the favor of his 
countrymen only for a short time. When, in the absence of Alcibiades, the Athe- 
nian fleet was defeated by the Spartan fleet, he was accused of neglect of duty, de- 
prived of his command, and banished from Athens. He retired first to Thrace, and 
afterwards to Asia Minor. At length the Lacedaemonians induced the Persian gov- 
ernor of Asia Minor to procure the assassination of Alcibiades. 

Persian Aid to Sparta — Battle of .ffigospotamos. — The able Spartan com- 
mander, Lysander, at this time received important aid from Cyrus, the son of Da- 
rius Nolhus, King of Persia, and satrap of the Persian provinces of Asia Minor. 
Through the negligence of the Athenian commanders, the Athenian fleet was de- 
feated at ^gospotamos, or Goat's river, by the Spartan fleet under Lysander. 

Capture of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. — After compelling all the 
Athenians throughout Greece to return to their city, Lysander with the Spartan 
navy appeared before Athens, while a large Spartan aniiy blockaded the city by 
land. When, on account of the overcrowded condition of the city, the AthenianT 
had suffered greatly from famine, Athens was sun-endered to the besieging Laceda 
monians (B. C. 404). The long walls surrounding the city were torn down; tm: 
Athenians were compelled to restore all their conquests; to surrender all theii 
vessels but twelve; and to join the Peloponnesian alliance. 

Supremacy of Sparta. — From the time of the fall of the once-powerful and 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



51 



once-glorious Republic of Athens, Sparta was for a considerable period the leading 
state of Greece in power and political influence; and she exercised her supeiiority 
.Ti an an-ogant and domineering manner toward the other Grecian communities. 

Tne Thirty Tyrants of Athens— The Council of Ten. — When the Spartan 
I ysander captured Athens, he subverted the democratic government and placed (he 
city under the rule of thirty Athenians who were the friends of Sparta. Thtse 
thirty aristocratic rulers, on account of their tyranny, rapacity, and cruelty, and 
execudon of their opponents of the democratic party, were called the " Thirty 
Tyrants of Athens." They held their power only eight months. At length a 
number of Athenian exiles from all parts of Greece collected in Boeotia, and, 
choosing their patriotic countryman, Thrasybulus, as their leader, resolved to depose 
the Thirty Tyrants and restore the democratic constitution. Thrasybulus, at the 
head of his followers, whose numbers rapidly increased, marched toward Athens, 
siezed the j^reeus, and defeated a force which the Thirty Tyrants had sent against 
him. The Thirty Tyrants were then deposed and a "Council of Ten" were sub- 
stituted in their place. The Council of Ten exercised their authority in the same 
odious and despotic manner as the Thirty Tyrants had done ; and when the Athenian 
people rose against them, they applied to the Lacedsemonians for assistance in quell- 
ing the insurrection; but the Spartans, who were divided into two parties at home, 
finally allowed the Athenians to depose the Council of Ten and re-establish their 
democratic form of government (B. C. 403). 

Condemnation and Death of Socrates. — During the rule of the restored 
democracy in Athens, the immortal Socrates, the wisest and most virtuous of the 
Grecian philosophers, was compelled to drink the cup of poison. He was iinjustly 
accused of perverti,ng and corrupting the morals of the young. His judges declared 
him guilty and condemned him to suffer death by drinking poison. Socrates dis- 
dained to save himself by fleeing from the country, as urged by his friends; and, 
when the fatal moment arrived, he drank the poison with the cheerfulness and 
calmness of a philosopher. (B. C. 399.) 

THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND AND THE 
PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 

Cyrus and Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia — Retreat of the Ten Thou- 
sand. — On the death of Darius Nothus, King of Persia, the Persian crown 
fell to his elder son Artaxerxes Mnemon; but Cyi'us, the brother of Artaxerxes, 
aspired to the Persian throne, and a civil war ensued. Cyrus was assisted by 
the Creek cities of Asia Minor, and with 113,000 men he marched against Arta- 
xerxes, who had raised an army of 900,000 men to oppose him. A great battle 
was fought on the plain of Cunaxa, not very far from Babylon, in which Cyrus was 
killed and his army routed. The Persians offered peace to the Grecian allies of 
Cyrus; but the Grecian ambassadors who were sent to arrange the terms of the 
agreement with the Persians were put to death. The Greeks no\<' saw that they 
must either submit to the enemy, or fight their way through a hostile country, more 
than 1,000 miles from home. Having chosen Xenophon, a young Athenian, for 
their leader, 10,000 of their number, after almost incredible difficulties, and after a 
march of four months, amved at the shores of the Euxine (now Black) sea. This 



52 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



is known as the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand." Xenophon, who was one of the 
most celebrated of ancient historians, wrote an admirable account of this famous 
retreat. 

War Between Sparta and Persia — The Corinthian War. — The King of 
Persia, after the fall of his brother, waged a war against the Greek cities of Asia 
Minor, which were aided by the Spartans, who under their powerful king, Agesilaus, 
defeated Tissaphemes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, in a great battle fought 
near Sardis. (B. C. 395.) But Artaxerxes soon gave Agesilaus sufficient employ 
ment in Greece, by causing Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to make war on Lacedse- 
mon. Conon, an Athenian, was supplied with a fleet with which he defeated the 
Spartan navy. The walls of Athens were rebuilt through Persian assistance ; but 
the Athenian anny was defeated by the Lacedaemonians in the battle of Coronaaa. 
(B. C. 394.) 

Peace of Antalcidas. — The war between Sparta and Persia, ani the general 
war in Greece, known as the "Corinthian War," were terminated in the year 387 
B. C. by a treaty of peace arranged between the Persian Artaxerxes and the Spar- 
tan Antalcidas, therefore denominated the " Peace of Antalcidas." By this treaty, 
which was readily ratified by all the parties engaged in the war, the Greek cities of 
Asia Minor and the island of Cyprus were surrendered to Persia, and the inde- 
pendence of the various commonwealths of Greece was guaranteed. 

THE OLYNTHIAN AND THEBAN WARS. 

Reduction of Mantinea — The Olynthian War. — The Spartans, who since 
the Peloponnesian war had been the most powerful people of Greece, exercised 
their supremacy in an arrogant and insolent manner toward the smaller Grecian 
communities. Thus on a slight pretext they made M'ar on the city of Mantinea, in 
Arcadia, which, after a brave defense, surrendered to a Spartan army. The jealousy 
of the Lacedaemonians was next aroused against the powerful Macedonian city of 
Olynthus, which had become the head of a formidable confederacy. The Olynthians 
gained several great victories over the Spartans; but finally, after a vigorous siege, 
Olynthus was compelled to surrender to a Lacedaemonian army. 

Seizure of the Cadmsea — Aristocracy in Thebes — The Theban War. — 
A Spartan army, on its way to attack Olynthus, had seized the Cadmsea, the citadel 
of Thebes, at a time when peace existed between Thebes and Lacedaemon. By the 
aid of the Spartans an aristocratic government was established in Thebes, where- 
upon many of the democi-atic citizens of that place fled to Athens. After the 
Theban people had gi'oaned under the tyranny of their aristocratic rulers for four 
years, they rose in insurrection and put their oppressors to death; and, with the as- 
sistance of the returned exiles and an Athenian army, the Spartan garrison, which 
had upheld the government of the aristocracy, was compelled to surrender. A wai 
followed between Sparta and Thebes. Athens at first sided with Thebes, but aftrr 
V irds took the part of the Lacedtemonians. Through the abilities of such generals 
as Pelopidas and Epaminondas, Thebes became the most powerful state of Greece. 

Battle of Leuctra— Invasion of Laconia — Battle of Mantinea. — Epam- 
inondas, at the head of 6,000 Thebans, defeated 20,000 Spartans in the battle o> 
Leuctra, in which the Spartan king Cieombrotus was killed. (B. C. 381.) Epam 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



53 



inondas afterwards invaded Laconia, and advanced to the very walls of Sparta, 
where a hostile army had not appeared for five centuries; and at Mantinea the 
Thebans gained another great victory over the Lacedtemonians, but the valiant 
Epaminondas was slain in a. moment of triumph, and with his death ended the 
glory of Thebes forever. (B. C. 362.) Peace was concluded betweafc Thebes and 
Lacedcemon soon after the battle of Mantinea. Greece's flourishing period had 
now passed away. 

THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD. 

PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

The Phocians and the Amphictyonic Council — The Sacred War. — 
The Theban War had not closed more than four years when the Grecian states be- 
came involved in another contest known as the "Sacred War." This war origin- 
ated in the following manner : the Thebans, through motives of revenge, brought 
before the Amphictyonic Council an accusation of sacrilege against the people of 
Phocis, who had been guilty of bringing under cultivation a portion of the lands 
belonging to the sacred temple to Apollo at Delphi; whereupon the Council sen- 
tenced the Phocians to pay a heavy fine; but instead of obeying the decree of the 
, Council, the Phocians robbed the Delphic temple of its treasures to obtain the 
means of carr)dng on a war against Thebes and the Amphictyonic Council. The 
Athenians and the Spartans sided with the Phocians; while the Thebans, the 
Locrians, and the Thessalians united against them, and sustained the Amphictyonic 
Council. 

Subjugation of the Phocians by King Philip of Macedon. — After the 
Sacred War had continued several years, King Philip of Macedon, who had long 
been wishing for an opportunity of meddling in the internal affairs of Greece, was 
induced to join the coalition against Phocis. The Phocians were subdued by 
Philip and deprived of their tv/o votes in the Amphictyonic Council, while Mace- 
don was made an Amphictyonic state. From that time Phocis ceased to exist as an 
independent state; many of its inhabitants were carried into slavery, or retired into 
voluntary exile, and those who remained were compelled to pay tribute. 

Charge against the Locrians — Capture of Elatea by Philip. — Kmg Philip 
of Macedon had already subdued the Greek cities of Amphipolis and Olynthus, in 
Macedonia. At length, the Locrians, being charged with the same crime which 
the Phocians had committed, — cultivating the lands of the Delphic temple to 
Apollo, — were also condemned to pay a hea\'y fine; and when they refused to com- 
ply, Philip of Macedon again led his army into Greece; but instead of conquering 
the Locrians, he seized and strengthened the town of Elatea. 

Battle of Chseror.ea — ^End of Grecian Independence. — The Athenians, 
who were now aroused, by the eloquence of the orator Demosthenes, to a sen; e oi 
die dangers with which the liberties of Greece were threatened, concluded an alii 
ince with Thebes against King Philip of Macedon. The combined Athenian anu 
Theban armies were defeated by the Macedonian king in the decisive battle of ( Jhae- 
ronea, \\ hich put an end to the independence of the Grecian Republics. (B. C. 338.) 
The vanquished Grecians were treated with mildness by their Macedonian con- 



54 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

queror, wno was preparing for the great object of all his ambition, — the subjugation 
of the tottering empire of Persia. 

Grecian Congress at Corinth — Assassination of Philip. — Phihp of Mace- 
don now assembled a congress of the Grecian states at Corinth. By this congress the 
King of Mac^don was iiTvested with the chief command of the Grecian and Mace- 
donian armies. While making preparations to invade the Persian Empire, Philip 
.\\v.s assassinated by Pausanias, a Macedonian nobleman, in revenge for some private 
.■iijiny. (B. C. 336.) 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT (B. C. 336-324). 

Accession of Alexander — Revolts against his Authority — Fall of 
Thebes. — The murdered Pliiiip was succeeded on the throne of Macedon by his 
son Alexander, surnamed "the Great," who had received a thorough education at 
tJie hands of the celebrated Athenian philosopher Aristotle, and who proved him- 
self wortliy to sit on the throne of his father. No sooner had Alexander ascended 
the throne, than the Illyrians and other Northern tribes, which had been subdued 
by Philip, made an irruption into Macedonia, but they were speedily reduced by the 
arms of Alexander. Some of the Grecian states, with Athens and Thebes at their 
head, thinking this a favorable ojDportunity, attempted to shake off the Macedonian 
yoke; but the sudden appearance of the youthful Alexander in their midst soon put 
an end to all resistance. Thebes was taken by stomi and razed to the ground, only 
the house of the poet Pindar and several other dwellings being spared; and the 
inhabitants were sold into slavery. Athens and the other Greek states immdiately 
submitted, and were generously pardoned by Alexander. 

The Persian Empire. — At this time the vast region of country extending from 
the shores of the ^^gean sea to the banks of the Indus, and from the plains of Central 
Asia to the deserts of Africa, was embraced in the great Persian Empire. The 
Great King, Darius Codomannus, who at this time ruled over this extensive empire, 
was a prince possessed of some vigor, ability, courage, and many praiseworthy quali- 
ties; but the Persian people, enervated by wealth and luxury, were devoid of the 
military virtues of their ancestors in the times of the great Cyrus and Cambyses. 

Alexander's Invasion of Asia. — After having quelled the revolts against his 
authority in Greece, and after being made generalissimo of the Greek and Mace- 
donian armies, Alexander entrusted the government of Greece and Macedon to 
Antipater, one of his generals, and proceeded on his career of Eastern conquest. 
He crossed the Hellespont, in the spring of the year 334 B. C, with an army of 
35,000 men, commanded by able officers, such as Ciitus, Parmenio, Ptolemy, and 
Anligonus. 

Battle of the Granicus. — Of the Macedonian hosts, Alexander himself wa.* 
the first to spring upon the Asiatic continent; and after having visited Troy and 
sacrificed to the gods there, he advanced to the river Granicus, where he found a 
large army of Persians, commanded by Memnon the Rhodian and other Periian 
satraps of Western Asia, drawn up to oppose his further progress. After sonif 
opposition from the enemy, the Macedonians effected a landing on the opposite side 
of the river. In the battle which erfsued the youthful Macedonian king displayed 
the courage of the most daring soldier, slaying with his own hands several Persians 




AAEIANAPD2 

qMAinnnv 

fvl A K '^ A n W ! i Y 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 




NERO. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



55 



jf high rank. Alexander's reckless daring would liave proven fatal had not Clitus, 
one of his ablest ofiicers, struck off the arm of one of the Persian satraps, as his 
"cimiter was about to fall on the head of the youthful warrior-king. The battle of 
the Grauicus ended in a splendid triumph of the Macedonian king over the superior 
force of the Persians. The loss of the victors was scarcely 200 men. The con- 
sequence of the battle was the death-blow to Persian authority in Asia Minor; of 
which Alexander wtis now virtual master. (B. C. 334.) 

Alexander's Progress in Asia Minor — Cutting of the Gordian Knot, - 
ihii iniportan'; cities of Ephesus and Sardis welcomed the young hero-king. Mile 
tus and Halicarnassus, however, presented closed gates ; but both were taken aftei 
being vigorously besieged. By his generous treatment of the inhabitants of the 
conquered provinces, and by his wise regard for established customs and institutions, 
Alexander secured their attachment to his cause. Onward Alexa^rder proceeded, 
securing the submission of province after province. In the citadel of Gordium there 
was a very ancient chariot with a knot twisted in the most complicated manner, 
regarding which an oracle had declared that whoever should loosen this knot should 
win the empire of Asia. Being unable to unfasten the knot, Alexander, it is asserted 
by some, cut it with his sword, considering that sufficient to make him lord of Asia. 
The first campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia closed with the complete con- 
quest and pacification of all Asia Minor. (B. C. 334.) 

Battle of the Issus. — By the death of Memnon of Rhodes, the King of Persia 
lost the ablest of his generals. In the spring of the year 333 B. C., after his recov- 
ery from a severe illness at Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, Alexander advanced into Syria, 
where he learned, to his surprise and pleasure, that the Persian king, Darius Codo 
mannus, with an army of 700,000 men, was already on the plain of Issus. Notwith 
standing the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Persians, the Macedonians 
advanced, to the river Pinarus, on the opposite side of which Darius had drawn up 
his anny. No sooner had Alexander crossed the river than the barbarian forces 
which composed the right and left wings of the Persian array fled in confusion, but 
the Greek mercenaries of the King of Persia for a while gallantly held their ground. 
After an obstinate contest, the Persians gave way on all sides; and the battle of the 
Issus ended in another splendid victory for Alexander the Great. The Persians left 
110,000 men dead on the field, while the total loss of the Macedonians did not ex- 
ceed 500 men. King Darius Codomannus fled from the field in the beginning of 
the battle ; and his wife, daughters, and infant son fell into the hands of Alexander, 
who, contrary to the ancient custom, treated them with the greatest kindness. The 
wife of Darius, who was considered the most beautiful woman in Asia, died soon 
aft er her capture, and received a most magnificent burial from the King of Macedon. 
0:i hearing of this, Darius is said to have exclaimed, " If it be the will of Heaven 
that I am no longer king of Asia, may Alexander be my successor ! " 

Siege and .Capture of Tyre. — Alexander's victory of the Issus made hiro 
master of the greater part of Syria and Phoenicia. At Damascus a vast amount of 
treasure., belonging to the King of Persia, fell into his hands. The famous Phoeni- 
cian sea port of Sidon and other cities submitted to the conqueror; but Tyre, the 
greatest of them all, relying on the strength of its insular situation, defiantly rejected 
the summons to surrender, and gallantly withstood a siege of seven months. In 
order to open a passage for his army to the city, Alexander caused a mole with 



56 



ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 



towers to be constructed from the main-land to the island on which the city was 
built. During the construction of this mole the Macedonians were severely galled 
by the Tyrians, who retarded the operations of their enemies by ignited darts, vari- 
ous kinds of projectiles, and fire-ships. The advance of the mole was slow; and 
one night a Tyrian hulk filled with combustibles set fire to the mole, and thus suc- 
ceeded in destroying the result of much labor. Convinced, by this misfortune, of 
the necessity of having the aid of vessels in his assault upon the city, Alexander pro- 
cured from Sidon and other Asiatic maritime cities, numerous war-galleys in addition 
to the squadrons of Cyprus and Rhodes. With these valuable auxiliaries, the King 
of Macedon recommenced operations with increased vigor by both land and sea. 
The mole was reconstructed, breaches were made in the city walls by the battering- 
rams and other engines of the besiegers, and finally Tyre was cairied by storm. 
Dui-ing the assault, which lasted two days, the Tyrians defended their city with the 
courage of despair, pouring boiling tar and burning sand on the assailants. The 
Tyrians suffered a heavy punishment for their obstinate defense of their city, 8,ooo 
of them being slain and 30,000 sold into slavery. (B. C. 332.) 

Siege and Capture of Gaza. — After having taken Tyre and obtained the sub- 
mission of Jerusalem, Alexander directed his course southward and besieged and 
took the Philistine city of Gaza, which had refused to recognize his sway. The 
conqueror inflicted a heavy punishment on the captured city, destroying the entire 
garrison of 1,000 men, and causing Batis, the governor, to be dragged around the 
city behind his chariot, in barbarous imitation of Achilles, who dragged Hector 
around the walls of Troy. The fall of Gaza completed the conquest of Palestine 
by Alexander the Great. (B. C. 332.) 

Alexander in Egypt — Founding of Alexandria . — After the reduction of 
Gaza, Alexander advanced into Egypt for the purpose of bringing that country 
under his authority. The Macedonian conqueror was joyfully received by the peo- 
ple of Egypt, who were tired of Persian oppression, and they gladly submitted to 
his sway. Alexander won the respect and favor of the Egyptians by participating, 
at Memphis, in the worship of their bull-deity. Apis. Wliile in Egypt, Alexander 
founded the celebrated city which was named in his honor — Alexandria. For many 
succeeding ages, Alexandria continued to be the centre of commerce and civilization. 
After the founding of Alexandria, the Macedonian king passed over to the little 
oasis of Siwah, on which was situated the renowned temple of Jupiter Ammon, with 
the view of consulting the oracle of that deity. After receiving a most favorable 
reply from the oracle, Alexander returned to Memphis. 

Alexander's Return to Asia — Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela. — In the 
year 331 B. C, after arranging the government of Eg)'pt, Alexander the Greav, 
declaring that "the world no more admitted of two masters than of two suns," and 
directing his course toward the veiy heart of the Persian Empire, crossed the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris, and advanced against Darius Codomannus, who had in the 
meantime assembled a new army in Assyria, consisting of more than a million of 
men, gathered from the Eastern provinces of his empire. With only 47,000 men, 
Alexander met the immense hosts of the Persian king near the town of Arbela, or. 
the plain of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris, where was fought the great battle that 
decided the fate of Asia. The Persians began the battle by a charge of the Scythian 
cavalry and the war-chariots on the right wing of the Macedonian army, but after a 



HISTORY OF GREECE. ty 

desperate contest they were forced back, and Darius ordered his lines to advance. 
Alexander broke the lines of the enemy by suddenly pushing his columns in between 
the left wing and the centre of the Persian army. This movement threw the Per 
sians into disorder, and in a great measure decided the battle in favor of Alexander. 
The Parthian and Indian horse were routed by the Thassalian cavalry, and (lie 
battle terminated in the utter defeat of the Persians. The loss of the Persians was 
40,000 men, while that of the Macedonians was only 500. Such was the famous 
battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, which placed the Persian Empire in the hands of 
Alexander the Great of Macedon. (E. C. 331.) 

Alexander at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. — After the battle of Arbela 
and Gaugamela, Alexander devoted some time to the consolidation of his power in 
the subjugated provinces. In the opulent city of Babylon the accumulated wealth 
of the Persian monarchy fell into his hands. At Susa, the capital ®f Susiana, and 
like Babylon, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, Alexander secured a still 
greater accession to his treasury; but at Persepolis, the capital of Persia proper, 
where Alexander spent several months, still further accessions of wealth came into 
his possession. During his stay at Persepolis, Alexander, oij one occasion, while 
under the influence of wine, caused the destruction, by fire, of the old palace of the 
Persian monarchs — an act which afterwards caused him much regret. 

Assassination of King Darius Codomannus. — After the battle of Arbela and 
Gaugamela, King Darius Codomannus fled to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, and 
one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. After arranging the governments of the 
conquered provinces, Alexander left Persepolis for Ecbatana, with the view of 
obtaining possession of the person of the Persian king. On the approach of the 
Macedonian conqueror, Darius fled to the mountainous region of Bacti-iana, whither 
he was hastily pursued by Alexander. But Darius was murdered in his flight by 
several of the attendants of the treacherous Bessus, the Persian satrap of Bactriana. 
Alexander in his pursuit found the dead body of Darius. The generous Macedo- 
nian king honored the remains of his unfortunate rival with a magnificent burial, 
and treated the family of Darius with all due respect. The murderers of the Per- 
sian king afterwards fell into the hands of Alexander, who, with a spirit of the 
keenest resentment, and in imitation of the customs of the East, punished them with 
a most cruel death. 

Alexander in Scythia.— The provinces of Bactriana, Ariana, and Sogdiana, 
comprising an important part of the vast region of Central Asia, ancientlj' known 
as Scythia, but now called Tartary and Turkestan, were subdued by Alexander the 
Great only after great exertions and sacrifices on his part. The gallant Macedonian 
warriors, who had defied sword and lance on many a sanguinary field, narrowly 
escaped perishing from hunger and fatigue. Before the close of his Scythian cam- 
paign, Alexander married Roxana, the " Pearl of the East," a Bactrian princess, 
whom he had taken prisoner at the capture of a Scythian forti-ess. Alexanaer's love 
•jf conquest did not deter him from devoting some attention to the civilization and 
durable welfare of the countries which he had subjugated. Four new towns, named 
Alexandria, in his honor, became the centre of the caravan trade, and diffused tb;; 
Grecian civilization among the people of Central Asia. On one occasion, in Bac- 
triana, while heated with wine, Alexander killed, with his own sword, his old 
companion, Clitus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, for some 



5« 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



sarcastic remark as they were drinking — a crime which caused him much bittei 
repentance. 

Alexander's Invasion of India — Porus, the Indian King. — Ambitious of 
further conquests, Alexander the Great, in the year 327 B. C, invaded India with 
a powerful army composed of European and Asiatic soldiers. Alexander's .progress 
was vigorously opposed by the warlike tribes inhabiting the region drained by the 
Indus and its tributaries ; nevertheless Alexander pushed forward to the Hydaspes, 
one of the tributaries of the Indus, on the opposite side of which \ powerful Indian 
prince, Porus, King of the Punjab, had assembled a considerable army. Alexander 
succeeded in crossing the Hydaspes, and in/a fierce engagement defeated Porus and 
took him prisoner. When brought into the presence of Alexander, and asked by 
him how he should like to be treated, Porus replied, " Like a king;" and the con- 
queror, pleased with the loftiness and majesty of person of his royal captive, and with 
the good sense displayed by him, not only gave Porus his liberty, but restored to 
him his dominions, and made him viceroy of all the Macedonian conquests in India. 

Alexander's Return to Persia. — After having founded two cities on the Hy 
daspes, Nicaa and Bucephala, the former meaning " city of victory," and the latter 
named in honor of Alexander's celebrated war-horse, Bucephalus, which died near 
the spot, the conqueror marched eastward to the Hyphasis, and was preparing to 
add the fertile region watered by the Ganges to his empire, when his soldiers, see- 
ing no end to their toils and hardships, positively refused to follow him any further, 
and Alexander was obliged, with great reluctance, to abandon his career of conquest 
and to return to Persia. After marching back to the Hydaspes, Alexander resolved 
upon returning by a new route, along the coasts of the Arabian sea and the Persian 
gulf, and with this end in view he procm'ed a considerable number of vessels to 
convey his aiTny down the Indus. The passage of the army down the river occu- 
pied several months, on account of the opposition from the barbarians on the banks 
of the stream. Upon reaching the ocean, Alexander is said to have sat upon a rock 
near the shore, gazing at the wide expanse of waters, and to have wept bitterly that 
there were no more worlds to conquer. Disembarking his land troops, Alexander 
marched along the sea-coast with his main force, leaving his admiral, Nearchus, 
to pursue his way to the Euphrates by sea. The toils and hardships of this march 
were extremely severe. Three-fourths of the army perished in the deserts of Ged- 
rosia from hunger, thirst, fatigue, and from the miseries of the climate. Alexander 
cheered his troops in their march by magnanimously sharing in all their privations. 
Upon reaching the shores of the Persian gulf the army of Alexander was rejoined 
by the fleet under Nearchus. The march of Alexander and his army through the 
fertile district of Carmania, a province of Persia, resembled a triumphal procession ; 
and the soldiers, once more in a friendly country, believed their hardships over and 
abandoned themselves to enjoyment. 

The Last Actions and Measures of Alexander the Great. — After his re- 
vrtx to Persia, Alexander the Great devoted his attention to the organization of a 
pennanent government for the extensive empire which he had establi.'hed. He 
aimed at uniting the Persians and the Macedonians into one great natiuri possessed 
of the institutions and the civilization of Greece ; and after his return to Persej)olis, the 
Macedonian customs permitting polygamy, Alexander married Statira, daughter of 
the murdered Darius Codomannus, and thousands of his officers and soldiers married 



HISTORY OF GREECE. ^9 

Persian and Median women. Alexander's mild and generous treatment of the con- 
quered people made him as much respected and beloved by the Persian nobility 
and people as if he had been their native, legitimate prince. During the last years 
of his life, Alexander's mind was occupied with schemes, which, to his credit, were 
directed to the durable improvement of the countries which he had subdued: he 
opened the navigation of the Euphrates, founded many towns, and marked out com- 
mercial depots to connect the trade of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the 
Indus. 

Illness and Death of- Alexander the Great. — While planning schemes for 
fresh conquests, Alexander the Great met with a premature death from the effects 
of his dissolute and intemperate habits. After visiting Susa and Ecbatana, and 
projecting important improvements in those cities, Alexander proceeded toward 
Babylon, which city he intended to make the capital of his vast empire. He was 
reluctant to enter Babylon, on account of various prophecies announcing that spot 
as destined to prove fatal to him; but grief for the death of Hephrestion, the inti- 
mate friend of his youth, at Babylon, determined him to visit that city. Upon 
reaching Babylon, the conqueror was attacked with a sudden illness, caused by his 
excessive indulgence in strong drink, which can'ied him to his grave, at the early 
age of thirty-two years, and after having reigned over Macedon and Greece twelve 
years. (B. C. 324.) When asked, just before his death, to whom he left his vast 
empire, Alexander replied, "To the most worthy." The remains of Alexander 
were conveyed to Alexandria, in Egypt, where they were interred. 

ANTIPATER AND ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS 

Lacedaemonian Revolt. — \VliiIe Alexander the Great was pursuing his con 
quering career in Asia, some of the Peloponnesian states, with Lacedasmon at their 
head, attempted to shake off the hated yoke of Macedonian supremacy ; but, by the 
defeat and death of the Spartan king Agis II. in battle against Antipater, the Mace- 
donian vicei-oy of Greece put an end to the revolt. 

The Lamian War. — As soon as intelligence of the death of Alexander the 
Great reached Greece, several of the Grecian states, with Athens at their head, at- 
tempted to i-egain their independence of Macedonian supremacy. The Athenian 
General Leosthenes, marching into Thessaly, at first defeated Antipater and be- 
sieged the Macedonians in the town of Lamia; but the Macedonian viceroy, after 
being reinforced, defeated the Athenians and compelled them to accept a humiliat- 
ing peace. Athens was required to abolish her democratic form of government; 
Macedonian garrisons were to be placed in her fortresses; and her leading orators 
were to be given up. This struggle, the seat of which was the town of Lamia, in 
Thessaly, is known as the "Lamian War." 

Demosthenes and Phocion. — The great Athenian orator Demosthenes, a vio- 
lent Dpponent of Macedonian rule, rather than surrender himself to Antipater, 
poisoned himself. Some time aftei-ward the democratic party in Athens gained the 
ascendency, and compelled Phocion, the leader of the aristocratic party, one of the 
ablest and most virtuous of men, as well as one of the greatest of orators, to diink 
the cup of poison. 

Perdiccas, Regent of the Macedonian Empire— Regency of Antipater, 



6o ANCIENT HISTORY. 

— As Alexander the Great had appointed no successor, the mighty empire which he 
had founded soon fell to pieces. After many fierce and sanguinaiy wars among 
his generals, in which Alexander's whole family and all his relatives perished, the 
empire was divided into four kingdoms. At first Perdiccas, to whom Alexander 
had left his signet ring, obtained the regency of the Macedonian Empire, but when 
he aimed at the undivided sovereignty of all the Alexandrian dominions, the other 
leading Macedonian generals, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Craterus, and Antipater, formed 
a league against him. In the war against his rivals Perdiccas vis assasinated, 
whereupon Antipater, the viceroy of Macedon and Greece, was made regent, and 
the sovereignty of the empire was again divided. 

Polysperchon and Cassander — Demetrius Phalereus. — Antipater, at his 
death, appointed Polysperchon, the oldest of Alexander's surviving generi.ls, to the 
government of Macedon and Greece. This appointment produced a civil war 
between Polysperchon and Cassander, Antipater's son, who wished to occupy his 
father's place. After defeating Polysperchon in the battle of Megalopolis, Cassan- 
der usurped the government of Macedon and Greece. In order to further secure 
his power, Cassander caused all the surviving members of the family of Alexander 
the Great, including his mother Olympias, his wife Roxana, and her son Alexander, 
to be put to death. Cassander entrusted the government of Athens to Demetrius 
Phalereus, whose administration of ten years was so popular that the Athenians 
"aised 360 brazen statues to his honor; but at length, having lost all his popularity 
oy hi.s dissipated habits, Demetrius was compelled to retii^e into Eg}'pt, all his 
statues but one being thrown down. 

Coalition against Antigonus — Battle of Ipsus — Dismemberment of the 
Empire. — In the meantime, the regency of the vast Alexandrian empire had been 
conferred upon Antigonus, who had already overrun all Syria and the greater part 
of Asia Minor, and who aspired to the undivided sovereignty of the Macedonian 
empire. Hereupon four of the leading Macedonian generals, Cassander, governor 
of Macedon and Greece, Lysimachus of Thrace and Bithynia, Seleucus of Syria, 
and Ptolemy of Egypt, entered into a coalition against him. In the year 301 B. C. 
was fought the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, in which Antigonus was defeated 
and killed. The extensive empire founded by Alexander the Great was then 
divided into the four following kingdoms: Macedon and Greece; Thrace and 
Bithynia; The Syrian Empire of the .Seleucida:; and Egypt under the Ptolemies. 

Demetrius Poliorcetes, Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy 
Ceraunus. — After the battle of Ipsus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, 
proceeded to Greece, but the Athenians refused to receive him. After entering into 
an alliance with Seleucus, King of Syria, Demetrius appeared before Athens, which 
after a long siege he captured; but instead of punishing the Athenians for their 
obstinate resistance, he treated them with unexpected magnanimity, supplied theii 
wants, and did all in his power to relieve them from the miseries which the long 
siege had occasioned. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius siezed the throne 
3f Macedon and Greece; but seven years afterward, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, and 
Lysimachus, King of Thrace, successively possessed themselves of the kingdom ol 
Macedon, and Demetrius died in captivity. (B. C. 2S3.) After Lysimachus had 
reigned over Macedon six years, a war broke out between him and Seleucus, King 
of Syria; and iysimachus was defeated and slain in battle near Sardis. Soon 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 6 1 

aflerward, Seleucus was assassinated in Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, son of Ptolemy; 
King of Egypt. (B. C. 280.) 

Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls. — In the year 280 B. C, 
M.icedonia was invaded by an immense horde of barbarians, called Gauls, under 
their chief, Brennus; and Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had usurped the throne of 
Macedon, was defeated and slain in battle against them. After frightfully ravaging 
Macedonia, the Gauls under the leadership of Brennus invaded Greece the nex'; 
year (B. C. 279), and marched into Phocis for the purpose of plundering the temple 
to Apollo at Delphi. The Grecians met and defeated the barbarians at the pass of 
ThermopylEe, where their ancestors under the brave Leonidas two centuries before 
had made so heroic a defense against the immense Persian hosts of Xerxes; but 
the Gauls, like the Persians, marched by a secret path over the mountains, revealed 
to them by a traitor from the Grecian army; and the Greeks were finally obliged to 
retreat. Finding their way unobstructed, the barbarians then pushed forward to 
Delphi; but the Phocians soon arose against them and harassed their flank and 
rear, and at Delphi a very violent storm and earthquake so terrified the superstitious 
Gauls, and caused such a panic in their ranks, that they fought against each other, 
and were at last so weakened by mutual slaughter that they retired from Greece, 
many being slaughtered by the exasperated Greeks without mercy. The Gallic 
leader, Brennus, who had been severely wounded before Delphi, killed himself in 
despair. The shattered remnants of the Gauls then passed over into Asia Minor, 
and settled in the countiy named after them, Galatia. 

Antigonus I., King of Macedon, and Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — After 
the death of Ptolemy Ceraunus, yVntigonus I., son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, seized 
the throne of Macedon and Greece ; but he found a powerful rival competitor in the 
ambitious Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. After having failed in an expedition into 
Italy against the Romans, Pyrrhus aimed at reducing the whole of Greece anu 
Macedonia under his own dominion, and with this end in view he invaded Mace- 
donia ; but he was soon obliged to retire into the Peloponnesus, and after being 
repulsed in an attack on Lacedasmon, he entered Argos, where a terrible conflict 
ensued, in which Pyn-hus was killed by a huge tile hurled upon him from a house- 
top by an Argive woman, who was enraged at seeing that he was about to slay her 
son. (B. C. 272.) The death of Pyrrhus put an end to the long struo-^le for 
power among Alexander's successors in the West. 

THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE AND THE FALL OF GREECE. 

Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon. — A new power now 
arose in Greece which soon became a formidable adversary to Macedonian supre- 
macy in Greece, and which at one time promised fair to revive the former glory 
and influence of the Hellenic race. This power was the celebrated Achaian 
League, which at first consisted only of twelve towns of Achaia associated together 
for common defense and forming a little confederated republic, all the towns being 
equally represented in the federal government, which was entrusted with all mat- 
ters concerning the general welfare, while each town retained the right of managing 
its own domestic affairs. The Achaian League did not possess much political in- 
fluence until about the middle of the third centmy before Christ, when Aratus, an 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

exile Irom Sicyon, with a few followers, took the city by surprise in the night, and 
without the cost of a single life, liberated it fi-om the sway of the tyrants who had 
' iOng oppressed it with their despotic rule. (B. C. 251.) Dreading the hostility ot the 
King of Maccdon, Aratus induced Sicyon to join the Achaian League. Aratus 
soon became the idol of the Achaians, and soon after the accession of Sicyon to the 
League, he was placed at the head of the Achaian armies. Corinth, which had 
been seized by a stratagem of King Antigonus I. of Macedon, and whose ci^^adel 
K-3S, occupied by a Macedonian garrison, was delivered by a gallant enterprise of 
Aratus of Sicyon, and was also induced to join the Achaian League. Other cities 
afterward acceded to the confederacy; but Argos and Corinth, influenced by the 
Spartans, at length seceded from the League. In wars with the Macedonians, the 
Achaians triumphed. 

The .ffitolian League and the Spartans — Agis IIL and Cleomenes. — 
Besides the King of Macedon, the enemies of the Achaian League were the /Eto- 
lian League and the Spartans. The .^Etolian League, which was a confederation 
of the rudest of the Grecian tribes, had by degrees extended its supremacy over 
Locris, Phocis, Bceotia, and other Grecian states. The valiant Spartan kings, Agis 
III. and Cleomenes, endeavored to restore the ancient glory and greatness of Lace- 
dsemoa by reviving the long-neglected laws of Lycurgus, the foundation of Sparta's 
former glory. They met with considerable opposition from the wealthy and aristo- 
cratic citizens of Lacedpemon, and Agis III. was cruelly murdered in prison; but 
Cleomenes succeeded in his endeavors by causing the opponents to his schemes to 
be removed by assassination. The ambitious Cleomenes aimed at the elevation of 
Sparta to the rank of the first power in Greece; and as the Achaian League was 
the chief obstacle in the way of his cherished designs, all his energies were directed 
to efforts for the dissolution of that formidable confederacy. 

Achaian and Macedonian Alliance — Capture of Sparta — Death of 
Aratus. — Seeing that the liberties of Greece were in greater danger from Spartan 
than from Macedonian ambition, Aratus of Sicyon, the Achaian chieftain, entered 
into an alliance with King Antigonus II. of Macedon, the old enemy of the Acha- 
ian League. Cleomenes was defeated and Lacedfemon captured by the King of 
Macedon. (B. C. 221.) Afterwards, in a war against the ^tolian League, Aratus 
fonned an alliance with Philip II., the successor of Antigonus II. on the throne of 
Macedon ; but when Aratus displeased Philip by advising him not to enter into an 
alliance with the Carthaginians in their war against the Romans, the Macedonian 
king caused the valiant leader of the Achaian League to be poisoned. (B. C. 213.) 

Subjugation of Sparta by Philopcemen, the Successor of Aratus. — The 
successor of Aratus of Sicyon in the administration of the affairs of the Achaian 
League was the talented and virtuous Philopoemen, who subdued the Spartans, and 
compelled them to abolish the laws of Lycurgus and to join the Achaian League. 
In a general assembly of the Greeks, Philopoemen was hailed as the restorer ot 
Grecian liberty. 

Philip II. of Macedon at war with the Romans — Battle of Cynosceph- 
alae. — During the second war between Rome and Carthage, King Philip II. of 
Macedon entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians against the Romans. To 
give Philip sufficient emplo)nnent in Greece, the Romans induced the ^tolians and 
the Spartans to wage war against the King of Macedon. After the conclusion of 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



(^l 



peace between Rome and Carthage, the Roman general Flaminius, who had been 
sent into Greece with a large army, defeated King Philip II. in a decisive battle 
fought in Thessaly, near a range of low hills, called from their peculiar shape, Cynos- 
ceplia!iE, or dogs' heads. (B. C. 197.) Philip II. was obliged to accept peace and 
to acknowledge the independence of Greece. At the Isthmian Games, the Roman 
genera], to gratify the vanity of the Greeks, proclaimed the liberation of Greece from 
Macedonian oppression; but the Romans were now as intent on extending theii 
supremacy over Greece as the King of Macedon had been in maintaining his swa;. 
there. 

Subjugation of the .^tolians by the Romans. — Several years after the de- 
feat of Philip II. of Macedon, the /Etolians took up arms against the Romans, and 
formed an alliance with Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, the enemy of Rome. 
The ^tolians were completely tiefeated and deprived of their independence by the 
Romans; and their ally, the Syrian king, having suffered a disastrous defeat by the 
Romans in the great battle of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, was compelled to accept a 
disadvantageous peace. (B. C. 193.) 

Messenian Revolt and Death of Philopcemen. — The Messenians attempt- 
ing to secede from the Achaian League, Philopcemen was sent to reduce them to 
submission ; but being taken prisoner, the valiant Achaian leader was compelled to 
drink the cup of poison. (B. C. 183.) The Achaians, however, conquered Messene 
the following year, and put the murderers of Philopcemen to death. 

Perseus, King of Macedon, at war with Rome — Battle of Pydna.— The 
wicked Perseus, who on the death of his father, Philip II., had made his way to 
' the throne of Macedon by the bloodiest crimes, was driven by the ambition of the 
Romans into a war against that people; but he suffered a crushing defeat in the 
gi-eat battle of Pydna by the Roman army under the command of Paulus ^milius 
(B. C. 168), and being soon afterward taken prisoner, the unfortunate king was car- 
ried to Rome to grace tlie triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman 
province. One thousand Achaian chiefs, who were accused of having a secret under- 
standing with Perseus, were seized and carried to Rome as hostages. After many 
of these chiefs had died at Rome, the rest returned to Greece, burning with ven- 
geance against the Romans. 

Conquest of Greece by the Romans — Destruction of Corinth. — Twenty 

years after the overthrow of the Macedonian monarchy, the an^ogance of the Romans, 
who assisted the Spartans in a war against the Achaians, and who demanded that 
the Achaian League should be reduced to its original limits, induced the Achaians 
to take up arms in defense of the independence of Greece against Roman encroach- 
ments. (B. C. 148.) The Achaians were defeated in several bloody battles, and 
finally the Roman army, commanded by the Consul Mummius, took Cdrinth by 
storm and reduced it to ashes. Greece then became a Roman province under the 
name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ends the history of the celebrated and once 
flourishing Republics of Ancient Greece. We shall next proceed to a brief notice 
of the two most powerful and extensive kingdoms that arose from the dismcnil'er 
mont of the vast empire of Alexander the Great. 



64 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

THE PTOLEMIES THE SELEUCID^ AND THE MACCA- 
BEES. 

Egypt under the Ptolemies. — Upon the dismemberment of Alexander's em- 
pire in the year 301 B. C, Ptolemy, a leading Macedonian general, ascended, the 
tlirone of Egypt, and became the founder of a dynasty that ruled that country for 
nearly three centuries. One of the most celebrated of this race of monarchs was 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who encouraged commerce and liberally patronized the an*, 
and learning, and founded the great libraiy in Alexandria. Under the Ptolen ies, 
Egypt was one of the most powerful kingdoms in the world; and Alexandria, which 
was at that time the metropolis of the country, became the commercial centre of the 
world, and the seat of Greek art, literature, civilization, and refinement. The Ptole- 
mies ceased to rule Egypt in the year 30 B. C, when Augustus Cffisar erected that 
country into a Roman province. 

The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae. — Upon the dissolution of Alexander's 
empire (301 B. C), Seleucus, another Macedonian general, became King of Syria, 
and founded the dynasty of the Seleucidse, which ruled over Syria and other coun- 
tries of Western Asia for more than two centuries. Seleucus founded the magnifi- 
cent cities of Seleucia and Antioch. The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidje extended 
from the shores of the Mediterranean to the banks of the Euphrates. One of the 
most noted kings of this dynasty was Antiochus the Great, who became involved in 
an unfortunate contest with the Romans, by which his dominions were gi-eatly 
reduced in territorial extent. The Parthian Empire, which arose about the middle 
of the third century before Christ, deprived the Syrian kings of many of their terri- 
tories in the East. The Romans put an end to t^.e rule of the Seleucids in the 
year 65 B. C, and Syria became a Roman province. 

The Jews under the Maccabees or Asmonians. — Ptolemy Soter made 
Judea an Egyptian province ; but on the accession of Ptolemy Epiphanes to the 
throne of Egypt, the famous Antiochus the Great annexed the Jewish territories to 
the Syrian Empire. Antiochus Epiphanes, the second successor of Antiochus the 
Great on the throne of Syria, plundered the sacred Temple of Jerusalem of its trea- 
sures, and attempted to thrust aside the worship of Jehovah by introducing the Greek 
idolatry into Judea; and when the Jews resolutely opposed this project they were 
violently persecuted. At length, when the tyranny of the Syrian king became intol- 
erable, the Jews, under the leadership of the heroic family of the Maccabees, or 
Asmonians, revolted, and made a vigorous resistance. Judas Maccabeus, the eldest 
of these leaders, after gaining many victories over the Syrians, entered Jerusalem in 
triumph and restored the Jewish worship. But the war still continued, and the 
valiant Judas was slain in battle after many Syrians had fallen beneath his pow- 
erful arm. His brother, Jonathan Maccabeus, then became sovereign and high- 
priest; but he was at last treacherously murdered by the King of Syria. Simon 
Maccabeus, another brother, succeeded to the Jewish throne and high-priesthood, 
and the Jewish nation greatly prospered under his administration; but he was at la.sl 
assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemy. Simon's sons and successors freed Judea 
from the Syrian yoke, but the Jewish state was for a long time veiy much distracted 
by domestic dissensions and weakened by civil war. About the middle of the 
first centuiy before Christ Judea became tributary to Rome, and in the first part of 
the first century of the Christian era the country was erected into a Roman province. 



HISTORY OF ROME. g^ 

HISTORY OF ROME. 



ANCIENT ITALY. 

lJi\isioTj» of Ancient Italy. — Ancient Italy was divided into three sections*. 
Cisalpine Gaui, or Gaul this side of the Alps, in the northern part;' Italy proper ia 
the centre; ana Magna Graecia, or Great Greece, in the south. * 

Cisalpine Gaul. — Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river Padus (now Po) into 
hvo divisions; the one on the north side of that stream being called Gallia Trans- 
padana, and the one on the south side being named Gallia Cispadana. Venetia 
was in the northenstei"n part of Cisalpine Gaul, and Liguria in the southwestern part. 

Italy Proper. — The states of Italy proper, or Central Italy, were Etruria, Latium, 
Umbria, Picemum, Campania, Samnium, and the Sabine territory. Etruria was 
early noted for its civilization and progress in the arts and sciences. The Etruscans 
or inhabitants of Etruria, formed a confederacy of twelve towns, each of which was 
independent in regard to its own domestic affairs. 

Magna Graecia. — Magna Grcecia, or Great Greece, embraced the states of Apulia, 
Calabria, I-ucania, and Brutium. The chief city of Magna Grrecia was Tarentum, 
the people of which were famous for their luxury and wealth. Magna Gra;cia was 
early settled by the Greeks, who brought with them the arts and institutions of their 
native country. 

Ancient Inhabitants of Italy— The Pelasgians and the Greeks.— The abor- 
igines, or earliest known inhabitants of Italy, were, like those of Greece, called Pelas- 
gians. The Pelasgians of Italy resembled those of Greece in character and man- 
ners. They were divided into many independent tribes. Their chief occupation 
wap agriculture. They built towns with cyclopean walls of unhammered stone. 
The chief tribes of the Italian Pelasgians were the Etruscans, the Sabines, the 
Latins, the Siculi, the CEnotrians, and the Tyrrhenians. It was about i,ooo years 
before Christ when the Greeks founded in Southern Italy the colonies which were 
collectively called Magna Graecia, or Great Gre<;ce. In Sicily the Greeks founded 
Messana, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Naxus, Catsna, and other towns. Grecian colonies 
were also settled in Corsica and Sardinia. 

ROME UNDER THE KINGS (B. C. 753-510). 

ROMULUS. 

Legend of .ffineas. — According to the Roman legend, ^Eneas, a famous T o- 
jan warrior, left his native countiy immediately atter the fall of Troy, and mfiJe 
his way to the western shores of Italy, where he founded the city of Lavmium, 
After slaying in battle Latinus, King of Latium, zEneas united the Latins with his own 
followers ; and thereafter the united people were called Latins. Thirty years after- 
wards, the Latins removed to the Alban Mount, where they built the city of Alba, 

5 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Legend of Romulus and Remus. — Several centuries after the events just 
related, there reigned at Alba a king named Procas, who had two sons, Nuniitor 
and Amulius. When Procas died, Numitor was to succeed to the throne of Alba; 
but Amulius seized the throne and made himself king, and afterwards caused the 
son of Numitor to be slain, and made his daughter Sylvia become a Vestal Virgin. 
Sylvia maiTied Mars, the god of war, with whom she had twin sons, Romulus 
and Remus. Amulius ordered the two infants to be drowned in the Tiber, but the 
bsiket which contained them floated to the foot of the Palatine Hill, where thej 
were found by a she-wolf, which carried them to her den and nursed them as iiei 
own offspring. " Some time afterward the two children were taken to the liouse of 
a shepherd on the Palatine Hill, where they were brought up. At length Remus 
was taken to Alba and brought before Amulius. Romulus and his friends went to 
Alba and rescued Remus, killed Amulius, and placed Numitor on the throne of Alba. 

Founding of Rome by Romulus. — Romulus and Remus prepared to return to 
the Palatine Hill, where they resolved to build a city, and they inquired of the gods 
by divination which should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens 
for one day and one night; and at sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and soon after- 
ward Romulus saw twelve. It .was decided that the favor of the gods was on the 
side of Romulus, who accordingly began to build a city on the Palatine Hill. When 
Remus, who was mortified and angry, saw the low wall and the ditch which inclosed 
the space for the new city, he scornfully leaped over and exclaimed, " Will this keep 
out an enemy?" Upon this insulting conduct, Remus was slain, either by Romulus 
or by one of his followers. The city, which was named Rome, in honor of Romulus, 
is thought to have been founded 753 years before Christ. Rome at first contained 
a thousand dwellings; and its population was rapidly increased by exiles, criminals, 
fugitives from justice, and desperate characters of all sorts, who fled to the new city foi 
refuge. 

Romulus, First King of Rome — Seizure of the Sabine Women. — Rom 
ulus was chosen the first King of Rome, and a Senate of one hundred members 
was esthblished. But the Romans, as the inhabitants of the new city were called, 
were without wives ; and as the neighboring people refused to give their daughters in 
man-iage to such desperate chai-acters, Romulus detennined upon secui'ing by strat- 
agern what he could not obtain by force. He therefore arranged some games and 
shows at Rome, and invited the neighboring people to attend. The Sabines and 
Latins came in gi-eat numbers, bringing their wives and daughters with theni. 
When the shows began, Romulus gave a signal, whereupon the Roman youth rushed 
upon the unsuspecting strangers, seized th^ most beautiful maidens, and carried 
Ihem off for wives. 

War with the Sabines — Treachery and Death of Tarpeia. — The outrage 
just mentioned led to a war between the Romans and Sabines. A large army 
under Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, laid siege to Rome, The Romans garrisoned 
and fortified the Capitoline Hill. Tarpeia, the daughter ol the Roman commander, 
agreed to open the gates of the fortress to the Sabines if they would give her ':he 
golden bracelets which they wore on their arms. She accordingly opened the 
o-ates; but as soon as the Sabines entered the fortress, they killed the traitress with 
their brazen shields. Having gained possession of the Capitoline Hill, the Sabine* 
were able to defy the Romans for a long time. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 67 

The Tc:mple of Janus. — Many battles were fought between the Romans and 
the Sabines in the valleys which divide the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. At 
length, when the Sabines advanced near the city, the Romans retired inside the 
city walls and shut the gates. As the Sabines were about to enter the city the gates 
flew open : the Romans again shut them ; but they opened a second time : a mighty 
stream of water burst forth from the Temple of Janus, and swept away the Sabines 
who had entered the city. Ever afterward the gates of the Temple of Janus st( lod 
open wl en Rome was at war, that the gods might come out to aid the Roman.s ; 
but in ti .Tie of peace the gates were always closed. 

Peace between the Romans and the Sabines — Union of the Two 
Nations. — The Romans made great efforts to retake the Capitoline Hill. At 
length, while the two armies were combating, the Sabine wives of the Romans 
rushed between the contending forces, and, by their earnest entreati^ and supplica- 
tions, induced both parties to suspend hostilities. A treaty of peace followed, by 
which the Romans and the Sabines were to be united as one nation, and Romulus 
and Titus Tatius were to reign jointly at Rome. Soon afterward Titus Tatius was 
killed at Lavinium, and Romulus thereafter reigned alone. 

Death of Romulus. — After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus came to his 
death in an unknown manner. The Roman legend states that, while he was pres- 
ent at a public meeting in the Field of Mars, there arose a great tempest and whirl- 
wind, while at the same time the sun was eclipsed, and it was as dark as night. 
When the storm was over, and the light of the sun returned, Romulus was not to 
be found. It was believed by the superstitious Romans that his father, Mars, the 
god of war, had carried him to heaven in a fiery chariot. The Romans built a 
temple to Romulus and worshiped him as a god by the name of Quirinus. (B. C. 
716.) 

THE SUCCESSORS OF ROMULUS. 

Peaceful Reign of Numa Pompilius. — The second King of Rome was the 
ivise Sabine, Numa Pompilius, who proved to be a good and peaceful monarch. 
He encouraged agriculture, reformed the calendar, built temples, and regulated 
religious affairs, professing to have obtained his directions from the goddess Egeria. 
Numa also divided the Roman territory equally among the people. After a peace- 
ful and prosperous reign of forty-two years, Numa died at the age of eighty. (B. 
C. 673.) 

TuUus Hostilius — Fight between the Horatii and the Curiatii. — The 
peaceful Numa Pompilius was succeeded as King of Rome by the warlike Tullus 
Hostilius, during whose reign the Romans engaged in a war with the Albans. Just 
as the armies of the Romans and the Albans were about to engage in conflict, they 
agreed to have the contest decided by a combat to be fought by six champions, 
three from each sije; and the defeated nation was to become subject to the victor- 
ious one. In the Roman army there were three twin-brothei-s called Horatii, and 
in the Alban army there were three twin-brothers named Curiatii. These, being 
fixed upon as the champions, took their places between the two armies and engaged 
in combat. After two of the Horatii had fallen, the other Horatius began to flee; 
but suddenly turning, he fell upon the three wounded Curiatii, and killed them in 
succession. Whan the victorious Horatius returned to Rome, he met his sister 



v 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Horatia, who had been betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Horatia shrieked alcud, 
and reproached her brother for his bloody deed, which so enraged Horatius that he 
plunged a knife into his sister's heart, and she fell dead. For this crime Horatius 
was condemned to death, but he was afterward pardoned because by his victory 
over the Curiatii he had saved the Romans from slavery. By the terms of the agree 
ment made just before the combat, the Albans became subject to the Romans. 

A nous Martius. — The fourth King of Rome was Ancus Martius, a grandson 
of Numa Pompilius. Ancus Martius carried on successful wars against the Latins 
founded the town of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, and added the Aventine and 
Janiculum Hills to Rome. He reigned twent)'-four years. 

Tarqyin the Elder. — There are different accounts respecting the origin of 
Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the Elder, the fifth King of Rome. By some his 
parents are said to have been of Grecian origin : by others he is regarded as of 
Etruscan extraction. Tarquin the Elder subdued the Latins, the Sabines, and the 
Etruscans; and improved Rome with many public works, among which were the 
circus or race-course, the embanking of the Tiber, the sewers for draining the 
neighboring lakes, the foundations of the walls of the city, which were of hewn 
stone, and the Forum, or public square. Tarquin the Elder was greatly beloved by 
his people, and had reigned thirty-eight years when the sons of Ancus Martius 
caused him to be assassinated. (B. C. 579.) 

Servius TuUius. — The murdered Tarquinius Priscus was succeeded on the 
throne of Rome by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, who proved to be a wise and 
good king. He protected the poor from the oppressions of the rich, abolished 
enslavement for debt, and lessened the royal power. The wise legislation of Ser- 
vius Tullius was displeasing to the higher orders among the Romans; and at 
length his son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Tarquin the Elder, caused the 
good king to be murdered, and made himself King of Rome. (B. C. 535.) The 
wicked Tullia, daughter of the murdered Servius Tullius, and wife of Tarquin the 
Proud, in her haste to congratulate her wicked husband, drove her chariot over her 
father's corpse, which lay in the street. 

Tyrannical Reign of Tarquin the Proud. — Tarquinius Superbus, or Tar- 
quin the Proud, soon proved to be an unscrupulous tyrant. All classes of Romans 
felt his severity. The plebeians, or common people, were deprived of their privi- 
leges; and the patricians, or aristocracy, were plundered of their wealth. Tarquin 
the Proiid conquered the Volscians and other nations. 

Expulsion of Tarquin the Proud and Abolition of Monarchy. — Wliile 
the Romans were besieging the town of Ardea, Tarquin's sons, Sextus, Titus, and 
Aruns, and their cousin Collatinus, got into a dispute about the good qualities of 
ttieir wives, and all agi-eed to visit their homes by surprise. They found the wives 
of Sextus, Titus, and Aruns feasting and making merry, while Lucretia, the wife 
of Collatinus, was found working at her loom. They all agreed that Lucretia was 
the worthiest lady. Sextus fell into a violent passion for Lficretia, and shortl)' 
afterwards he behaved toward her in such a manner that she committed suicicc. 
Lucius Junius Brutus, a relative of the royal family, bound himself by an oain to 
avenge the wicked act of Sextus. The outrage of Sextus roused the indignation of 
the Roman people; and Brutus, showing them the bloody corpse of Lucretia and 
haranguing them, induced them to expel the royal family from the throne of Rome, 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



69 



and to abolish monarchy altogether. Tarquin the Proud and his family, finding 
themselves abandoned, retired into voluntary exile. (B. C. 5i°0 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (B. C. 510-30). 

WARS WITH THE ETRUSCANS AND 
WITH PORSENNA. 

Consuls — Conspiracy in Favor of Tarquin the Proud. — The overtlarow 
of Tarquinius Superbus and the abolition of monarchy in Rome took place in the 
year 510 B. C. Rome then became a Republic. The Senate contihued to sit, and 
two chief magistrates called Consuls were to be elected every year. The first Con- 
suls were Brutus and CoU^itinus. During their administration, a conspiracy was 
formed for the restoration of Tarquin the Proud to the throne. Among the con- 
spirators were the sons of Brutus. From feelings of pure patriotism, their father, 
who acted as judge when they were tried, condemned them both to death, and had 
them executed in his presence. 

War with the Etruscans. — The dethroned Tarquin the Proud received aid 
from the Etruscans, to whose country he had fled for protection. A large Etruscan 
force was placed under the command of Tarquin himself and sent against the 
Romans. Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus encountered each other. Each 
ran his spear through his antagonist, and both fell dead. 

War with Porsenna, King of Clusium — Horatius Codes. — Porsenna, 
King of Clusium, also took the field in favor of the deposed Tarquin the Proud, 
and advanced against Rome with a large army. The Romans were driven across 
the Tiber; but the Roman army was saved by the valor of Horatius Codes, who 
alone defended the wooden bridge that crossed the river until the Romans had all 
crossed, and who then cut down the bridge while the enemy's darts were flying all 
around him, and at last plunged into the stream and reached the opposite shore in 
safety. 

Mutius Scsevola. — At length Porsenna pressed the siege of Rome so closely 
that the people in the city suffered gi-eatly from famine. But the city was saved by 
the daring conduct of a young Roman named Mutius Scsevola, who penetrated into 
the enemy's camp for the purpose of assassinating Porsenna, but who, by mistake, 
killed one of the attendants of the Clusian king. When threatened with torture 
unless he made a confession, Mutius Scsevola thrust his right hand into a fire and 
kept it there until it was burnt off, to show Porsenna that no torture could induce 
him to betray ^le plans of his countrymen. Porsenna, admiring such patriotism and 
coKrage, gave Scsevola his liberty; when the heroic young Roman warned the 
Clusian king to raise the siege of Rome and make peace, as three hundred young 
Romans had sworn to take his life, and that he had been chosen by lot to make the 
first attempt. Porsenna, alarmed for his life, immediately made peace with the 
Romans and marched home. So says the Roman legend ; but other accounts say 
that Porsenna 1 educed Rome, and that the Romans afterwards recovered their 
independence. 



JO ANCIENT HISTORY. 

CONTESTS OF THE PATRICIANS AND 
THE PLEBEIANS. 

Tyranny of the Patricians. — As soon as Rome was relieved from the hostility 
of foreign foes, the city began to be distracted by domestic troubles. The :^vo great 
parties into which the Romans were divided were the patricians, or aristocracy, uid 
tt.e plebeians, or common people. The patricians, having all power in their ;wc 
hands, now began to exercise the most unmitigated tyranny over the plebeians, whc 
were excluded from all the public offices. Having exempted themselves from the 
payment of tithes, the patricians soon became immensely wealthy; while ihe ple- 
beians were compelled to pay taxes for the little farms in their possession, and to 
perform military service without pay. In time of war the lands of the plebeians 
were left untilled and their dwellings were often burned by the enemy. They con- 
sequently became very poor, and incurred debts with the patricians which it was 
impossible for them to discharge under the existing state of things. If a plebeian 
failed to discharge his debts when they became due his estate was seized; and he 
and his whole family became slaves to his creditor, and were thrown into prison and 
maltreated. 

Insurrection of the Plebeians. — The evils already related at length resulted 
in a general insurrection of the plebeians. An old man, covered with rags, pak 
and famishing, having escaped from his creditor's prison, rushed into the Forum, oi 
public square of Rome, and implored the aid of the people. He showed them the 
scars of the wounds which he had received in twenty-eight battles with the eriemies 
of Rome. He was immediately recognized as a brave old captain in the army. Ht 
related to them that his house had been burned by the enemy in the Etruscan war, 
and that his taxes were nevertheless rigorously exacted from him. He had been 
obliged to borrow money, and finally he had lost all his property; and when it be- 
came impossible for him to discharge his debts, he and his two sons were enslaved 
by his creditor. He also showed them the marks of the stripes which had been 
inflicted upon him by his creditor. The plebeians could not now restrain their rage 
and indignation. They demanded relief. At this instant, news arrived at Rome 
that the Volscians had taken up arms against the Romans. The plebeians rejoiced 
at this intelligence : they refused to enlist in the amiy, and told the pati-icians to 
fight their own battles. As the plebeians could not be compelled to enlist, the 
Consuls promised them relief, whereupon many of them joined the ranks ; but no 
sooner were the Volscians defeated than the debtors were ordered back to their 
prisons. Having been afterwards deceived, the plebeians withdrev/ from Rome and 
took post on the Sacred Mount, about three miles from the city, where they resolved 
to resist the patricians. 

Menenius Agrippa — Tribunes of the People. — To avoid the ?ion-ors of civil 
war, the patricians dispatched ten Senators, with Menenius Agiippa at their head, 
to treat with the plebeians, and to induce them to return to Rome. Agrippa repre- 
sented to them the disadvantages of dissensions in a state, and related to them the 
fable of the quarrel between the stomach and the members. The membeis, com- 
plaining that the stomach remained idle and enjoyed itself, refused to labor for it 
any longer : the hands refused to put food to the mouth ; the mouth refused to open ; 
and the teeth refused to chew : but while they thus attempted to starve the iJtomacH 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



71 



ihey starved themselves, and at last they discovered that the stomach tvas as useful 
to the body as they were themselves. The plebeians understood the moral of the 
fable, and they agreed to a treaty with the patricians. By this treaty all existing 
debts were cancelled, and all persons held in bondage for debt received their free- 
dom. The insurgent plebeians then returned to Rome. It was also agreed that five 
magist! ates, called Tribunes, should be elected annually by the plebeians to waich 
ovei their interests, and to prevent by the word "veto," meaning "I forbid," any 
ir.easure which endangered the rights and liberties of the Roman people. 

Banishment of Coriolanus — Veturia and Volumnia. — When, during a 
famine in Rome, a supply of corn anived from Sicily, the haughty patrician, Caius 
Marcius Coriolanus, proposed that none should be given to the plebeians until they 
consented to have the office of Tribunes abolished. This proposal aroused the in- 
dignation of the plebeians, and they procured the banishment of Coriolanus. En- 
raged at this treatment, Coriolanus went to the Volscians; and afterwards he led a 
Volscian anny against Rome, and laid siege to the city; but he was finally induced 
to retreat from Rome by the entreaties of his wife, Veturia, and his mother, Volum 
nia, who had gone out of the city at the head of a deputation of Roman ladies, to 
persuade Coriolanus not to be the cause of the ruiii of his country. Coriolanus, yield- 
ing to the solicitations of his mother, exclaimed, " Mother, you have saved Rome, but 
you have ruined your son ! " It is said that the Volscians, enraged at the retreat of 
Coriolanus from Rome, put him to death; but a tradition states he lived to a great 
age in exile among the Volscians, and that he was often heard to exclaim, " How 
miserable is the condition of an old man in banishment !" 

Dictatorship of Cincinnatus — Mount Algidus. — The .^quians, having 
broken their peace with Rome and having formed a camp on Mount Algidus, lured 
an army of Romans into a narrow defile, where they must have been taken prisoners 
had not the patrician Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, after having been appointed 
Dictator, come to their relief. The Dictator was an officer superior to the Consuls 
and the Senate, and he had all power over the laws themselves. When the deputies of 
the Senate came to inform Cincinnatus that he had been appointed Dictator, they 
found him ploughing in his field. He immediately left his plough, took command 
of the army, and marched against the enemy; and, having surrounded them, com- 
pelled them to surrender to the Romans. At the end of sixteen days, Cincinnatus 
resigned the dictatorship and returned to his plough. 

The Decemvirs. — The contests between the patricians and the plebeians still 
continued. At length the number of Tribunes was increased from five to ten ; and 
the Senate was compelled to agree to the appointment, for one year, of ten Senators, 
called Decemvirs, to frame a code of laws for Rome. After much labor, the 
Decemvirs produced the " Laws of the Twelve Tables." The Decemvirs had dis- 
charged their duties so well that it was agreed to continue them in office for another 
year, to enable them to finish their work; but they soon began to make additions to 
the Laws of the Twelve Tables by which the plebeians were greatly oppressed, s.nd 
it became evident that they were laboring altogether in the interest of the patricians, 
and great discontent ensued in consequence. 

Appius Claudius and Virginia — Privileges of the Plebeians. — Ahcentious 
outrage now occurred in Rome which led to the overthrow of the power of the 
Decemvirs Appius Claudius, a leading Decemvir, had conceived a strong passion 



72 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



for the beautiful Virginia, the daughter of the plebeian Virginius. In order to secure 
possession of the person of Virginia, Appius Claudius bribed one of his adherents 
to claim her as one of his runaway slaves. She was brought before the judgment 
seat of Appius himself, who ordered her to be given up to the claimant. Just 
at that moment, Virginia's father, to save his daughter from slavery and dis- 
grace, rushed forward and plunged a knife into her heart. The indignation of the 
Roman people was aroused by this outrage; and the plebeians, supported by the 
army, overthrew the power of the Decemvirs and restored the old government 
The affrighted Appius Claudius was thrown into prison, where he put an end (o his 
own life. Many new privileges were then granted to the plebeians. The law which 
prohibited marriages between persons of the two classes was repealed. Militai-y 
Tribunes, with the power of Consuls, were chosen from the plebeians; while two 
ofticers, called Censors, were elected from the patricians to take the census once in 
every five years. 

CONQUEST OF VEII AND INVASION OF THE GAULS. 

Siege and Capture of Veil. — The Etruscan city of Veil had long been one of 
the most formidable enemies of Rome; and when the people of Veii had slain the 
Roman ambassadors and refused to give satisfaction for the outrage, the Romans 
resolved upon the subjugation of the hostile city. After a siege of ten years, Veii 
surrendered to the Roman army commanded by the patrician Camillus. The cap- 
tured city was plundered, and its inhabitants were reduced to slavery. Having 
incurred the hatred of the plebeians by his unequal distribution of the plunder of 
the conquered city, Camillus was banished from Rome. 

Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. — Rome was now threatened by a more power- 
ful enemy than she had ever before encountered. This enemy was the Gauls, who 
had crossed the Alps into Northern Italy, or Cisalpine Gaul. These barbarians were 
the inhabitants of the country then called Gaul (now France). According to tradi- 
tion, a citizen of the Etruscan city of Clusium, having been refused redress from 
the magistrates of that city for an injury which he had received from one of the 
chief men of the city, resolved to have revenge on his country. He crossed the 
Alps into Gaul, taking with him a large quantity of the wines and fruits of Italy. 
Seeing that the barbarian Gauls were very much pleased with these presents, the 
injured Clusian invited them to go with him into Italy and take possession of the 
country which produced these delicacies. Immediately an immense horde of 
Gauls, taking with them their women and children, crossed the Alps into Italy, 
and marched to Clusium, to which they laid siege. The people of Clusium 
applied for aid to the Romans, who thereupon sent ambassadors to induce the 
Gauls to withdraw from Italy. 

March of the Gauls to Rome. — The Roman ambassadors, having failed in 
the object of their mission, joined the Clusians in an attack on the besieging Gauls, 
and killed one of the Gallic chiefs. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, demanded 
satisfaction from the Roman Senate for the conduct of the ambassadors, and when 
his demand was rejected, he took up his march, with 70,000 of his fcllowere, 
directly for Rome. 

Battle on the Allia — Rome Taken and Burned by the Gauls. — On the 
banks of the river Allia, eleven miles from Rome, a gi-eat battle was fought, in 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



73 



which the Roman army, consisting of 40,000 men, was hopelessly annihilated. 
This defeat rendered it impossible to defend the city, but 1,000 Romans garrisoned 
the Capitol, which they resolved to defend to the last extremity, while the greater 
number of the inhabitants of Rome fled for refuge to the neighboring towns. 
About eiglity priests and patricians, resolving never to survive the ruin of their city, 
clothed themselves in their long robes and awaited death. When the Gauls 
entailed Rome they found the city deserted, and a death-like silence prevailed; but 
when they entered the Forum, where sat the aged Senators, they were seized with 
Super3ti'ij.is awe at the sight of those venerable persons, whom they imagined to be 
divinities. At length one of the Gauls seized hold of the white beard of Marcus 
Papirius, one of the Senators : the old man, enraged at this insult, struck the inso- 
lent barbarian with his ivoiy staff; whereupon the Gauls massacred the Senators, 
and set tire to Rome, which, with the exception of the Capitol and ^ few houses on 
the Palatine Hill, was totally reduced to ashes. 

Defense of the Capitol. ^-The Gauls vainly attempted to obtain possession of 
the Capitol. They endeavored to climb up the steep ascent in the night, and 
would have succeeded had not tlie noise of the sacred geese in the Temple of Juno 
awoke Marcus Manlius, who immediately hastened to the spot and hurled down 
the rocky precipice such of the Gauls as attempted to make their way inside the 
walls of the Capitol. 

Departure of the Gauls from Rome.-^When famine began to prey upon the 
Romans who garrisoned the Capitol, and sickness was rapidly reducing the numbers 
of the Gauls, Brennus, the Gallic chief, agreed to abandon Rome and its territory 
on condition of receiving a thousand pounds of gold. While the gold was being 
weighed, the banished patrician Camillus arrived with an army for the relief of the 
garrison, and ordered the gold to be taken back to the Capitol, saying, " It has ever 
been the custom of us Romans to ransom our country, not with gold, but with iron." 
A battle followed, and the Gauls were driven from Rome. The Gallic leader, 
Brennus, was soon afterward taken prisoner by the Romans and put to death. So 
;ays the Roman legend concerning the retreat of the Gauls from Rome ; but accord- 
ing to a more probable account, the Gauls were recalled by a sudden invasion of 
their own country by the Venetians. 

Rebuilding of Rome. — As Rome was now a heap of ruins, the Roman people 
contemplated emigrating to Veil; but the persuasion of Camillus, who appealed to 
their patriotism and exhorted them not to abandon the spot which had been chosen 
by Romulus, and a fortunate omen, induced them to remain and rebuild their city. 

Condemnation and Death of Marcus Manlius. — After the city of Rome 
had been rebuilt, the patricians again began to oppress the plebeians. The patri- 
cian Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, the brave defender of the Capitol, came forward 
as the champion of the oppressed plebeians. He paid the debts of helpless credi- 
tors and did all in his power to alleviate their condition. Having incuiTed the 
hatred of his fellow-patricians, he was thrown into prison, but was released at the 
deminds of the plebeians. Being afterward accused by the patricians of asj.iring 
to tlie sovereignty of Rome, Manlius was condemned to be thrown headlong fr.un 
the Taipeian Rock, the place of his former glory. After the death of Marcus Man 
lius, the patricians op'^ressed the plebeians more rigorously than ever before. 



y^ ANCIEXT HISTORY. 

THE LAWS OF CAIUS LICINIUS 3T0L0. 

Sextius Lateranus and Licinius Stolo — The Three Laws of Licinius. — 
Rome was now saved from oligarchical rule by two remarkal )le men, — Lucius Sex- 
tius Lateranus and Caius Licinius Stolo, — Tribunes of the People. Licinius pro- 
posal three laws for the guaranty of the rights and liberties of the plebeians ; the 
first opened the office of Consul to the plebeians ; the second prohibited any per?on 
from holding more than five hundred acres of the public land, the remainder to te 
distributed among the plebeians as their own property; the third provided that tl f 
interest already paid upon debts should be deducted from the capital sum in inak ng 
payment, and the remainder to be paid in three years. 

Opposition of the Patricians — Adoption of the Licinian Laws. — Ihe 
patricians resisted the passage of the Laws of Licinius for five years, and tried every 
means of violence and fraud to frustrate the noble designs of Licinius Stolo; but 
when the plebeians took up arms for their rights, and gathered together on the 
Aventine Hill, the Senate, in order to avoid the horrors of civil war, found itself 
obliged to sanction the three Licinian Laws, amended only by the provision that the 
judicial functions, which had before been exercised by the Consuls, should devolve 
upon an officer called Praetor, to be chosen from the patricians; but in less than 
half a centuiy, both the prsetorship and the dictatorship were opened to the 
plebeians. 

WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND LATINS. 

First Samnite War. — The ambition of the Romans soon involved them in a 
war with the Samnites, a powerful Italian nation to the south-east of Rome. The 
inhabitants of Capua and Campania obtained assistance from the Romans against 
the Samnites. The Romans defeated the Samnites in two sanguinary engagements. 
After the war had continued for two years a treaty of peace and alliance was made 
between the Romans and the Samnites. 

The Latin War— Titus Manlius — Patriotic Devotion of Decius. — The 
Romans next turned their arms against their former allies, the Latins, who had 
vainly demanded of the Romans certain privileges. \\Tien the Roman and Latin 
armies faced each other, the Roman general, Manlius, forbade any soldier in his 
army leaving his ranks ; and when his own son, Titus Manlius, went forward at the 
challenge of the Latin general, and slew him in single combat, the stem father 
punished his son with death for disobedience of command. The battle of Vesuvius 
was decided in favor of the Romans. Before the battle had begun, the augurs had 
foretold that the victoiy would be on the side of the Romans if the commander of 
that portion of the Roman army which was hard pressed would sacrifice himself for 
nis country. The portion commanded by Decius being hard pressed, that com- 
mander clothed himself in a large robe, plunged into the thickest of the fight, and 
was slain. The result of this war was that the Latins were conquered, and their 
territory, Latium, was annexed to the Roman territories. 

Second Samnite War — The Caudine Forks. — Jealousies between the Ro- 
mans and the Samnites led to another war between those two nations. The first 
part of this war was signalized by several Roman victories; but at length the Sam- 
nite general Pontius, after having lured the Roman army, commanded by the two 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



75 



Consuls, into a nan-ow defile called the Caudine Forks, surrounded them with his 
troops and obliged them to surrender themselves prisoners of war. After undergo- 
ing the humiliation of passing under a yoke formed of three spears, and agreeing to 
a peace by which all the territoiy which had belonged to the Samnites before the 
war was restored to them, the defeated Romans were allowed to return home. Pon- 
tius kept six hundred Roman knights as hostages for the fulfillment of the provisions 
•of the treaty. 

1 bird Samnite War. — As soon as intelligence of the humiliating peace with 
Le Samnites reached Rome, the Roman Senate declared the treaty null and void, 
and ordered the two Consuls, who had negotiated the treaty, to be given up to the 
Samnites as persons who had deceived them. In vain did Pontius ask that thi 
treaty be faithfully kept, or that the whole Roman ai-my should again be surrenderee 
to him. The noble Samnite general refused to wreak his vengeance on the two 
Roman Consuls, and, with unusual magnanimity, he restored the six hundred host- 
ages. Then began the third war between the Romans and the Samnites. This 
war lasted thirty years, and ended in the complete subjugation of the Samnites and 
their allies, the Umbrians, the Etruscans, and the Cisalpine Gauls. The old Sam- 
nite general, Pontius, was taken prisoner; and, after gracing the triumph of the 
Roman general, he was put to death by order of the Roman Senate. All of Sam- 
nium then became a Roman province. (B. C. 291.) 

v^ THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 

War with the Tarentines — War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — The 

ambition of the Romans next involved them in a war with Tarentum, a luxurious 
and wealthy Grecian city of Southern Italy. The effeminate and cowardly Taren- 
tines applied for assistance to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Pyrrhus, who was desirous 
of being a great conqueror, agreed to protect the Tarentines from Roman aggression, 
and landed in Southern Italy with an army of 30,000 men and twenty elephants, 
the first of those animals ever seen in Italy. 

Victories of Pyrrhus. — At length a great battle was fought, in which PyiThus 
was seven times repulsed by the Roman Consul Lsevinus; but when he brought his 
elephants into the field, the Romans were routed with frightful slaughter, and 
Pyrrhus obtained the victory. While viewing the sanguinaiy field the next day, 
Pyrrhus exclaimed, " Had I such soldiers as the Romans, the world would be mine, 
or had they such a general as I, the world would be theirs !" Pyrrhus then 
attempted to make peace, and for this purpose he sent to Rome his friend, Cineas, 
the orator. Pyrrhus often said that he won more victories by the eloquence of 
Cineas than by the swords of his soldiers. The Romans refused to make peace; 
and Cineas returned and informed Pyrrhus that Rome looked like a great temple, 
and the Senate like an assembly of kings. A second battle was fought, and Pyrrhus 
was again victorious, but at such a fearful cost that he exclaimed, "Anotlier such 
victory, and I am undone!" 

Noble Conduct of Fabricius. — While the two armies were preparing foi a 
third battle, a letter was brought to Fabricius, the Roman general, from, the physi- 
cian of Pyrrhus, offering, for a large bribe, to poison the King of Epirus. Fabricius 
was very mdignant at such a proposal, and he informed Pyrrhus of the treaciierous 



y6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

conduct of his physician. Amazed at the magnanimity of his enemy, Pyrrhus 
exclaimed, " It would be easier to turn the sun from his course than Fabricius from 
the path of honor!" In gratitude for the noble conduct of the Roman general, 
Pyrrhus immediately released all the Romans whom he had taken prisoners, and 
sent them home rich with presents. 

Defeat of Pyrrhus — Fall of Tarentum — Extent of the Roman Territory. 
— Pyrrhus now went over into Sicily to assist the Syracusans in their war against 
the Carthaginians; but he returned to Italy three years afterwards, and fought a 
great battle with the Roman Consul, Curius Dentatus. In this battle Pyrrhus was 
so thoroughly defeated, and his amiy was so hopelessly shattered, that he immedi- 
ately evacuated Italy and retired to his own kingdom of Epirus. Tarentum soon 
afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, who soon established their authority 
over all Italy, from Cisalpine Gaul on the north to the straits of Messana on the 
south. 

THE FIRST PUNIC WAR (B. C. 263-240). 

Carthage. — Rome now became involved in a \var with Carthage, a powerful 
city founded by the Phoenicians in the ninth centuiy before Christ. Carthage was 
at this time a more powerful republic than Rome. Its colonies and territorial 
possessions lined the northern coasts of Africa, from the Pillars of Hercules to the 
borders of Egypt. The Carthaginians were a great commercial and maritime 
people, and their navy, at this time, ruled the seas. 

Cause of a War Between Rome and Carthage. — In the year 264 B. C, 
Hiero, King of Syracuse, united with the Carthaginians in a war against the Mam- 
ertines, a powerful band of Italian mercenaries, who, by fraud and injustice, had 
seized the city of Messana. The Mamertines, on the other hand, obtained the 
assistance of the Romans, who had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in 
the affairs of Sicily. 

Beginning of the First Punic War — Roman Successes in Sicily. — The 
first war between Rome and Carthage, or the First Punic War, as it is called, com- 
menced in the year 263 B. C, when a large Roman army under the Consul Claudius 
landed in Sicily. The Romans soon took possession of Messana, and induced 
Hiero, King of Syracuse, to desert the Carthaginians and to enter into an alliance with 
Rome. Being reduced to gi-eat exteremities, the Carthaginians fortified the city of 
Agrigentum, which was soon besieged and captured by the Romans. (B. C. 262.} 

Carthaginian Fleet on the Italian Coast — Creation of the Roman Navy. 
— While the Romans were making themselves masters of Sicily, a Carthaginian 
fleet of sixty ships devastated the coasts of Italy. The Romans were now impressed 
with 'die necessity of creating a navy; but they did not know how to build ships. 
At length a Carthaginian vessel was blown by a storm to the Italian coast ; and this 
served as a model. A Roman fleet of 160 ships was built in sixty days. As the 
Romans had no naval experience, tliey invented a machine for grappling the enemy': 
vessels with their own, and thus enable them to board the enemy's ships and fight 
as on land. 

Two Roman Naval Victories. — In the first naval fight the Romans destroyed 
sixty (:;3j:thaginian vessels without the loss of a single ship of their own. (B. C. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



77 



260.) Four years later (B. C. 256), a Roman fleet of 360 ships, commanded by 
the Consuls, Regulus and Manlius, defeated the Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, 
under the command of Hanno and Hamilcar Barcas, off the coast of Africa; the 
Romans sinking thirty of their enemies' vessels and capturing sixty. 

Roman Conquests in Africa — Defeat of the Romans — Regulus a Pris- 
oner. — The Roman army under the Consul Regulus next invaded Africa, and, after 
storming Clypea, subduing Tunes, and capturing seventy-five towns, devastated th; 
country to the v^^alls of Carthage. The Carthaginians now became alarmed, and 
sued for peace; but as the conditions which Regulus demanded were too humilia- 
ting for them, they resolved to continue the war. Fortunately for the Carthaginians 
at this moment, the Spartan general Xantippus was placed at the head of their 
army. Xantippus fought a terrible battle with the Romans and destroyed the 
greater part of their army. Only 2,000 Romans escaped from the field; and Reg- 
ulus himself was taken prisoner. (B. C. 255.) 

Two Roman Fleets Destroyed by Storms. — A Roman fleet which was 
laden with spoils taken from the enemy, while on its return voyage, was destroyed 
by a storm. Another Roman fleet, consisting of 150 ships, shared the same fate; 
every vessel being swallowed up by the waves. The Carthaginians again became 
masters of the seas. 

Battle of Panormus — Embassy of Regulus to Rome. — In Sicily, the Ro- 
man general Metellus defeated the Cai-thaginians in a great battle near Panormus 
(now Palermo) ; 20,000 Carthaginians being killed, and more than 100 of their 
elephants being captured. (B. C. 250.) Soon after the battle of Panormus, the 
Carthaginians, weary of the contest with Rome, took Regulus from his prison and 
sent him on an embassy to Rome for the purpose of bringing about a peace, making 
him first swear that in case the negotiations for peace should fail he would return to 
his dungeon in Carthage. The stern Regulus induced the Roman Senate to reject 
the peace propositions, and to continue the war. Bound by his oath, he went back 
to his dungeon in Carthage. 

Death of Regulus. — It is said that after the return of Regulus to Carthage, the 
Carthaginians, enraged at his conduct in breaking off the negotiations for peace, 
cnielly tortured him to death. After cutting off his eye-lids and putting him into a 
dark dungeon, they exposed his naked eyes to the burning sun, and then put him 
into a cask set all around with sharp spikes, where he died in agony. This story is 
believed to have been invented by the Romans to fire their soldiers with deadly 
hatred against the Carthaginians; and there are good reasons for believing that 
Regulus died a natural death. 

End of the First Punic War. — Several great naval victories were afterwards 
won by the Romans, but several more oS their fleets were destroyed by stonns. After 
the First Punic War had continued for a period of twenty-four years, peace was 
made. (B. C. 240.) By the terms of the treaty, the Carthaginians were to evacuate 
Sicily, to pay 3^200 talents of silver to defray Rome's expenses in the war, and to 
deliver up all prisoners and deserters without ransom. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica 
soon afterward became Roman provinces. 



y8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ILLYRIAN AND GALLIC WARS. 

War with the lUyrians. — The Romans next engaged in a war with the piratical 
Illyrians, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic sea. Roman ambassadors were sent 
to the Illyrian queen to complain of the piracies committed by her subjects on the 
Italian coasts. The Illyrian queen refused to put a stop to what she considered the 
rights of her subjects, and caused the Roman ambassadors to be put to death. The 
war which ensued ended in the humiliation of the Illyrians ; and the greater part 
Oi their country became tributary to Rome. (B. C. 228.) 

War with the Cisalpine Gauls. — The Romans were obliged next to turn their 
arms against the Cisalpine Gauls, who had made a sudden irruption into Etruriaand 
advanced as far as Clusium. The war lasted four years, and was ended by a great 
victory gained over the Gauls by the Roman Consul Claudius Marcellus ; the Gallic 
chief, Viridomarus, and 40,000 of his followers being slain. • (B. C. 222.) Cisalpine 
Gaul chen became a Roman province. 

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (B. C. 218-201). 

Carthaginian Conquests in Spain — Capture of Saguntum. — The Romans 
next engaged in a second war with Carthage. After the First Punic War, the Car- 
thaginians were employed in making conquests in Spain, where they intended to 
form a province which should compensate for the loss of Sicily. They established 
the city of Carthagena, or New Carthage, on the southern coast of Spain. At length 
the Carthaginian army, under the famous general, Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar 
Barcas, laid siege to the Greek city of Saguntum, which was in alliance with Rome. 
When only nine years old, Hannibal had been induced by his father to swear eternal 
hatred against the Romans. He took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. (B. 
C. 219.) 

Demand of the Romans — Commencement of the Second Punic War. 
— The Roman Senate sent an embassy to Carthage to demand that Hannibal and 
his army should be delivered up for having trespassed on Roman territory, and thus 
violated the peace ; and when this unreasonable demand was not complied with, 
war was declared against the Carthaginians. Thus began the Second Punic War. 
(B. C. 218.) 

Hannibal's Passage of the Alps and Invasion of Italy. — In the spring of 
the year 218 B. C, Hannibal crossed the Ebro, and after conquering the wild tribes 
in that vicinity, he crossed the Pyrenees with 60,000 men and thirty-seven elephants, 
and marched through Southern Gaul toward the Alps, while his brother Hasdrubal 
held Spain in subjection to Carthaginian sway. After some resistance from the 
Gauls, and after forcing a passage through South Gaul and over the Rhone, Han- 
nibal began his famous passage of the Alps. Difficulties almost insurmountable 
were encountered and overcome before the Carthaginian army appeared cr the rich 
plains of Northern Italy. The savage Gauls attacked the Carthaginian soldiers 
tvith fury, and destroyed many of them while ascending the precipitous, snow-capped 
and cloud-capped mountains, ^^^len the Carthaginian soldiers reached the summit 
of the Alps, a gi'eat fall of snow increased their difficulties by shutting up the paths. 
Many of the Carthaginians lost their way, and great numbers fell down the rocky 
precipices and were killed, '•^inally the Carthaginians found their march ira- 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



79 



peded by a large rock, which, by heating and quenching with vinegar, they split 
into fragments; after which they continued their march, and at length appeared on 
the Italian plains, south of the mountains. During this dangerous passage of the 
Alps, which occupied fifteen days, Hannibal lost one-half of his anny, from hunger, 
cold, fatigue, and conflicts with the fierce natives. Many of the elephants and 
hoiTiCS had perished. 

Battles of Ticinus, Trebia, and Placentia. — When intelligence of Hanni- 
bal's invasion of Italy reached Rome, the Consul Publius Scipio was sent with an 
army against the invaders. In a battle on the banks of the river Ticinus, Hanni- 
bal defeated the Romans and drove them back with heavy loss. Scipio himself 
was wounded. Hannibal next defeated another Roman army under the Consul 
Sempronius, on the banks of the river Trebia. The Romans lost 26,000 men, 
killed, wounded, or drowned in the Trebia; and only 10,000 survived and suc- 
ceeded in fighting their way through the ranks of their victorious foe. In a battle 
fought at Placentia, Hannibal again defeated the Romans. 

Battle of Trasimenus. — After a short rest in Liguria, Hannibal crossed the 
Apennines and marched southward, devastating the country through which he 
passed. After artfully decoying the Roman army under the Consul Flaminius into 
an unfavorable position near Lake Trasimenus, and favored by a thick fog, Hanni- 
bal fell upon the surprised and unexpectant Romans, and inflicted upon them a 
disastrous defeat. Flaminius himself was killed, and 50,000 of his men were slain, 
or drowned in the lake, and 6,000 were made prisoners. (B. C. 217.) While this 
great battle was in progress a terrible earthquake took place, which, though it 
destroyed many cities and towns, overturned mountains, and stopped rivers in their 
courses, was unnoticed by the combatants. 

Cautious Policy of Fabius Maximus — Stratagem of Hannibal. — The 
Roman disaster of Trasimenus quite overwhelmed the people of Rome; but the 
Senate, unmoved and resolute, appointed Fabius Maximus Dictator. Fabius pur- 
sued a new and cautious policy, and was in consequence called the Delayer. By 
closely following the enemy, fatiguing and harassing them, by turning every wrong 
movement of theirs to his own advantage, and by avoiding decisive battles, Fabius 
so reduced the strength of the Carthaginians that Hannibal only saved his army 
from total destruction by driving 2,000 oxen, with bundles of lighted brushwood 
fastened to their homs, up the heights occupied by the Romans, who, stiuck with 
consternation, fled, thus enabling the Carthaginian general to escape with his weak- 
ened army. 

Battle of Cannae. — The Roman people, anxious for a great and decisive battle, 
were dissatisfied with the slow and cautious mode of warfare pursued by Fabius 
Maximus. In the year 216 B. C, one of the Roman Consuls, Terentius Varro, 
with 90,000 men, contrary to the advice of Paulus .(Emilius, the other Consul, 
engaged in a great battle, at Cannse, in Apulia, with Hannibal, who then had 
60,000 men. The Romans suffered so frightful a defeat that the very existence of 
Rome was in danger; and the number of slain on the side of the Romans amounted 
to 50,000 men, among whom were so many knights that Hannibal sent to Carthage 
three bushels of rings stripped from their fingers. The Consul Paulu? ^milius 
was killed. The other Consul, Terentius Varro, fled with a few horse. This catas- 
trophe, the greatest ever experienced by- the Romans, created consternation and 



8o ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

grief at Rome; but the courageous Senate remained as finn and immovable as 
ever. 

Hannibal at Capua. — Instead of marching directly upon Rome after his great 
victory at Cannce, Hannibal led his anny into winter quarters in the rich and luxu- 
rious city of Capua, in Campania, where his veteran solders, giving themselves up 
to pleasure and debauchery, became effeminate and lost all their love for war. 

Fall of Syracuse. — After the battle of Cannse, many of the towns of Southern 
Italy and Sicily revolted against the Romans. Syracuse, which was for a long time 
defended by the mechanical skill of the great philosopher and mathematician 
Archimedes, surrendered to the Roman general Marcellus, in the year 212 B. C. 
The revenge of the Romans was terrible : the inhabitants of the conquered city 
were slaughtered; Archimedes was killed at his studies; the works of art were 
carried to Rome; and the prosperity of Syracuse was forever at an end. 

Reduction of Capua. — Capua, which, like Syracuse, had revolted against the 
Romans, was besieged by several Roman legions, and Hannibal advanced toward 
Rome, in the hope of raising the siege of Capua ; but he was forced to retreat, and 
Capua, reduced by famine, was compelled to surrender to the Romans. Twenty- 
seven Capuan senators died by their own hands, and fifty-three by the axe of the 
executioner; and the citizens of Capua were reduced to slavery, and the treasures 
of the unfortunate city were sent to Rome. (B. C. 211.) 

Fall of Tarentum. — Two years after the fall of Capua (B. C. 209), Tarentum 
was taken by the Romans under Fabius Maximus, who reduced the citizens to 
slaveiy and took possession of the ti-easures of the captured city. All the towns of 
Southern Italy and Sicily which had revolted against the Romans soon returned to 
their allegiance. 

Scipio's Campaign in Spain. — WTiile the war was thus raging in Italy, for- 
tune was averse to the Romans in Spain, where two large Roman armies had been 
cut to pieces by the Carthaginians ; but after the youthful Cornelius Scipio had been 
placed in command of the Roman forces in Spain the fortune of the war under- 
went an entire change ; and the Carthaginians, under the command of Hasdrubal, 
Hannibal's brother, were reduced to great extremities, and the supremacy of the 
Romans was reestablished in Spain. On his return to Rome, Cornelius Scipio was 
made Consul, being then only twenty-nine years old. 

Hasdrubal's March to Italy — Battle of the Metaurus. — Hannibal was at 
length reduced to such straits in Southern Italy that he found himself obliged to 
summon his brother Hasdrubal fi-om Spain to his assistance. Hasdrubal succeeded 
in crossing the Pyrenees and the Alps without much opposition ; but on the banks 
of the river Metaurus his army of more than 60,000 men was defeated and destroyed 
by the Roman army of 45,000 men, commanded by the Consuls Livius and Claudius 
Nero. The carnage was frightful. The killed on the side of the Carthaginians 
numbered 56,000, among whom was Hasdrubal himself. (B. C. 207.) The 
bloody head of Hasdrubal was thrown into the camp of Hannibal, who thereupon 
exclaimed, " I see the doom of Carthage !" 

Scipio's Invasion of Africa — Hannibal's Return to Africa. — At length, jn 
the year 202 B. C, the Roman Consul, Cornelius Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, 
invaded Africa with a large army, whereupon Massinissa, King of Numidia (now 
Algeria), entered into an alliance with the Romans. Utica was besieged by the 



HISTORY OF ROME. 5l 

Romans, Tunes opened its gates to the invaders, whereupon the Carthaginian Senate, 
greatly alarmed for the safety of Carthage itself, recalled Hannibal from Italy for 
the defen'^.e of his own country. (B. C. 202.) After returning to Africa, Hannibal 
held a conference with Scipio for the purpose of making peace, but the inflexible 
Roman general refused to accept Anything but unconditional submission on the pary 
of Carthage, and consequently the attempt at reconciliation failed. 

Battle of Zama — Close of the Second Punic War. — In the terrible battle 
of Zamr., which followed the unsuccessful attempt at peace, Hannibal was defeated 
with the loss of 20,000 men killed, and as many taken prisoners. Peace was then con- 
cluded; Carthage being required to give up all her foreign possessions outside of 
Africa, to pay 10,000 talents of silver to Rome in fifty years, to keep no more elephants 
for war in future, and to restore to the King of Numidia all the territory \\-hich she 
had wrested from him. Thus ended the Second Punic War, after a continuance of 
seventeen years. (B. C. 201.) Scipio, thereafter called Africanus, on his return 
to Rome, was honored with a most splendid triumph; while Hannibal was forced 
to retire into exile. 



MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GRECIAN WARS \/ 

War with Philip II. of Macedon — Battle of Cynoscephalas. — No sooner 
had the Second Punic War ended than the Athenians applied to the Romans foi 
protection against King Philip II. of Macedon. As Philip had entered into an alli- 
ance with the Carthaginians against the Romans in the Second Punic War, and as 
the Romans had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in the affairs of 
Greece, the request of the Athenians was readily granted. War was declared 
against the King of Macedon; and in the year 197 B. C, the Roman general 
Quintus Flaminius, who had been sent into Greece with a large army, inflicted an 
irretrievable defeat upon the Macedonian king in the battle of Cynoscephalae, in 
Thessaly. Philip was obliged to accept a peace by which he was to pay to the 
Romans 10,000 talents and to acknowledge the independence of Greece. To 
gratify the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius, at the Isthmian Games, prod limed the 
liberation of Greece from Macedonian oppression; but the Romans wer.^ as anx- 
ious to extend their supremacy over Greece as the Macedonian king had been to 
maintain his dominion there. 

War with Antiochus the Great of Syria — Battle of Magnesia.- -A few 
years after the defeat of Philip II. of Macedon, the yEtolians solicited ai I from 
King Antiochus the Great of Syria against the Romans. Antiochus marchod into 
Greece with a powerful army; but was compelled to retreat into Asia Minor, 
whither he was pursued by the Roman army commanded by Cornelius Scipio 
Africanus and his brotffer. After sustaining a frightful defeat in.the great battle of 
Magnesia, near Ephesus, from the Scipios, the King of Syria was forced to accept 
a, peace by which he gave up to the Romans all his territories in Europe and a 
large portion of those in Asia Minor, to pay to the Romans 50,000 Eubcean talents 
(a sum equal to ^15,000,000), and to deliver up Hannibal, who was then living in 
exile at his court. 

Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. — To avoid falling into the hands 
of the Romans, Hannibal fled to the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia. When Pru* 
6 



82 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

sias, fearing to incur the hostility of the Romans, was about to yield to their demand 
to sun-ender Hannibal into their hands, the old Carthaginian general put an end to 
his own life by swallowing poison. (B. C. 183.) His great rival and conqueror, 
Scipio Africanus, who, having been treated with ingratitude by his own country- 
men, spent his last days in voluntary exile, died*the same year. The valiant Philo 
poemen, the second chieftain of the Achaian League, was compelled to drink th'i 
cup of poison during this same fatal year. 

War with Perseus, King of Macedon — Battle of Pydna. — The wicked 
P;rseus, the son and successor of Philip II. of Macedon, began a fresi war against 
the Romans. The Macedonian territories were again invaded; and Perseus suf- 
fered a crushing defeat from the Roman general Paulus ^milius in the battle of 
Pydna. (B. C. 168.) Perseus was afterward taken prisoner and can-ied to Rome 
to grace the triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman province. 
The Achaians were charged with having given assistance to Perseus, and 1,000 of 
their chiefs were taken to Rome to answer for their conduct before a Roman 
tribunal. 

Conquest of Greece by the Romans — Destruction of Corinth. — Twenty 
years after the fall of Perseus, the Macedonians revolted; but they were again 
speedily subdued by the Romans. At the same time the Achaian League took up 
arms to defend the independence of Greece, which was threatened by the Romans. 
The Achaians lost several battles; and finally, the Roman Consul Mummius took 
the city of Corinth by storm and reduced it to ashes. The whole of Greece then 
became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ended 
the independent existence of the celebrated commonwealths of Ancient Greece, — 
victims to Roman ambition. 

THE THIRD PUNIC WAR (B. C. 149-146). 

Origin of the Third Punic War — Demands of the Romans. — The same 
year that Greece yielded to Roman sway (B. C. 146), Carthage was destroyed by 
the Romans. After the Second Punic War, Carthage recovered some of her former 
prosperity, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans. Carthage was disposed to 
remain at peace, but the repeated encroachments on their territory by Massinissa, 
King of Numidia, induced the Carthaginians at length to take up arms to defend 
their own possessions. The Roman Senate had long been seeking a pretext for 
war. The elder Cato had made a practice of concluding all his speeches in the 
Senate, with the sentence, " Delenda est Carthago," "Carthage must be destroyed." 
fhe Senate, pretending to regard the conduct of Carthage in defending her own ter- 
ritories against Massinissa as a breach of the peace, declared war. The Carthagi- 
nians were alarmed, arnd gave up three hundred noble Carthaginian children as 
hostages, at the demand of the Romans. The Roman army then crossed over into 
Africa. The Carthaginians were now commanded to give up all their arms and 
militarj' stores. This command, hard as it was, was promptly obeyed. The cruel 
a .n! treacherous Romans next demanded that the Carthaginians should abandon theii 
City and build anoiher city without walls or fortifications, not nearer to the sea-shore 
than ten miles, while Carthage was to be burned to the ground. The Carthaginians 
gave themselves up to grief and despair at this cruel and insolent demand; but 
resolved to perish beneath the ruins of their city rather than submit to such humili- 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



83 



^lion. Then began the Thh-d Punic War. (B. C. 149.) The Carthaginians placed 
Hasdrubal at their head and prepared in earnest to defend their city. Their tem- 
ples were turned into workshops ; and men and women were engaged day and 
night in manufacturing arms, and the women cut off their long hair to be' twister] 
Lnto bow-strings 

Capture and Destruction of Carthage. — The Romans did not expect such 
an exhibition of courage and patriotism on the part of the Carthaginians; and for 
tliree years th'e Roman army met with some signal repulses. At length, Scipio 
^milianus, the adopted son of the great Scipio Africanus, was placed in command 
of the Roman army ; and after a sanguinary struggle of six days in the streets of 
Carthage and on the tops of the houses, the city was taken. By order of Scipio, the 
conquered city was set on fire, and it continued to burn for seventeen days ; and 
50,000 of the wretched inhabitants of the city were reduced to slavery, while the 
remaining 5>ooo threw themselves into the flames and thus perished with their city. 
The wife of Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian leader, reproached her husband as a coward 
and a traitor, and then threw herself and her children into the flames of the burning 
city. The city walls were then razed to the ground ; and the territory of Carthage, 
under the name of Africa, became a Roman province. (B.C. 146.) Thus perished, 
after an existence of eight centuries, the once-mighty Republic of Carthage, which 
had been mistress of the Mediterranean, and whose power had once made Rome 
tremble for her own existence. 

ROMAN CONQUEST OF SPAIN. 

Viriathus, the Lusitanian Chief. — After the Third Punic War, the Romans 
had to sustain a hard conflict in Spain with the Lusitanians, a heroic and powerful 
people, who, under their brave chief, Viriathus, had defeated the Roman armies 
and frustrated all attempts to reduce them under the Roman yoke. The struggle 
lasted eight years, and it was only after Caepio, the Roman governor of Spain, had 
treacherously procured the assassination of Viriathus, that the heroic Lusitanians 
were subdued. 

Siege and Fall of Numantia. — Although the Lusitanians submitted to Roman 
sway after the death of their valiant chief, the Romans were not yet in undisputed 
and quiet possession of Spain ; as the brave people of Numantia still maintained 
their independence. After two large Roman annies had been annihilated, Scipio 
^milianus, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent with 60,000 men'against the free- 
dom-loving Numantians. Scipio laid siege to the city of Numantia; and after the 
Numantians had suff"ered greatly from famine, they destroyed all their women and 
children, and then setting fire to their city, threw themselves into the flames and 
perished to a man. (B C. 133.) After the destruction of Numantia, Spain became 
a Roman province. 

Rebellion of the Slaves in Sicily. — Two years before the fall of Numantia 
(B. C. 131), the slaves in Sicily, who had been treated by their masters with the 
most unmitigated cruelty, rose in rebellion for the purpose of recovering their free- 
dom. During this rebellion the most frightful cruelties were committed by both 
parties. After four large Roman armies had been defeated by the rebellious slaves, 
Eunus, the able leader of the insurrection, was betrayed into the hands of the R> 



84 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 

mans, after M'hich most of the insurgent slaves were put to death, and peace was 
secured. (B. C. 133.) 

SEDITION OF THE GRACCHI. 

Political and Social Condition of the Roman People. — The political and 
social condition of Rome at this period was such as to endanger the liberties of 
Roman citizens. The great mass of the Roman population were extremely poor, 
while the majority of the nobility were immensely rich. All the lands, as well as 
the lucrative offices, came into the possession of the nobles; and thus the greatest 
inequality in the distribution of property existed among the Roman people. The 
large plantations were cultivated by slaves, and thus the peasants, driven from their 
lands by unscrupulous and rapacious land-owners, were reduced to the incis* extreme 
state of poverty and social distress. 

Tiberius Gracchus. — In this wretched state of affairs at Rome, Tiberius Grac- 
chus, a Tribune of the People, and son of Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio 
Africanus, proposed the enforcement of the long-neglected agrarian law of Licinius 
Stolo, which prohibited any Roman from holding more than 5CX) acres of the public 
land. This proposal of Tiberius Gracchus was violently opposed by the Roman 
aristocracy, who vainly endeavored to persuade the people that Tiberius was 
attempting to overthrow the government and disturb the public peace. When the 
assemblies of the people were about to vote on the Licinian law, the nobles bribed 
Octavius, another Tribune, to forbid the proceedings; but the people removed him 
from the tribuneship, and thus secured the passage of the agrarian law. Tiberius 
liext proposed that the treasures which Attains, King of Pergamus, at his death, by 
his last will, had left to the Roman people, should be divided equally among the 
poor. This proposal met with the most vehement resistance from the Roman nobles ; 
and while a new election for Tribunes was going on, Tiberius was addressing the 
people at the Capitol, when a false report was carried to the Senate, stating that 
Tiberius had demanded a crown ; whereupon the Senators, headed . by Scipio 
Nasica, and accompanied by their retinue, proceeded to the Capitol, where in a 
bloody conflict they killed Tiberius Gracchus and three hundred of his adherents. 
(B C. 132.) 

Caius Gracchus. — Ten years after the death of Tiberius Gracchus, his young 
and talented brother, Caius Gracchus, advocated the cause of the people; and, 
being elected a Tribune, took measures for enforcing the agrarian law, and com- 
menced many reforms in the administration of public affairs; but when a new elec- 
tion for Tribunes took place, Caius was deprived of the office by false returns and 
bribery. Caius Gracchus and his adherents were soon aftenvard attack^ on the 
Aventine Hill by the forces of the Senate, with the Consul Opimius at their head. 
The party of Caius was defeated with the loss of 3,000 men. Caius Gracchus, being 
surroimded by his enemies, caused. one of his own companions tc kill him with hi.s 
sword. (B. C. 122.) His head was taken to Opimius, who had offered f 'r it a 
reward of its weight in gold. 

End of Roman Freedom— Triumph of the Aristocracy. — With the fall of 
the Gracchi ended the freedom of the Roman people. Thereafter an insolent and 
co/rupt aristocracy ruled the Roman Republic. Rome's most glorious period had 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



85 



now passed away; and the Republic had degenerated into a miserable oligarchy. 
The Tribunes, who had before been the protectors and guardians of popular rights, 
bect-jning rich themselves, concurred with the nobles in oppressing the people. 

AGE OF CAIUS MARIUS AND CORNELIUS SYLLA. 

The Jugurthine War. — The venality and corruption of the Roman Senate was 
clearly made manifest by their conduct in connection with the events which led to 
;he Jugurthine War. Micipsa, King of Numidia, son of Massinissa, divided his 
kmgdom, at his death, among his two sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, and his 
nephew Jugurtha. But Jugurtha, for the purpose of seizing upon the whole king- 
dom for himself, caused Hiempsal to be murdered, and compelled Adherbal to seek 
refuge in Rome. The Roman Senate was at first inclined to punish the usurper; 
but, being corrupted with his gold, at length decreed that the Numidian kingdom 
should be divided between Jugurtha and Adherbal. Jugurtha then made war upon 
his cousin Adherbal, and, after obtaining possession of his person, put him to death. 
The Roman Senate was still disposed to let Jugurtha go unpunished, but the indig- 
nation of the Roman people caused the usurper to be brought to Rome in order to 
convict those Senators who had taken bribes from him. While in Rome, Jugurtha 
caused his cousin Massiva, who aspired to the throne of Numidia, to be murdered 
in the street. For this crime, Jugurtha was compelled to leave Rome. As he went 
out of the city, he exclaimed, " Venal city, and soon to perish if a purchaser can be 
found!" A Roman army which had followed Jugurtha into Africa was defeated, 
and compelled to pass under the yoke and to evacuate Numidia within ten days. 
The Roman general Metellus, who had been sent with an army into Africa, drove 
Jugurtha from his kingdom, whereupon the usurper formed an alliance with his 
father-in-law, Bocchus, King of Mauritania (now Morocco); but the Roman Consul 
Caius Marius, a man of rude manners, defeated the united forces of the two kings, 
Bocchus, in order to obtain peace for himself, betrayed Jugurtha into the hands of 
the Romans. Jugurtha was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of Marius, after 
which he was starved to death in prison. 

Invasion of the Cimbrians and the Teutones. — The Jugurthine War had 
not ,yet ended when the Cimbrians and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes of bar- 
barians, menaced Italy with invasion. These people left their homes in Northern 
Europe with their women and children for the purpose of seeking a habitation in a 
more hospitable region. In the year 113 B. C, they defeated the Roman army 
commanded by the Consul Papirius Carbo in a sanguinary battle in Norioum. 
They then passed through Rhtetia into Southern Gaul, and in the course of foil 
years they completely destroyed four large Roman armies. At length, Marius^ 
whom the Roman people, contrary to law, had elected Consul five times in succes- 
sion, was invested with the chief command of the Roman army in Gau). Th« 
Cimbrians then marched into Italy, leaving the Teutones in Gaul to oppose Marius. 
After tr>'ing in vain to provoke Marius to battle, th"e Teutones marched past his 
camp and ieeringly asked the Romans if they had any messages to send to their 
wives. . Marius followed the Teutones, and in a bloody battle of two days at Aquas 
Sextis: the Teutones were hopelessly overthrown, with the loss of 200,oco men 
killed and taken prisoners. (B. C. 102.) After crossing the Alps and driving the 
Roman army under the Consul Catulus across the Padus (now Po), the Cimbrians 



86 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

were annihilated by Marius and Catulus with united forces in a great battle near 
VercellK. (B. C. loi.) To avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, the Cim- 
brians killed themselves. They lost 200,000 slain and taken prisoners. 

The Social War. — Soon after the overthrow of the Cinibrians and the Teuton es, 
the very existence of Rome was endangered by a frightful war, called the " Social 
•War," between the Romans and their Italian allies. The allies, headed by the 
Sanmites and the Marsians, having long been deprived of the rights of Roman citi- 
ipnship, now took up arms to compel Rome to grant the long-withheld privileges^ 
or to free themselves from Roman supremacy. They formed a confederation, and 
made the town of Italica their capital. The Romans were obliged to grant the 
rights of citizenship to the Latins, the Umbrians, and the Etruscans, to prevent them 
from joining the revolted allies. In order to escape total ruin, Rome was at last 
obliged to confer the rights of citizenship on all who would submit. Thus ended, 
after a continuance of two years, the famous Social War, in which 300,000 of the 
population of Italy had perished. (B. C. 88.) 

First Mithridatic War, — Before the close of the Social War, a war broke out 
in Asia between the Romans and Mithridates, King of Pontus. This powerful 
monarch, who was also a good linguist, had added several Asiatic states to his 
dominions, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans, who were now aiming at 
supreme sovereignty in Asia. Mitliridates caused 80,000 Roman subjects to be put 
to death in one day, defeated two powerful Roman armies which had been sent 
against him, and obtained possession of all Asia Minor. The Grecian states, with 
Athens at their head, had placed themselves under the authority of the King of 
Pontus. 

CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. 

Rivalry of Marius and Sylla — Flight and Exile of Marius. — The Roman 
Senate gave the command of the army sent against Mithridates tq Cornelius Sylla, 
a man of talent and polished manners, but of immoral and dissipated charactei, who 
had served under Caius Marius in the Jugurthine War, in the war against the Cim- 
brians and the Teutones, and in the Social War. But Marius, who was jealous of 
Sylla's military fame, procured a decree from the Roman people by which the son- 
duct of the war against Mithridates was transferred from Sylla to himself. Sylla 
led his army from Southern Italy against Rome, entered the city, and outlawed 
Marius and eleven of his principal adherents. After a series of dr.ngers and roman- 
tic adventures, Marius escaped to Africa. (B. C. 88.) 

Civil War of Marius and Sylla — Capture of Rome by Marius. — As soon 
as Sylla had passed into Greece to conduct the war against Mithridates, iSIarius was 
recalled from Africa by his partisans; and a furious civil war ensued, which ravaged 
Italy with all its horrors. The Senate and the nobility sided with the party ot Sylla, 
but Rome was besieged by Marius, who at length compelled the city to surrender. 
A general massacre of all the partisans of Sylla then commenced, and continued for 
five days and nights. The heads of the murdered Senators and nobles were given 
to the dogs and to the birds of the air. 

Death of Marius — Sylla's Victories over Mithridates. — Plaving gratified 
his thirst for vengeance, Marius was chosen Consul for the seventh time, but he 
died in sixteen days from tlie effects of intemperance. (B. C. 86.) ^^^^ile Italy 



HISTORY OF ROME. 8? 

was a prey to the horrors of civil war, Sylla took Athens by storm, defeated two 
large armies of Mithridates, and compelled that king to agree to a peace by w hicli 
the Romans not only recovered all their provinces in Asia Minor, but weic also 
indemnified for their expenses in the war. (B. C. 84.) 

Capture of Rome by Sylla — His Dictatorship, Resignation and Death, 
- -After the conclusion of the First Mithridatic War, Sylla returned to Italy to tali'? 
/engeance on his enemies. After defeating the partisans of Marius in many battles, 
Sylla obtained possession of Rome. Like Marius, Sylla detennined to massacre 
all his enemies. All Italy was filled with massacre and blood. In Rome ihe 
streets were heaped up with the dead bodies of the massacred partisans of Mai ius. 
Having thus glutted his desire for revenge, Sylla caused himself to be appointed 
Perpetual Dictator, and proclaimed the Cornelian Law, which gave the government 
into the hands of the aristocracy at Rome. After exercising the supreme authority 
for more than two years, Sylla, to the surprise of everybody, resigned his power, and 
retired to his estate, where he soon afterward died of a loathsome disease. (B. 
C. 78.) 

AGE OF CN^US J'OMPEY AND JULIUS C^SAR. 

Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain. — Sylla's resignation and death did not put 
an end to the civil war by whicii the Roman Republic was distracted. In Spain 
the partisans of Marius, headed by Sertorius, were still under arms. After ^rtorius 
had gained several victories over the Roman armies which had been sent against 
them, the youthful Cnceus Pompey was sent into Spain to quell the rebellion, but he 
too was defeated ; and it was only after Sertorius had been assassinated by his own 
officers that the rebels were subdued and that peace was restored to Spain. (B. 
C. 70.) 

Rebellion of the Slaves under Spartacus. — While the events just related 
were occurring in Spain, a dangerous rebellion of the slaves, headed by the gladia- 
tor Spartacus, broke out in Italy. Spartacus, with other gladiators, escaped from 
his place of confinement at Capua, and induced many slaves to join his standard 
and fight for their own freedom. Having been joined by fugitives and desperadoes 
of every sort, Spartacus soon had 120,000 men under his command. Spartacus 
overthrew two large Roman armies commanded by the Consuls, that were sent 
^against him, but at last he was defeated by the Prjetor, M. Crassus. Spartacus 
fought at the head of his followers until he fell covered with wounds and expired 
upon a heap of Romans who had fallen beneath his sword. Twelve thousand of 
his followers were put to the sword, and the remainder were finally subdued by 
, Fompey, the growing rival of the wealthy Crassus. (B. C. 70.) 

War Against the Cilician Pirates. — At this time the Mediterranean sea 
swarmed with pirates from the mountainous country of Cilicia, in Asia Minor. 
Thoje pirates would capture towns and villages, and carry off the inhabitants and 
sell them into slavery. Many Roman nobles and Senators were taken by them, 
and only obtained their freedom by paying a heavy ransom. Commerce was 
interrupted by these piracies of the Cilicians, and Rome was threatened with famine. 
In this dangerous state of affairs, Pompey was invested with the supreme command 
over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean sea. Powerful Roman fleets 



SS ANCIENT HISTORY. 

were seat against the pirates, who were soon driven from the seas and forced to take 
refuge in their fortresses in Cihcia, where they were subdued by Pomjiey, who distri- 
buted them as colonists in the various cities and towns of Asia Minor. (B. C. 67.) 

Overthrow of Mithridates and the Seleucidse. — In the year 74 B. C. the 
Roman Republic became involved in another war with Mithridates, the powerful 
King of Pontus. After the Roman general Lucullus had driven the Pontic king 
into Armenia, Pompey was sent to take the chief command of the Roman armies 
in Asia. In the year 66 B. C, Pompey inflicted a crushing defeat upon Mithri- 
dates on the banks of the Euphrates. Three years afterwards, Mithridates, aban 
doned by his followers and having lost all his dominions, poisoned himself. The 
year alter his victory over Mithridates (B. C. 65), Pompey subverted the Syrian 
Empire of the Seleucidce, and Syria became a Roman province. 

Reduction of Judea. — About this time the throne of Judea was claimed by 
two brothers, John Hyrcanus and Aristobulus II. Each applied for aid to Pompey, 
who decided in favor of Hyrcanus. Aristobulus prepared to resist the Romans, 
and shut himself up in Jerusalem, which was taken by Pompey after a three 
months' siege. Hyrcanus was seated on the Jewish throne, but was required to 
pay tribute to Rome. Aristobulus was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of 
Pompey. 

Conspiracy of Catiline. — WTiile Pompey was conquering in Asia, the Roman 
Republic was brought to the veiy verge of ruin by a conspiracy headed by Sergius 
Catiline, a man of noble birth, but of ruined fortunes and infamous character. 
Catiline's chief confederates in the plot were mostly young nobles of desper- 
ate fortunes, who hoped by overthrowing the government and elevating Catiline 
to the consulship to obtain possession of the public treasures and the property 
of the citizens. As the great obstacle to the success of the plans of the conspira- 
tors was the vigilance of the great orator, M. Tullius Cicero, who was at that time 
one of the Roman Consuls, it was resolved to murder him. But Cicero obtained a 
Knowledge of the plans of the conspirators from one of their own number whom 
he had bribed ; and the attempt to assassinate the Consul was frustrated. Catiline 
had the audacity to make his appearance in the Senate House, where Cicerc 
unmasked the designs of the conspirators; and Catiline, overwhelmed with terror 
and confusion, fled into Etruria, where his confederates had collected a large army. 
The Consul Antonius was sent with an army against the conspirators, who, with 
Catiline at their head, fought with the most desperate courage until every one of 
their number was slain. (B. C. 63.) Cicero, whose vigilance and patriotism had 
saved Rome by defeating this infamous conspiracy, received the glorious title of 
" Father of his Countiy." 

The First Triumvirate. — After the conclusion of his wars in Asia, Pompey 
returned to Rome and united with Crassus and the youthful Caius Julius Csesar in 
a po itical partnership, called the "First Triumvirate," by which these three men 
took upon themselves the government of the Roman Republic, and practically 
ur>urped the authority of the Senate. (B. C. 60.) The Triumvirs divided the 
Republic among themselves: Pompey received Spain, Africa, and Italy; Ca;sar 
obtained Gaul, the complete conquest of which was entrusted to him; and Crassus, 
the richest man in Rome, whose avarice was unbounded, chose Syria, which was 
famed for its wealth. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



89 



Disasters and Death of Crassus in Parthia. — To gratify his avarice, the 
wealthy Crassus, on taking possession of Syria, led an expedition into Parthia, for 
the purpose of further enriching himself by plundering that country. When the 
Parthians sent an embassy to Crassus to complain of his aggressive conduct, he 
boasted that he would give his answer in Seleucia, a suburb of Ctesiphon, the cap- 
ital of the Parthian Empire. One of the Parthian ambassadors, showing the palm 
of his hand, replied, " Crassus, hairs will grow there before you see Seleucia." 
Crassus then advanced far into the Parthian territories, but he was finally defeated^ 
made prisoner, and put to death by the Parthians. -The gi-eater part of his army 
perished, and the Roman ensigns fell into the hands of the victorious enemy It 
is said that the triumphant Parthians, in reproach of the insatiate avarice of Crassus, 
poured melted lead down his throat after his head had been cut off. 

Julius Caesar's Wars' in Gaul; Germany, and Britain. — Ip the course of 
eight years, Julius Ceesar subdued Gaul. During this period he twice crossed the 
Rhine into Germany, and twice passed over into Britain. He first invaded* Britain 
in the year 55 B. C, and after subjecting the Britons to tribute, he returned to 
Gaul; but in the year 54 B. C. occurred his second invasion of Britain, which 
resulted in the second defeat and subjection of the natives, and Cssar returned to 
Gaul to complete the subjugation of the wild tribes of that countiy. While in 
Gaul, Caesar conquered three hundred nations, took eight hundred cities and towns, 
subdued three millions of people, killed one million, and reduced another million 
to slavery. All this woe was inflicted to gratify the ambition of one man. 

CIVIL WAR OF POMPEY AND C^SAR. 

Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar. — The death of Crassus left Pompey and 
Caesar as the only masters of the Roman world. But these two great generals, 
being jealous of each other's fame, soon became rivals and enemies. Wlien Cassar 
was refused permission to stand as a candidate for the consulship while absent from 
Rome, after the termination of his wars in Gaul, and was ordered by the Senate to 
disband his legions and to lay down his office, Caesar's partisans demanded that 
Pompey should do the same. But the Senate threatened to declare Caesar a public 
enemy unless he unconditionally disbanded his army and resigned his provinces 
within a specified time. By large bribes, Caesar had obtained many and powerful 
friends in Rome, among whom were Mark Antony and Quintus Cassiu<;, Tribunes 
of the People. 

Civil War — Caesar's March to Rome, and Pompey's Flight to Greece, 

—It was now evident that the rivalry of Pompey and Caesar could only be terniin- 
uted on the field of battle. Both parties therefore flew to arms, and the Roman 
Republic was again involved in all the horrors of civil war. The Tribunes Antony 
and Cassius fled to Caesar's camp at Ravenna, in Northern Italy, and inflamed the 
.-age of his army against Pompey and the Senate. Caesar's soldiers declared their 
(letennination to stand by their general to the last. After some hesitation, Caesai 
[lassed the Rubicon, or boundary stream between Umbria and Cisalpine Gaul, and 
marched hastily toward Rome. The Senate and Pompey, greatly alarmed at Caesar's 
rapid advance, fled across the Adriatic sea into Greece ; and Caesar entered RomCj 
ajid was in possession of all Italy within sixty days. 



po ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Pompey and Caesar in Greece — Battle of Pharsalia — Assassination of 
Pompey. — After going over into Spain and overthrowing Pompey's adherents in 
that Roman province, and talving by siege the town of Marseilles, in Gaul, Ccesai 
returned to Rome ; and then passed over into Greece to make head against Pom- 
pey, who had in the meantime collected a large army. The armies of the two rivals 
met at Pharsalia, in Thessaly, where occurred the battle which decided the fate 
of the Roman world. Caesar gained the victoiy, and Pompey fled to Egypt to claiui 
Lhe protection of Ptolemy, the youthful king of that countiy. (B. C 48, ) Ptolerny, 
who was then at war with his sister, Cleopatra, had in his army a young Roiaan 
named Septimius, who persuaded the young king to put Pompey to death in order 
to gain the favor of the victorious Caesar. As soon as the fallen Pompey, upon 
arriving at the shores of Egypt, prepared to land, he was assassinated by order of 
Ptolemy. 

Caesar in Egypt — Overthrow and Death of Ptolemy. — When Caesar arrived 
at Alexandria, in Egypt, in pursuit of Pompey and his followers, the bloody head 
and signet ring of Pompey were brought to him. Ctesar wept bitterly, and turned 
away in disgust at the sight of these relics. He ordered the head of his unfortunate 
rival to be interred with due honors, and bestowed honors and favors on Pompey's 
most faithful adherents. Ptolemy was greatly disappointed when Csesar, captivated 
by the charms of Cleopatra, decided in favor of her claims to the throne of Egypt. 
Ptolemy's adherents then arose against Caesar, who, having taken only a few troops 
with him to Alexandria, was soon involved in the greatest dangers. The palace in 
which Caesar had taken refuge was set on fire by Ptolemy's partisans, and the great 
library which had been established by King Ptolemy Philadelphus fell a prey to 
the flames. Cffisar succeeded in making his escape from the city, and afterwards 
overthrew the anny of Ptolemy, who, after the battle, was drowned in the Nile. 
(B. C. 48.) 

Caesar's Victories in Asia, Africa, and Spain. — Caesar next advanced into 
Asia against Phamaces, King of Pontus, son of Mithridates, whom he subdued so 
easily that he announced his victory to the Roman Senate in three words, " Veni, 
vidi, vici," " I came, I saw, I conquered." After returning to Rome, Caesar passed 
over into Africa, where his enemies, the younger Cato and the sons of Pompey, still 
had a large army. Caesar gained a victoiy in the battle of Thapsus; after which 
Cato, who had shut himself up in Utiqa, not wishing to survive the Roman Repub- 
lic, which he saw had virtually approached its end, committed suicide. (B. C. 46.) 
After his victory in Africa, Csesar returned to Rome; but the civil war was not fully 
closed until the following year (B. C. 45), for Cneius and Sextus, the sons of Pom- 
pey, had raised a large army in Spain. Csesar marched against them and gave them 
a complete overthrow in the battle of Munda. Cneius was slain while fleeing from 
the field, but Sextus succeeded in making his escape. 

CESAR'S DICTATORSHIP. 

Dictatorship of Caesar. — Julius Ccesar was now made Dictator of the Roman 
world for life, with the title of Imperator, and was' invested with all the powers of 
a monarch, although the name and outward form of the Republic were permitted to 
remain. Caesar's statue had been placed beside that of Jupiter in the Capitol, and 



HISTORY OF ROME. qi 

oa it was marked the inscription, " To Caesar the Demi-god." He altered the laws, 
corrected many abuses, granted the privileges of Roman citizens to whole Roman 
provinces, sent many citizens into the provinces as colonists, caused the Roman laws 
to be digested into a code, and planned many improvements, such as the digging of 
canals, the opening of harbors, the construction of roads, the collection of public 
libraries, the erection of a new theatre, and the building of a magnificent temple to 
Mars, the god of war. The Dictator entertained the Roman people with magnifi- 
cent shows, games, and banquets. Twenty thousand tables were placed in the streets 
;if Rome to feast the people, who had now lost all the republican virtue of thei: 
ancestors. 

Conspiracy against Caesar. — Ctesar was soon suspected of a design to assume 
the title of King. At the feast of the Lupercalia, Mark Antony offered him a crown. 
It was believed that this was done at the secret instigation of the Dictator, but the 
popular disapprobation of the act obliged Caesar to refuse the title and emblem of 
royalty. Still it was thought that the Dictator was aspiring to a kingly dignity, and 
a conspiracy was formed by about sixty Senators for the assassination of Csesar. At 
the head of the conspirators were the Praetor, M. Cassius, who hated Caesar, and 
Marcus Junius Brutus, a sincere friend of liberty and a republican of the old stamp, 
but also a firm friend of Cresar. 

Assassination of Caesar. — The Ides (15th) of March was the day fixed upon 
for the assassination to take place. When Csesar had taken his seat in the Senate 
House, the conspirators approached him under the pretense of saluting him; and 
one of them, pretending to make some request, took hold of Caesar's robe as a signal, 
whereupon the others rushed upon him with their daggers. The Dictator defended 
himself vigorously, throwing down such as opposed him, until he saw his dear 
friend Brutus among the conspirators, and, exclaiming "Et tu Brute!" "Thou too 
Brutus!" he fell down at the base of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three 
wounds, and expired. (B. C. 44.) As soon as the bloody work of the conspira- 
tors was accomplished, Brutus, brandishing his dagger, congratulated the Senate, 
and Cicero in particular, on the restoration of Roman liberty. The majority of the 
Senators, seized with fear and astonishment, fled from Rome and hid themselves in 
their houses. 

Funeral of Caesar — Mark Antony — Flight of Brutus and Cassius. — On 
the day of Caesar's funeral, Mark Antony appeared before the people in the Forum 
of Rome to deliver the funeral oration. He began artfully to work up the passions 
of the multitude by enumerating the brilliant exploits and the noble acts of the mur- 
dered Caesar, and then lifted up his bloody robe and showed them the number of 
stabs in it. Antony also showed the people an image of wax, representing Caesar's 
body all covered with wounds. The people, becoming so excited that they could 
no longer restrain their indignation against the assassins, stonned the Senate House, 
tore up the benches to make a funeral pile, and ran through the streets with lighted 
brands to set fire to the houses of Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators. Bru 
tus and Cassius fled from Rome to the Eastern Roman provinces, where they deter 
mined to defend themselves and to an-est the rapid decline of the Roman Republic 



92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

MARK ANTONY AND OCTAVIUS C^SAR. 

The Second Triumvirate. — Mark Antony, with the aid of Lepidus, one of his 
adherents, aimed at the supreme power in tlie Roman world, but he found a power- 
ful rival in the youthful Octavius Csesar, the grandson of the murdered Dictator's 
sister Julia, and his adopted son and principal heir to the vast Roman territories. 
The Roman world was threatened with another furious civil war, when the rivals, 
\ntony, Lepidus, and Octavius, united in a league called the " Second Triumvi- 
rate," and agreed to take upon themselves the government of the Roman Repub- 
lic for five years. (B. C. 43.) The Triumvirs made a cruel and tyrannical use of 
their power by causing all their most powerful opponents to be put to death. 
Antony sacrificed his uncle, Lepidus yielded his brother, and Octavius, to his eter- 
nal shame, allowed Cicero to be abandoned to the vengeance of his colleagues. 
Cicero was murdered by a band of assassins who had been sent after him for that 
purpose. 

Brutus and Cassius in Greece — Battle of Philippi — Suicide of Brutus 
and Cassius. — As soon as Octavius and Antony had finished their bloody work in 
Rome they marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had raised an amiy of more 
than 100,000 in the Eastern Roman provinces. At Philippi, in Macedonia, two 
battles were fought, in both of which Octavius and Antony were victorious. (B. C. 
4.1.) Both Brutus and Cassius, in despair at their defeat, committed suicide ; and 
with their death ended the hopes of the Roman Republic forever. After the battle 
of Philippi, Octavius immediately returned to Rome, while Antony remained in the 
East. 

Antony and Cleopatra. — Antony passed over into Asia Minor. WHiile at Tar- 

■.us, a city of Cilicia, the beautiful but wicked Cleopatra, Queen of Eg)'pt, came to 

visit him. Antony was so captivated with the beauty of the Egyptian queen that 

. he went with her to Alexandria, where he abandoned himself to indolence, luxury, 

and vice, equally regardless of the calls of honor, interest, or ambition. 

Rebellion in Italy and new Division of the Roman World. — While An- 
tony was thus wasting his time in Egypt, a formidable rebellion, headed by Lucius, 
the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of Antony, broke out in Italy against Octavius. 
But it was not until the rebellion had been suppressed and quiet restored that An- 
tony resolved to return to Italy. On his way, at Athens, he met his wife Fulvia, 
whom he blamed for having caused the recent disturbances in Italy, and treated her 
with great contempt. Leaving her on her death-bed, Antony hastened to Italy, and 
met the army of Octavius at Brundusium. It was expected that there would be a 
bloody struggle; but a friendly treaty was effected, and, to cement the union, Antony 
married Octavia, the sister of Octavius. A new division of the Roman world fol- 
lowed; to Octavius was assigned the West; to Antony, the East; to Lepidus, 
Africa ; and Sextus Pompey, who was also admitted into the partnership, was allowed 
to hold the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, together with the Peloponnesus. 

CIVIL WAR OF OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY. 

Octavius and Antony. — The peace of the Roman world was soon again broken. 
Octavius quarreled with Sextus Pompey and also with Lepidus, and deprived both 
of them of their provinces. Pompey fled to the East, where he was slain by one 




JULIUS C/ESAR. 




C/ESAR AUGUSTUS. 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



"^Z 



of Antony's lieutenants. Antony was now the only obstacle in the way of the 
ambition of Octavius, who was anxious to make himself sole master of the Roman 
world. Antony had in the meantime led an unsuccessful expedition against the 
Parthians; after which he returned to Egypt, where he again plunged mto luxury 
and dissipation, and allowed himself to be enslaved by the charms of Cleopatra, on 
whom he bestowed several Roman provinces in Asia. WTien Antony's wife, Octa- 
via, went to meet her husband, he ordered her to return to Rome, and shortly after- 
1^ ards he resolved to mari-y Cleopatra. 

Quarrel of Octavius and Antony — Battle of Actium — Flight of Antony. 
— Antony's foolish and disgraceful conduct i-endered a quarrel between him and 
Octavius unavoidable. Civil war ensued. The fleets and armies of the two rivals 
met on opposite shores of the Gulf of Ambracia, near the city of Actium, in Epirus. 
A battle ensued between the two fleets. The two annies, which were ranged on 
opposite sides of the gulf, were spectators of the conflict, and encouraged the fleets, 
by their shouts, to engage. Before the victory was decided, Cleopatra, with her 
Egyptian squadron, fled from the engagement. Antony, leaving his fleet and army 
to take care of themselves, immediately followed after the Eg}'ptian queen. The 
fleet of Octavius obtained the victory, and the land-forces of Antony soon afterward 
united themselves with the army of Octavius. 

Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra — Egypt a Roman Province. — After first 
going to Italy and restoring quiet there, the triumphant Octavius pursued Antony 
and Cleopatra to Egypt. Antony, finding all his attempts to check the progress of 
the conqueror useless, and being overcome with ungovernable rage and fuiy, blamed 
Cleopatra as the cause of his misfortunes; and being determined never to become 
a prisoner to his victorious rival, killed himself with his own sword. Cleopatra, 
who had shut herself up in her palace, finding that Octavius intended to take her 
to Rome to grace his triumph, put an end to her own life by applying a poisonous 
reptile to her arm. Egj'pt immediately submitted to Octavius, and became a Roman 
province. (B. C. 30.) 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. (B. C. 30-A. D. 476.) 

THE REIGNS OF THE C^SARS. 

THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS (B. C. SO— A. D. 14). 

Octavius Sole Master, with the Title of Augustus. — The battle of 
Actium made Octavius sole master of the Roman world. (B. C. 30. ) Roman 
liberty was now gone forever; and the Roman people, who had lost all the virtues 
and republican spirit of their ancestors, made no attempt to restore the republican' 
constitution. The most illustrious citizens besought Octavius to take the govern- 
ment into his own hands ; and the people, tired of the oppression of the aristocracy, 
gladly placed themselves under the sway of a single master. The Senate con 
ferred upon Octavius all the powers of sovereignty, with the title of Augustus, oi 
'* The Divine," and of Imperator, or chief governor, for ten years ; and gave his 
name to the sixth (now eighth) month, as the name of Julius Csesar had been given 
to the fifth (now seventh) month. He was afterwards made Perpetual Tribune 
of the People, which rendered his person sacred. A force of 9,000 men 



94 



ANCIENT ins TOR Y. 



calle4 the Praetorian Guards, was stationed in Rome for the protection of the 
Emperor's person. Augustus, however, used his power moderately, and ruled with 
mildness and clemency. He restored the authority of the Senate. The cruel and 
tyrannical Octavius became the mild and merciful Augustus. 

General Peace — Great Extent of the Roman Em'^ire — Birth of the 
Saviour. — After additional conquests by the Romans, and the annexation of 
x^quitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and lUyria to the Roman dominions, a general 
peace prevailed throughout the Roman Empire, which now extended from the 
Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine and the Danube to th 
African deserts and the falls of the Nile. It was at this time that Jesus Christ, the 
Saviour of mankind, was born in the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea. 

Rebellion of the Germans — Defeat of Varus — Death of Augustus. — A 
tew years after the birth of the Saviour, the Germans, who had been subjected to 
Roman rule, vigorously attempted to recover their independence. The Roman gen- 
eral. Varus, was enticed into the German forests, where his whole army was cut to 
pieces. (A. D. 9.) Varus, in despair at this defeat, committed suicide. The loss 
of this army was a teiTible blow to the Emperor Augustus, who, in paroxysms of 
grief, exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! restore me my legions !" The danger of an 
incursion of the barbarians into Italy was prevented by Tiberius, the son-in-law of 
the emperor, who was sent with an army to guard the passes of the Rhine. After 
a remarkably quiet and prosperous reign of forty-four years, Augustus died in the 
year 14 after Christ. 

REIGN OF TIBERIUS (A. D. 14-S7). ' 

Cruelty and Tyranny of Tiberius — Crucifixion of the Saviour. — On ths 

death of Augustus, his son-in-law Tiberius succeeded to the throne of the Roman 
Empire. Tiberius commenced his reign with an appearance of moderation and 
clemency, but he soon gave way to his cruel, jealous and despotic nature. In the 
early part of his reign, the noble and virtuous Germanicus, his nephew, gained 
brilliant victories over the Gennans; but the fame of Germanicus excited the jeal- 
ousy of the unworthy Emperor, who appointed him governor of the Eastern Roman 
provinces, and afterwards procured his death by poison. It was during the reign 
of Tibeiius that Jesus Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, was crucified on 
Mount Calvary, under the prsetorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor of Judea. 
Crimes of Tiberius and Sejanus — Assassination of Tiberius. — The 
cruelty of Tiberius increased every day. Many of the nobles died by his orders. 
His depravity and cruelty were equaled by that of his minister and favorite, Sejanus, 
who himself secretly aspired to the throne, and who artfully contrived to have the 
' Emperor removed from "Rome to the island of Capreje, near Naples, for the pur- 
pose of freeing him from the cares of government. The emperor soon abandoned 
himself to every sort of vice and debauchery, while Sejanus was ruling with the 
utmost cruelty and despo-tism in Rome, where he caused numbers to be put to 
death. At length, becoming acquainted with the ambitious designs of Sejanus, 
1 iberius had him arrested for treason, and put to death. The friends and relatives 
of Sejanus met with the same fate. At last Tiberius himself was smothered in his 
bed by one of his own officers, at the instigation of the unworthy Caligula, son of 
the worthy Germanicus. (A. D. 37.) 



HISTORY OF ROME. pe, 

REIGN OF CALIGULA (A. D. 37-41). 

Crimes and Follies of Caligula — Assassination of Caligula. — Caligula 
Ixicame the siiccessoi of Tiberius. His accession was welcomed by the Roman 
people. Caligula, like his predecessor, commenced his reign with prudence and 
mildness, but the people soon found him to be a detestable tyrant and a wicked 
monster. He ordered all the prisoners in Romq and hundreds of old and infirm 
cit'zcns to be thrown to wild beasts, for the mere pleasure of seeing them tortiucd 
and torn to pieces. He at length claimed divine honors, erected a temple to him- 
self, and instituted a college of priests to superintend the worship of his person. 
He often invited his favorite horse, Incitatus, to dine at the imperial table, fed him 
with gilded oats, built him a stable of marble, and his death only prevented him 
from raising the animal to the dignity of Consul. The foolish empfror often em- 
ployed inventions to imitate thunder for the purpose of defying Jupiter; and he 
pretended to converse in whispers with the statue of that divinity, and sometimes 
pretended to be angry with its answers, and threatened to send it back to Greece. 
When the Senate appeared reluctant in adulation, he threatened to massacre the 
whole body. On one occasion, being angry with, the citizens, Caligula wished that 
the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might cut it off at one blow. 
The emperor's prodigality and tyranny increased every day. At last a conspiracy 
was formed against the tyrant, and he was murdered by his own guards. (A. D. 41.) 

REIGN OF CLAUDIUS (A. D. 41-B4). 

Roman Successes in Britain — Assassination of Claudius. — Claudius, 
brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula, was next proclaimed Emperor by the 
Praetorian Guards, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Claudius, who 
was a perfect idiot, was a mere instrument in the hands of his wife and favorites. 
The Romans now determined to obtain full possession of Britain, and Claudius sent 
his general, Aulus Plautius, to conquer the Britons. The Emperor Claudius him- 
self afterwards undertook an expedition to Britain. The Britons were finally defeated, 
and their chief, Caractacus, was cai'ried a prisoner to Rome. As Caractacus was 
walking through the streets of Rome, loaded with chains, he exclaimed, "Alas ! is 
it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home should envy my 
humble cottage in Britain !" At length Claudius put to death his wife Messalina, 
whose crimes and cruelties had become intolerable. The emperor then married his 
niece Agrippina. After having induced Claudius to appoint her son Nero his suc- 
cessor, Agrippina caused the emperor to be poisoned. (A. D. 54.) 

REIGN OF NERO (A. D. 54-68). 

Crimes "of Nero. — Agiippina having secured the commander of the Praetorian 
Guards to her interest, Nero was proclaimed Emperor by the army, and this choice 
was confirmed by the Senate. Nero had been nurtured in the midst of crimes and 
the people justly dreaded his accession to the throne. He, however, ruled ^-ith 
mildness during the first five years of his reign, while under the influence of his in- 
structors, Seneca the philosopher, and Burrhus. At length his mother, Agrippina, 
seeing herself neglected, designed to bestow the crown on Britannicus, the son of 
Claudius. Becoming aware of this, Nero caused both Agrippina and Britannicus 
to be put to death. From this time, Nero abandoned himself to cruelty and blood- 



gS ANCIENT HISTORY. 

shed. Burrhiis, his minister, Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, and 
many of the most eminent nobles, were put to death by order of the hard-hearted 
o.mperDr. Nero's first wife, Octavia, was divorced and murdered, and his second 
wife, Popprea, was killed by a kick from her husband. The virtuous Corbulo, who 
had defeated the Parthians, was rewarded for his victories, by the cruel emperor, 
with death. During the reign of Nero, the Jews began that rebellion against the 
Roman power which finally resulted in the destruction of that people as a nation. 
The Emperor Nero often appeared on the stage as an actor, musician, and gladia 
tor. He also visited Greece, and often came forth victor in the Olympic games. 

Burning of Rome and Persecution of the Christians. — In the year 64 A. I)., 
a frightful conflagration of nine days destroyed the greater part of the city of Rome; 
and it was generally believed that the fire was kindled by the secret orders of Nero. 
It is said that the emperor stood upon a high tower while the fire was raging, enjoy- 
ing the scene, and singing to the music of his harp the Destruction of Troy. In 
order to withdraw the blame of the cause of this calamity from himself, Nero 
charged it upon the Christians of Rome, thousands of whom were consequently 
most cruelly tortured and put to death. Many were covered with the skins of wild 
beasts and devoured by dogs, some were crucified, and others were burned alive. 

Victories of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. — In Britain, the Romans under 
Suetonius Paulinus gained brilliant victories over the savage tribes of that island. 
At length the Iceni, under their heroic queen, Boadicea, rose against the Roman 
power, burned London, and put 70,000 Romans to death. But the Roman general 
avenged the death of his countrymen in a terrible battle, in which he defeated 
Boadicea, and in which 80,000 Britons were killed. In despair at this defeat, 
Boadicea committed suicide. 

Overthrow and Death of Nero. — Nero's prodigality knew no restraint. The 
Roman provinces were pillaged to support the emperor's luxurious manner of living. 
He was popular with the lower classes, to whom he made monthly distributions of 
com and frequent supplies of wine, and whom he delighted with magnificent shows. 
At length, Julius Vmdex, the Roman governor of Gaul, unfurled the standard of 
rebellion ; and soon afterward, Galba headed an insurrection in Spain. Vindex 
was killed in the contest. Galba secured Otho, the commander of the Praetorian 
Guards, and the Senate to his interest ; and Nero, abandoning all hope, caused him- 
self to be mortally wounded by one of his own freedmen. (A. D. 68.) Nero was 
the last emperor of the Julian line of the Csesars. 

REIGN OF GALBA (A. D. 68-69). 

Overthrow and Death of Galba. — Upon the death of Nero, the virtuous Galba 
obtained the imperial purple, which, however, he did not wear very long. He 
allowed himself to be ruled by unworthy favorites; and when Otho, who had been 
one of his principal adherents, found that the emperor did not name him as his suc- 
cessor, he induced the Prretorian Guards to revolt. Galba was killed in iie streets 
of Rome during a short struggle, after a reign of seven months. (A. D. 69.) 

REIGN OF OTHO (A. D. 69). 

Overthrow and Death of Otho. — The dissolute and unworthy Otho, who was 
next invested with Uie purple, was a mere instrument in the hands of the licentious 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



97 



soldiers. He was soon disturbed in the possession of the throne by a revolt of the 
Roman legions on the German frontier, which proclaimed their vicious commander, 
Vitellius, Emperor. Otho marched against Vitellius, but his troops were defeated ; 
and O'ho, in despair, committed suicide, after a reign of but little more than three 
months. (A. D. 69.) 

REIGN OF VITELLIUS (A. D. 69-70). 

Extravagance and Cruelty of Vitellius. — Upon Otho's death, Vitellius was 
declared Emperor by the Senate. When Vitellius entered Rome, he caused more 
than four hundred of the Praetorian Guards to be put^to death. Vitellius entrusted 
the management of public affairs to the most abandoned and debauched wretches. 
He won the favor of the Roman people by donations of provisions and by expensive 
entertainments. Vitellius was noted for his gluttonous and luxuri,ous habits. In 
less than four months he squandered a sum equal to seven millions sterling on the 
luxuries of the table and for expensive banquets. Not satisfied with gratifying his 
appetite, the emperor indulged in acts of the most unrelenting cruelty. Many who 
ate with him were put to death without mercy. Many of the wealthy Roman citi- 
zens were deprived of their property, and also of their lives, by this bloated and 
debauched emperor. He declared that he derived pleasui-e from tormenting his 
victims. On one occasion, when a man was condemned to death, he executed his 
two sons with their father for begging his life. 

Overthrow and Death of Vitellius. — At last the Roman legions in the East 
engaged in the siege of Jerusalem proclaimed their general, Vespasian, Emperor. 
Province after province submitted to Vespasian's troops, who marched to Italy and 
took possession of Rome. A furious and bloody struggle ensued in the city; and 
Vitellius was seized by his enemies, put to death, and his body thrown into the 
Tiber, amid the execration of the populace. (A. D. 70.) 

REIGN OF VESPASIAN (A. D. 70-79). 

Wise Reforms of Vespasian. — Upon the ignominious death of Vitellius, Ves- 
pasian was hailed as Emperor by the Roman people. This good and virtuous 
monarch did all in his power for the welfare of his subjects, by whom he was 
greatly beloved. He instituted many wise reforms, improved the administration of 
justice, and restored the discipline of the army and the authority of the Senate. Fie 
encouraged the arts and sciences, and beautified Rome with many splendid edifices, 
of which the Coliseum was the most remarkable. The Emperor Vespasian was 
very generous, as is fully shown by his i-efusal to punish certain conspirators who 
had plotted against him. 

Jewish Rebellion — Destruction of Jerusalem and of the Jewish Nation 
— The Jews, who had risen in rebellion against the Roman power during the reign 
of Neio, were subdued during the reign of Vespasian, when they were destroyed 
as a nation. The rebellion of the Jews was caused by the tyranny of Florus, the 
Roman governor of Judea. The deluded Jews believed themselves to be able to 
resist the gigantic power of the whole Roman world. Vespasian had been for three 
years conducting the war against the Jews when he was called to Rome to receive 
the imperial purple. When Vespasian left Judea, he assigned the command of his 
legions to his son Titus, who laid siege to Jernsalem during the Feast of the Pass- 
7 



98 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



over, when people from all parts of Judea were gathered in the Holy City. The 
Jews defended their city with an army of 600,000 men; but while the Roman 
armies were battering down the walls of the city, the infatuated Jews were divided 
into two hostile factions, which waged a fierce civil war against each other in the 
streets of Jerusalem. Both factions defended the city •jyith the most detennined 
bravery, until they were so exhausted by famine and by internal wars that they were 
compelled to surrender the city to the besieging Romans. But for three months 
longer the Temple held out against the besiegers. WTien it was finally taken, 
Titus, who was anxious to spare this noble edifice, was unable to restrain the savage 
fury of his enraged soldiers ;, and the Holy City and the Temple were reduced to a 
heap of ruins. (A. D. 70.) Many of the vanquished Jews fell by the swords of 
their conquerors or died by their own hands, while thousands were sold into slavery. 
Ever since the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews, scattered over various parts of the 
earth, have been outcasts and wanderers. 

Final Conquest of Britain by Julius Agricola. — The reign of Vespasian is 
also noted for the final conquest of Britain by the Romans. This was effected by 
Julius Agricola, two years after the fall of Jerusalem. (A. D. 72.) Agricola car- 
ried the renown of the Roman arms to the borders of Caledonia (now Scotland) ; 
but he was unable to subdue the wild Picts and Scots, who inhabited that rugged 
countiy. Agricola also taught the Britons the arts of peace, and introduced among 
them the Roman customs and manners, thus laying the foundations for the civiliza- 
tion of the conquered Britons. The Emperor Vespasian died after a reign of nine 
years. (A. D. 79.) 

REIGN OF TITUS (A. D. 79-81). 

Good Character of Titus — Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.— 

The noble Vespasian was succeeded as Emperor by his son Titus, the conqueror of 
[erusalem. Titus had been very dissipated and vicious in his habits ; but when he 
assumed the imperial purple, he reformed, and became, like his father, a virtuous, 
wise, and just sovereign, having the welfare of his subjects at heart. On this 
account he was called "The Delight of Mankind." During the first year of the 
reign of Titus (A. D. 79), the most terrible eruption of the volcano of Vesuvius 
ever known occurred, completely destroying the two great cities, Herculaneum 
and Pompeii. The Emperor Titus died after a reign of two years. (A. D. 81.) 

REIGN OF DOMITIAN (A. D. 81-96). 

Tyranny and Follies of Domitian. — The good Titus was succeeded as 
Emperor by his brother Domitian, who at first appeared to be a just and merciful 
sovereign; but Domitian's character soon changed, and he became a hard-hearted 
tyrant. His favorite amusement was archery, and his chief ambition was to enter- 
tain the Roman people with expensive sports and games. He spent his hours of 
seclusion in killing flies. This emperor had also a great passion for militaiy glory. 
He undertook an expedition to Gaul, but as he did not meet with an enemy, he 
dressed slaves like Gennans, took them to Rome, and pretended that they were 
prisoners whom he had taken in battle. 

Assassination of Domitian. — The Emperor Domitian cruelly persecuted the 
Christians, and siezed the estates of the wealthy to gratify his avarice. At length 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



99 



a conspiracy was formed against the despot by his own wife, Domitia, whom he had 
resolved to put to death; and Domitian, the last of th£ Caesars, was assassinated 
after some resistance. (A. D. 96.) 



THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. 

REIGN OF NERVA (A. D. 96-98). 

Noble and Generous Conduct of Nerva. — Upon the assassination of 
Domitian, the talented and virtuous Nerva was chosen Emperor by the Senate, 
Nerva was liberal and generous to excess. He made good laws, abolished oppress- 
ive taxes, and even sold his gold and plate that he might be able to bestow gifts on 
his friends. He allowed no statue to be erected to himself, and no Senator was 
punished with death during his mild and merciful reign. This good emperor died 
after a reign of two years. (A. D. 98.) 

REIGN OF TRAJAN (A. D. 98-117). 

Good Character of Trajan. — The next emperor after Nerva was Trajan, who 
was a mild and merciful monarch as well as a successful warrior. Trajan devoted 
his attention to the welfare of his empire, and took measures for improving its 
condition. Notwithstanding his many merits, Trajan was a persecutor of the 
Christians. 

Conquest of Dacia by Trajan. — Soon after Trajan became Emperor, the 
Dacians north of the Danube ravaged the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. 
The Emperor Trajan led an army against the Dacians, overthrew them in battle, 
and reduced their country, Dacia, to the condition of a Roman province. When 
Trajan returned to Rome from his Dacian campaign, a splendid triumph was cele- 
brated, and the public rejoicing continued for one hundred and twenty days. 

Trajan's Asiatic Campaigns. — The Emperor Trajan afterwards marched into 
Asia for the purpose of subduing the Parthians and the Armenians, who attempted 
to regain their independence. Parthia, Syria, and Chaldea were conquered by the 
Roman Emperor after several campaigns. Trajan made a triumphal entry into 
Babylon, crossed the Tigris, took Ctesiphon, in Syria, a»d conquered some of the 
Persian provinces. The fatigues of war hastened Trajan's death, which took place 
in Cilicia, after a reign of nineteen years. (A. D. 117.) 

REIGN OF ADRIAN (A. D. 117-18S). 

Adrian's Love of Peace. — The good Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, who 
also belonged to the list of good emperors. Adrian was a great lover of peace, 
and he abandoned all the countries which had been conquered by Trajan, as he 
deemed them detrimental, rather than valuable, to the Roman Empire. The 
Emperor Adrian, with all his many virtues, was a persecutor of the Christians. 

Adrian's Travels. — The Emperor Adrian spent much of his time in travelii.g 
over Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain, Greece, and through all his dominions in Asia 
and Africa. In Britain he greatly improved the city of York, which was the capi- 
tal of that Roman province. The emperor also caused a wall to be erected from 
the river Tyne to Solway Frith, in order to prevent the ravages of the Caledonians, 



lOO ANCIENT HISTORY. 

who inhabited the northern part of the island. Adrian died near Naples, after a 
quiet and prosperous reigil of eighteen years. (A. D. 135.) 

REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS (A. D. 133-163). 

M'li and Beneficial Rule of Antoninus Pius — Tranquillity of the Em- 
pire. — Adrian's successor on the imperial throne was the good and peaceful Titus 
Antoninus, who, on account of his mild and merciful reign, was called Antoninus 
Pius. The period of the reign of this emperor was the most happy and prosperous that 
the Roman Empire ever enjoyed, as peace prevailed throughout the whole Roman 
world. The virtuous Antoninus suspended the persecution of the Christians, and 
punished their persecutors. He devoted all his energies to the welfare of his sub- 
jects, and protected the .people of the various Roman provinces from the oppression 
and avarice of their governors. After a tranquil and prosperous reign of twenty- 
two years, the good Antoninus Pius died. (A. D. 163). 

REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (A. D. 163-180). 

Parthian Expedition of Verus. — Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the successor 
of Titus Antoninus Pius, also belonged to the class of good emperors. Marcus 
Aurelius shared his power with his unworthy son-in-law, Lucius Verus, whom, 
soon after his accession to the throne, he sent with an army against the Parthians. 
Verus established his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned himself to all sorts 
of vice, while his officers defeated the Parthians. 

War Against the Marcomanni — The " Thundering Legion." — A fright- 
ful war next broke out between the Romans and the Marcomanni, a powerful 
German tribe of barbarians. Both Aurelius and Verus took the field against the 
barbarians ; but the intemperate Verus soon died. Marcus Aurelius remained five 
years in Germany, carrying on the war against the Marcomanni. On one occasion, 
the Romans were drawn into a narrow defile, where they had almost perished from 
thirst, when they were relieved by a thunder-storm, which struck into the tents of 
the barbarians, who, greatly frightened, immediately agreed to a peace with the 
Romans. It was believed that the storm was sent in answer to the prayers of the 
Christian soldiers in the Roman army. The emperor immediately named their' 
division "The Thundering Legion." 

Character of the Successors of Marcus Aurelius. — The mild and bene- 
ficent Marcus Aurelius died at Vienna, after a reign of seventeen years. (A. D. 
180.) He was the last of a succession of good Roman emperors. With his death 
the glory of the Roman Empire virtually ended. The greater number of his suc- 
cessors were detestable and intolerable tyrants, who generally suffered violent deaths. 
From this time the Roman Empire rapidly verged towards its fall: the baibarians 
fiom Northern Europe at length pressed heavily upon its northern frontiers, and 
finally put an end to its existence. 

THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM. 

REIGN OF COMMODUS (A. D. 180-192). 

Feats of Commodus — Assassination of Commodus. — Marcus Aurelius 
was succeeded on the imperial throne by his son Commodus, who, on account of 



HISTORY OF ROME. loi 

his vices and cruelties, proved himself unworthy of the imperial dignity. Commo- 
dus possessed great physical strength; and he often fought with the gladiators in 
the Amphitheatre, where he conquered seven hundred and fifty times, on which 
account he styled himself " Conqueror of a Thousand Gladiators." The tyranny 
of Commodus at length led to plots against his life; and he was assassinated after 
a reign of twelve years, and his body was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 192.) 

REION OF PERTINAX (A. D. 192-193). 

Assassination of Pertinax. — The virtuous Pertinax succeeded the unworthy 
Commodus on the imperial throne. Pertinax protected the citizens from the inso- 
lence of the Prffitorian Guards, who, for this reason, rose against the good emperor 
and put him to death, after a reign of only three months. (A. D. 193.) 

REIGN OF DIDIUS JULIANUS (A. D. 198). 

Purchase of the Empire by Didius Julianus — His Overthrovy and 
Death.— The insolent Praetorian Guards now put up the Roman Empire for sale 
to the highest bidder. The wealthy Senator, Didius Julianus, bid off at a sum 
equal to ten millions of dollars, and was accordingly raised to the imperial dignity. 
This disgraceful transaction raised up several rivals against the unworthy Didius 
Julianus. These were Septimius Severus, who commanded the Roman legions in 
Pannonia ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain. Sep- 
timius Severus reached Rome before his rivals and was made Emperor; and Didius 
Julianus was put to death by the executioner. (A. D, 193.) 

REIGN OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (A. D. 193-211). 

Overthrow and Death of Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. — 

After securing the imperial purple, Septimius Severus took the field against Pescen- 
nius Niger, who was defeated and killed in battle on the plain of Issus, famous for 
the great victory gained by Alexander the Great over the Persians five centuries 
before. Severus next marched against Clodius Albinus in Gaul ; and a terrible 
battle was fought at Lyons, and Albinus, being defeated and taken prisoner, was 
put to death. 

Campaigns of Septimius Severus in Asia and Britain. — Having overcome 
his rivals, Septimius Severus next marched against the Parthians, who continued 
their attacks on the Roman power in Asia. Severus defeated the Parthians, and 
captured their principal cities, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon. The emperor 
was afterward called to Britain to repress the incursions of the savage Picts and 
Scots. After driving back the savages, Severus rebuilt the wall between the Clyde 
and Forth rivers, for the purpose of keeping the troublesome savages in their own 
part of the island. The Emperor Septimius Severus died at York, in Britain, after a 
reign of nearly eighteen years. (A. D. 217.) 

REIGN OF CARACALLA (A. D. 211-217). 

Cruelty and Tyranny of Caracalla — Assassination of Caracalla. — Septi- 
mius Severus left his empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta; but Caracalla 
silled his brother in his mother's arms, and became sole emperor. Caracalla proved 



I o 2 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. 

to be a cruel and tyrannical sovereign. His despotic conduct finally caused his as 
sassination after a reign of six years. (A. D. 217.) 

REIGN OF MACRINUS (A. D. 217-218). 

Overthrow and Death of Macrinus. — Macrinife, captain of the Praetorian 
Guards, and instigator of the assassination of Caracalla, was next raised to the im- 
perial dignity; but soon a competitor appeared to contest with him the sovereignty 
of the Roman Empire. Macrinus was put to death, and his competitor, Helijgu 
balus, was raised to the imperial throne. (A. D. 218.) 

REIGN OF HELIOGABALUS (A. D. 218-222). 

Vices and Follies of Heliogabalus. — The sensualities, vices, and follies of 
1 leliogabalus soon exhibited themselves. His prodigality knew no bounds. His 
suppers sometimes cost sixty thousand dollars each. He dressed himself in gold 
and purple, and wore the same dress only once. He created a senate of women to 
arrange the fashions of dress, and raised his horse to the office of Consul. 

Assassination of Heliogabalus. — The mother of Heliogabalus, for the pur- 
pose of restraining the emperor's vicious conduct, proposed his cousin, the virtuous 
Alexander Severus, as his partner in the empire. The affections of the soldiers 
were soon bestowed on Alexander; and Heliogabalus was assassinated, and his body 
was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 222.) 

REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS (A. D. 222-28S). 

Beneficent Rule of Alexander Severus. — The good Alexander Severus was 
universally acknowledged as Emperor upon the assassination of Heliogabalus. 
Alexander soon proved himself in every respect deserving of his high station. He 
instituted many wise reforms for the benefit of the Roman people. 

Assassination of Alexander Severus. — The strict military discipline of 
Alexander Severus inflamed the soldiers against him, and he was murdered by them 
while engaged in driving away the barbarians who had invaded the northern parts 
of the Roman Empire. (A. D. 235.) 

REIGN OF MAXIMIN (A. D. 23S-238). 

Tyranny and Cruelties of Maximin. — The Thracian Maximin, who had in- 
stigated the soldiers to the assassination of the worthy Alexander Severus, succeeded 
to the imperial throne. Maximin soon proved himself to be an intolerable despot. 
He put rich men to death for the purpose of seizing their estates, and he rigorously 
persecuted the Christians. 

Overthrow and Death of Maximin. — At length the tyranny and cruelties of 
the Emperor Maximin led to a rebellion in Africa, headed by the Pro consul Gor- 
dian, who was highly esteemed for his virtues. The soldiers of Gordian compelled 
their general to accept the imperial office. The Senate and people of Rome con- 
firmed the elevation of Gordian, and declared Maximin, who was then conducting 
a war against the barbarians in GeiTnany, a public enemy. When Maximin received 
intelligence of this, he flew into the most ungovernable rage, and resolved to march 
to Rome and massacre all his opponents. The virtuous Gordian was defeated and 



HISTORY OF ROME. IC3 

slain in battle by Maximin's adherents in Africa. Soon afterward, the detestable 
Maximin was killed by his own troops while on his march to attack Rome. (A. 
D. 238.) 

REIGN OF GORDIAN (A. D. 238-244). 

Short Reign and Assassination of Pupienus and Balbinus — Gordian. 

Just before the death of the Emj^eror Maximin, the Roman Senate had appointed 

Pupienus and Balbinus Emperors; jealousy and enmity having arisen between 
them, both were soon assassinated by the Praetorian Guards; whereupon the youth- 
ful Gordian, a grandson of the Gordian who had fallen in Africa, received the 
imperial purple. 

The Persian Empire of the Sassanidae.— The Roman Empire was at this 
time greatly harassed on the east by the New Persians, who, after having overthrown 
the Parthian Empire and established the Persian Empire of the Sassanidae, attempted 
to overthrow the Roman power in Asia. 

Gordian's Victories over the Persians — Assassination of Gordian. — 
The Emperor Gordian defeated the Persians under their valiant king. Sapor, drove 
them out of Syria, and compelled them to abandon Mesopotamia ; but he was finally 
assassinated by Philip the Arabian, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who caused 
himself to be made Emperor. (A. D. 244.) 

REIGN OF PHILIP THE ARABIAN (A. D. 244-249). 

The loooth Anniversary of Rome. — The Emperor Phihp the Arabian sought 
to signalize his reign by a magnificent celebration of the one thousandth anniversary 
of Rome. The Roman people were entertained with the most splendid shows, and 
two thousand gladiators fought in the Amphitheatre for their amusement. 

Overthrow and Death of Philip the Arabian. — The Emperor Philip sent 
his general, Decius, with an army, to suppress a rebellion which had broken out in 
Pannonia. The soldiers of Decius compelled their general to accept the office of 
Emperor by threatening to kill him if he refused. Philip, on hearing of this, marched 
against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona. (A. D. 249.) 

REIGN OF DECIUS (A. D. 249-231). 

Great Persecution of the Christians. — The Emperor Decius was in many 
respects a wise and virtuous sovereign; but he tarnished his character by the most 
.cruel persecutions of the Christians. Thousands of these persons in various parts, 
of the Roman Empire were driven from their homes, subjected to the severest tor- 
tures, and put to death in the most cruel manner. Many fled for refuge to the 
mountains and deserts. 

Gothic Invasion of the Empire — Defeat and Death of Decius. — Durmg 
the reign of Decius, occurred a formidable invasion of the Roman Empire by the 
Goths, a Scandinavian tribe, who crossed the Danube and frightfully devastated 
Moesia and Thrace. The Emperor Decius marched against the barbarians and 
gained a great victory over them; but he was at last defeated, and, in despair, he 
plunged into a marsh and was immediately swallowed up. (A. D. 251.) 



104 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

REIGN OF GALLUS (A. D. 2S1-2SS). 

Cowardly Conduct of Gallus — Assassination of Callus — /Emilianus. — 
Upon the death of Decius, Gallus was proclaimed Emperor by the amiy. Gallus 
made an ignominious peace with the Goths, and renewed the violent persecution 
of the Christians which Decius had commenced. The cowardly conduct of Gallus 
aroused universal indignation among his subjects, and the Roman armies in the 
East proclaimed .'Emilianus Emperor, whereupon Gallus was killed by his own sol- 
diers. The Senate refused to recognize ^Emilianus as Emperor, whereupon he was 
put to death by his own troops, and the virtuous Valerian was proclaimed and 
acknowledged Emperor. (A. D. 253.) 

REIGN OF VALERIAN (A. D. 2B8-260). 

The Goths and the Scythians — The Persians. — Valerian's shining quali- 
ties did not appear to much advantage when he became emperor. The Christians 
were cruelly persecuted, and the Roman Empire was ravaged on the north by the 
Goths and the Scythians, and on the east by the Persians. 

Captivity of Valerian in Persia — His Brutal Treatment by Sapor. — The 
Emperor Valerian defeated the Goths; but when he attempted to drive the Persians 
out of Syria, he was surrounded by the Persian army, taken prisoner, and carried 
in triumph to Persia. The Persian king, Sapor, caused the captive emperor to be 
treated in the most brutal manner, — using his neck as a footstool whenever he 
mounted his horse, and after keeping him in captivity for seven years, caused him 
to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and dyed in scarle_t, and nailed up in a 
Persian temple as a great national trophy. (A. D. 260.) 

REIGN OF GALLIENUS (A. D. 260-268). 

Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra. — Gallienus, the son of Valerian, succeeded 
as Emperor, receiving the intelligence of his father's cruel treatment and death 
with inward satisfaction. The barbarians now pressed upon the Roman Empire 
on all sides ; and a host of competitors appeared for the thront, the most powerful 
of whom was Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra, who inflicted severe defeats upon the 
Persians. ' 

Zenobia," Queen of the East — Assassination of Gallienus. — In order to 
gain the friendship and support of Odenatus, the Emperor Gallienus made him his 
partner in the Empire, assigning to him the Eastern Roman provinces. But Oden- 
fttus was soon murdered by his own troops, and was succeeded on the throne of 
Palmyra by his widow, Zenobia, who styled herself " Queen of the East." All the 
rivals of Gallienus suffered violent deaths; and Gallienus himself was assassinated 
while he was besieging one of his rivals in Milan. (A. D. 268.) 

REIGN OF FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS (A. D. 26S-270.) 

Defeat of the Goths and Vandals by Flavius Claudius. — Flavins Claudius 
succeeded Gallienus on the imperial throne. Claudius defeated the Goths and the 
Vandals with frightful slaughter; after which he marched against Zenobia, the 
Queen of the East, but died on his way of a pestilence which had broken out in his 
army. (A. D. 270.) 



niSTORY OF ROME. 



REIGN OF AURELIAN (A. D. 270-27S). 



105 



Quintillius — Defeat of the Germans and Vandals by Aurelian. — Quin- 
•jllius, the brother and successor of Flavius Claudius, killed himself in despair, after 
a reign of seventeen days, when he learned that Aurelian had been proclaimed 
Emperor by the army. (A. D. 270.) Aurelian defeated and drove back- the bar- 
bariail G^ths and Vandals from the northern frontiers of the Roman Empire. 

Overthrow and Captivity of Zenobia. — After his successes over the barbarians 
in th e North, the Emperior Aurelian passed over into Asia, overthrew the Kingdom 
of Palmyra, carried Zenobia, the Queen of the East, captive to Rome, and presented 
her with an estate, where, to all appearances, she passed the remainder of her life 
contentedly. 

Assassination of Aurelian. — With some commendable qualities, Aurelian 
possessed a stern and severe disposition. While marching with an army against 
the Persians, he was assassinated by some of his own officers. (A. D. 275.) 

REIG^f OF TACITUS (A. D. 273). 

Character of Tacitus. — The enlightened and virtuous Tacitus, a descendant 
of the historian of that name, was chosen Emperor by the Senate, after Aurelian's 
assassination. Tacitus distinguished himself as a soldier, and died in -Cappadocia, 
while preparing to carry on a war against Persia, after a reign of seven months. 
(A. D. 275.) 

REIGN OF PROBUS (A. D. 27S-282). 

Florian and Probus. — Florian, a brother of Tacitus, was proclaimed Emperor 
by one portion of the army, while Probus was chosen by another portion. As 
Florian was "not acknowledged by the Senate, he killed himself in despair, and 
Probus was left in full possession of the empire. (A. D. 275.) 

Defeat of th* Barbarians by Probus — Assassination of Probus. — Probus 
was a successful warrior. He first overthrew the barbarians who had invaded Gaul, 
killing 100,000 of their number. He next defeated the Goths, the Vandals, and 
the Sarmatians. Having passed his native city, Sirmium, in Pannonia, Probus em- 
ployed his soldiers in draining a marsh, but they, disliking the work, became enraged 
and killed tlieir emperor. (A. D. 282.) 

REIGN OF CARUS (A. D. 282-283). 

Victories of Carus over the Sarmatians and Persians. — Probus was suc- 
ceeded on the imperial throne by Carus, commander of the Pratorian Guards, who 
was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Carus defeated the Sarmatians, after which 
he matched against the Persians, who continued their ravages on the Eastern pi'ov- 
inces of the Roman Empire. After defeating the Persians in Mesopotamia, Caius 
was killed in his tent by lightning. (A. D. 283.) 

REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN (A. D. 284,-SOS). 

Short Reign and Assassination of Numerian and Carinus — Diocletian. 
— Numerian and Carinus, the sons of Carus, succeeded to the empire, but Numerian 
was soon assassinated, whereupon the soldiers proclaimed Diocletian Emperoi 



Io6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

(A. D. 284.) Carinas resolved to dispute the sovereignty with Diocletian, vi'hen he 
was killed by his own troops. (A. D. 2S4.) 

Origin and Character of Diocletian. — Diocletian was of low origin, his 
parents having been slaves. He received his name from Dioclea, a town in Dal- 
matia, where he was born. He had passed through the various gradations of office, 
being promoted successively to the offices of Provincial Governor, Consul, and 
Praetorian Prefect. He owed his elevation entirely to his aliilities and merits, and 
was about forty years of age when he became Emperor. Diocletian possessed 
many virtues, but he sullied his character by a cruel persecution of the Christiins 
ill all parts of the Roman Empire. 

The " Era of Martyrs." — The commencement of Diocletian's reign is often 
called the " Era of Martyrs," on account of the dreadful persecutions of which the 
Christians were the victims. This epoch was long obsei-ved in the Christian 
Church, and is still remembered by the Copts of Eg>'pt, the Abyssinians, and other 
African Christians. 

Division of the Imperial Authority — Maximian and the Tw^o Caesars. — 
As the cares of the vast Roman Empire were too great for one person, the Emperor 
Diocletian divided the imperial authority, taking as his partner in the Empire 
Maximian, a brave and able soldier, but an ignorant and cruel barbarian. Diocle- 
tian retained for himself the government of the East, while Maximian ruled over 
the West. Still the troubles of the Empire were so great that Diocletian took 
Galerius as his subordinate colleague, or Cresar, while Maximian chose Constantius 
Chlorus as his subordinate, or Csesar ; so that the Roman world was now divided 
among four sovereigns, of which Diocletian was the chief. Diocletian retained 
Asia, Galerius ruled over Thrace and Illyricum, Maximian swayed Italy and Africa, 
and Constantius Chlorus governed Spain, Gaul, and Britain. 

Suppression of Rebellions in Britain and Egypt — Defeat of the Per- 
sians. — A rebellion which broke out in Britain was suppressed by Constantius 
Chlorus after a continuance of ten years. A revolt in Eg)'pt was crushed by Dio- 
cletian himself, who made the rebellious inhabitants feel the effects of his vengeance. 
The Moors of Northern Africa, who had attacked the Roman dominioins in that 
quarter, were vanquished by the arms of Maximian. A war which broke out with 
Persia was brought to a successful conclusion by Galerius after two campaigns with 
the Persians. 

Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. — After a glorious reign of twenty 
years, sullied, however, by a violent persecution of the Christians, the Emperor 
Diocletian abcUcated the imperial throne in the presence of a vast multitude of peo- 
ple, and retired to private life. (A. D. 305.) On the same day, Maximian resigned 
his authority. Diocletian never regretted this act, which he survived nine years. 
When requested by Maximian and others to resume the purple, he replied, " If 
you would see the cabbages I raise in my garden, you would not ask me to take a 
throne." 

REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (A. D. S06-S3/). 

Galerius and Constantius — Constantine — Confusion and Civil War. — 
After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chloriis 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



107 



were recognized as Emperors, and each took a subordinate colleague, or Caesar. 
(A. D. 306.) Constantine died at York, in Britain, and was succeeded by his son 
Constantine, afterwards surnamed "the Great." A period of great confusion and 
sano-uinary civil wars followed. Galerius and the two Csesars refused to recognize 
the claims of Constantine, and very soon the Roman Empire was divided imong 
six competitors, among whom were Maximian and his son Maxentius; but Ccnstan- 
tine finally prevailed over all his rivals and became sole Emperor. 

Constantine's Conversion to Christianity. — It was during the progi-jss of 
these civil wars that, the Emperor Constantine became a convert to Christianity. 
While marching against Maxentius, it is said that Constantine saw a luminous cross 
in the heavens with the inscription, " By this conquer." This produced a great 
impression upon Constantine and his whole army. Constantine now consulted the 
principal teachers of Christianity, and publicly avowed the religion 'of Christ. 

Overthrow and Death of Maxentius and Licinius. — Constantine overthrew 
Maxentius in a desperate battle at the Milvian Bridge. In attempting to make his 
escape, Maxentius found his death in the waters of the Tiber, and Constantine en- 
tered Rome in triamph. Internal peace and domestic tranquillity were only restored 
to the Roman Empire, when Constantine was left in the undisputed sovereignty of the 
vast Roman world, after his brother-in-law and last rival, Licinius, a zealous cham- 
pion of paganism, had been defeated in several engagements and put to death. 

Constantine Sole Emperor — Triumph of Christianity. — Thus after eigh- 
teen years of confusion and civil war, Constantine the Great became sole master of 
the Roman world, which extended from the borders of Caledonia to the frontiers 
of Persia, and from the Red Sea to the Atlas Mountains. The victory of Constan- 
tine the Great over his pagan rivals marked the complete triumph of Christianity 
over the paganism of the Roman world. Constantine now devoted himself to the 
establishment of Christianity on a firm basis. He summoned a Council of the 
Christian Church at Nice, which was attended by numerous bishops and deacons, 
over which the emperor presided, and in which the doctrines of Arias, who denied 
the divine nature of Christ, were condemned as heretical. But Constantine, by 
some great crimes, which stained his character, and among which were the murder 
of his noble son Crispus, and of his wife Fausta, showed that the doctrines of the 
crucified Redeemer had little influence in restraining his savage and ferocious dis- 
position. 

Constantinople made the Capital of the Roman Empire. — After defeat- 
ing the Goths and the Sarmatians, the Emperor Constantine returned to Rome, 
where he was coldly received and insulted by the people for abandoning the religion 
of his ancestors. Provoked at this treatment, and in order to have his residence 
nearer the centre of his dominions, Constantine removed the seat of government of 
the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, which since that time has been called 
Constantinople, or City of Constantine, in honor of the great emperor. (A. D. 336.) 

Death of Constantine the Great. — After a memorable and glorious reign of 
!cirty-one years, Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor who professed 
CThristianity, died at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, (A. D. 337.) 



Io8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

REIGN OF CONSTANTIUS II. (A. D. 887-861). 

The Sons of Constantine — Confusion and Civil War — Constantius II, 

— After the death of Constantine the Great, the Roman Empire was by his orders 
divided among his three sons, Constans, Constantine HE., and Constantius II., and 
his two nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The consequence of this division 
was sixteen years of confusion and anarchy, during which the Roman Empire was 
disturbed by usurpation, insurrections, and civil wars; and internal tranquillity was 
only restored when Constantius II. became sole master of the Roman world, afiei 
alJ his rivals and several usurpers had perished. (A. D. 353.) 

Julian's Victories over the Germans in Gaul. — While Constantius II., after 
obtaining the sole sovereignty of the Roman Empire, was in the East, conducting a 
war against the Persians, his cousin Julian was winning great renown by his victo- 
ries over the German tribes who had invaded Gaul. After defeating the Germans 
near Troyes, at Sens, and at Strasburg, Julian secured peace to Gaul, when his 
soldiers, elated by victory, proclaimed their genei"al Emperor. The Roman world 
was only saved from the horrors of another civil war by the death of Constantius II., 
as he was preparing to dispute the sovereignty with Julian. (A. D. 361.) 

REIGN OF JULIAN THE APOSTATE (A. D. 861-868). 

Character of Julian — His Opposition to the Christian Religion. — Julian 

had been educated at Athens, where he had imbibed a fondness for the pagan phi- 
losophy and religion of the Grecians ; and when he became Emperor he renounced 
the Christian religion and became a pagan, acquiring from that circumstance the 
surname of " the Apostate." Julian was, however, a just, wise, and virtuous mon- 
arch, the only blemish on his character being his renunciation of Christianity and 
conversion to paganism. He was, however, possessed of an excessive share of 
vanity; and he seemed more desirous of being considered a philosopher than a 
sovereign. Julian sought to revive fallen paganism, and labored with great zeal to 
undo what had been done by the great Constantine. Julian was, however, too good 
and too wise to engage in a violent persecution of those who professed Christianity, 
as he allowed all his subjects the same right to opinion which he claimed for him- 
self; but he attacked the holy religion of the Redeemer in writing, and endeavored 
to bring it into disrepute by ridicule. Not content, however, with opposing the 
Christians with the weapons of argument and ridicule, the emperor enacted several 
disqualifying laws by which he deprived the Christians of wealth, knowledge, and 
power. He also removed Christians from all civil and military offices, filled their 
places with pagans, and ordered the Christian schools to be closed. 

Julian's Attempt to Rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem.— For the purpose 
of disproving the prophecy of Christ, Julian the Apostate attempted to rebuild the 
Temple of Jerusalem, and to restore the Jewish worship; but this design of the em- 
peror was frustrated, it is said, by the miraculous explosion of fire from the earth, 
driving away the workmen, and compelling them to abandon their work. 

Julian's Invasion of Persia — His Retreat and Death. — In a war with the 
Persians, the Emperor Julian advanced victoriously into the very heart of Persia ; 
but the Persians, defeated in the field, laid waste the country, so that the Roman 
army, exhausted by hunger, was finally forced to retreat. In a skiiTnish between 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



109 



fhe retreating army and the Persian light cavalry, Julian received a wcmnd, of which 
he died the same night. (A. D. 363.) 

REIGN OF JOVIAN (A. D. 86S-S64). 

Dishonorable Peace with Persia. — After the death of Julian the Apostate, 
the amiy raised the virtuous Jovian, a Pannonian, to the imperial dignity. Upon 
his accession to the throne, Jovian concluded a dishonorable peace with Persia, by 
which a large portion of the Roman possessions in Asia were given up. 

Restoration of Christianity. — The Emperor Jovian, who avowed ChristL^inity, 
restored that holy religion; but he secured the good will of his pagan subjects by 
allowing them toleration for their worship. The zeal oi" the people for the Christian 
religion fully attested how ineffectual were the efforts of the apostate Julian for the 
restoration of fallen paganism, as the heathen temples were imrnediately deserted 
and the heathen priests were left alone at their altars. After a reign of seven months, 
the good Jovian was accidentally suffocated by the fumes of burning charcoal while 
sleeping in a damp room. (A. D. 364.) 

BARBARIAN INROADS, AND THE FALL OF THE 
WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 

REIGN OF VALENTINIAN AND VALENS (A. D. 364-878). 

Division of the Roman Empire. — Valentinian, Jovian's successor on the im- 
perial throne, divided tlie Roman Empire, retaining the Western provinces for him- 
self, and bestowing the Eastern on his brother Valens. From this time the Roman 
world was divided into the Eastern and Western Empires, although they were after- 
wards transiently reunited. Valentinian made Milan his capital, while Valens held 
his court at Constantinople. 

The Barbarian Inroads. — The inroads of the barbarians upon the northern an 
eastern frontiers of the Roman dominions now became more formidable and dan- 
gerous than ever before: the Picts and Scots harassed Britain; the Saxons began 
their piracies on the Northern seas; the German tribe of the Allemanui ravaged 
Gaul ; and the Goths crossed the Danube and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor 
Valentinian, who checked the inroads of the barbarians on all sides, died in the 
year 375 A. D. 

Defeat of the Goths by the Huns. — After Valentinian's death, the Gothic 
nations had been almost annihilated by the Huns, a savage tribe from Central Asia. 
After crossing the Volga and the Don, and driving before them the tribes of Eastern 
Europe, the Huns fell upon and vanquished the Ostrogoths, and drove them from 
their country. The Huns then crossed the Dnieper and the Dniester, and defeated 
the Visigoths and drove them from their lands. 

The Goths in Thrace— Battle of Adrianople — Death of Valens.- The 
Gothic tribes, who had so long defied the arms of the Romans, now appeared as 
suppliants on the banks of the Danube, and asked permission of Valens, the Eastern 
Emperor, to occupy and cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. This request was 
granted on condition that the Goths would resign their arms; but the Roman officers 
who were sent to see the enforcement of this stipulation were bribed. The Goths 



no ANCIENT HISTORY. 

retained their weapons; and when they began to sufifer from famine, they carried 
plunder and desolation through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. The Goths 
marched toward Constantinople, and defeated the amiy of Valens in the bloody 
Dattle of Adrianople. The emperor escaped to a hut, which, during- the night, was 
net on fire by the Goths, and Valens was burned to death. (A. D. 37S.) 

REIGN OF THEODOSIUS THE GREAT (A, D. 876 B9S). 

Gratian and Theodosius. — After the death of Valentinian (A. D. 375), his 
aon Gratian became Emperor of the West. When the throne of the East became 
vacant by the death of Valens, Gratian assigned it to the Spaniard Theodosius, who 
Closed the war with the Goths by settling a part of that nation in the region of the 
Danube, and enlisting another part in the Roman armies as soldiers. 

Persecution of the Pagans by Theodosius. — The Emperor Theodosius, 
surnamed "the Great," was a cruel persecutor of the pagans, and also of the Arian 
Christians. The pagans of Alexandria, in Egypt, having attacked the Christians of 
that city, Theodosius ordered all the pagan temples in the city to be pulled down. 
He atterwards ordered all the heathen temples throughout his empire to be de- 
stroyed. The reign of Theodosius the Great is noted for the complete triumph of 
the religion of the crucified Saviour over the ancient paganism. 

Maximinus, Valentinian II., and Eugenius — Theodosius Sole Emperor. 
— The severity of the Western Emperor, Gi'atian, to his pagan subjects, produced an 
insurrection in Gaul and Britain, headed by Maximinus. Gratian was defeated and 
killed near Paris, and Maximinus became Emperor of the West. (A. D. 383.) 
Maximinus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, and 
Valentinian II. ascended the throne of the West. (A. D. 388.) Valentinian II. 
was murdered by the Gaul Arbogastes, whereupon the throne of the West was 
usurped by Eugenius. Theodosius defeated and killed the usurper, and, reuniting 
the Eastern and Western Empires, became sole master of the Roman world. (A. 
D. 394.) Four months afterward, Theodosius the Great died at Milan (A. D. 
395), after appointing his elder son, Arcadius, Emperor of the East, and his younger 
son, Honorius, Emperor of the West. 

REIGN OF HONORIUS (A. D. 395-42S). 

Alaric the Goth's Invasions of Greece and Italy — Defeat by Stilicho — 
Soon after the accession of Arcadius and Honorius, the Goths, under their celebrated 
king, Alaric, commenced a fresh war against the Romans. After Alaric had 
ravaged nearly all of Greece, Stilicho, the able general of Honorius, marched to tlie 
aid of the Greeks. Alaric then abandoned Greece, directed his course toward 
Italy, and,- crossing the Julian Alps, advanced toward Milan. (A. D. 403.) Hon- 
orius fled from his capital, but was overtaken by the Goths, and besieged by them 
n Asta. Stilicho hastened to the relief of the emperor, and defeated the Goths 
with great slaughter at Pollentia, in Northern Italy. Instead of abandoning Italy 
after this defeat, Alaric marched directly toward Rome, which was saved by the 
diligence of Stilicho ; .but the withdrawal of the Goths from Italy was purchased 
by a heavy ransom. 

Another Barbarian Invasion of Italy — Stilicho's Victory at Florence. 
— The timid Emperor Honorius, greatly alarmed at these barbarian invasions, 



HISTORY OF ROME. m 

selected the strong fortress of Ravenna as his residence and seat of government, 
No sooner was Italy freed from the ravages of Alaric and his Gothic followers, 
than another hostile inundation of barbarian warriors, consisting of Goths, Vandals, 
Sueves, Alans, and Burgundians, led by the warlike Radagaisus, appeared, and 
threatened Italy with slaughter and desolation. The barbarians then crossed the 
Alps, the Po, and the Apennines, and laid siege to Florence. But again Italy was 
delivered by the valiant Stilicho, who blockaded the besieging barbarians, and 
finally, after they had greatly suffered from famine, compelled them to sun-ender at 
discretion. (A. D. 406.) The barbarian leader, Radagaisus, was put to death, and 
his followers were sold as slaves. 

Assassination of Stilicho. — Two years after the overthrow of the barbarians 
at Florence (A. D. 40S), Stilicho, whose abilities had delayed the fall of the tottering 
Roman Empire, was treacherously assassinated by order of the jealous and ungrate- 
ful Honorius. 

Olympius — Massacre of the Barbarians in Italy. — The place of Stilicho 
was supplied by the unworthy Olympius, by whose advice the Emperor Honorius 
ordered the massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy. This 
horrible order was cruelly executed, and the result of it was that 30,000 Gothic 
soldiers in the Roman pay revolted, and invited Alaric to come to Italy and avenge 
the slaughter of his countrymen. 

Alaric's Second Invasion of Italy and Capture of Rome. — At the call of 
his countrymen, Alaric the Goth again invaded Italy, and marched directly to Rome 
and laid siege to the city. Rome would have fallen into the hands of the barbarian 
chief, had not the Emperor Honorius yielded to his demand and purchased the 
retirement of the besiegers by the payment of a hea^'y ransom. At first Alaric 
demanded all the gold and silver in the city, all the rich and precious movables, 
and all the slaves of barbarian origin. When the Roman ambassadors asked, " If 
such, O King, are your terms, what do you intend to leave us?" the stem chief 
replied, "Your lives." These severe terms were, however, somewhat modified, 
and Alaric agreed to abandon the siege of Rome for a large ransom of gold, silver, 
and various articles of valuable merchandise. Alaric then retired from the city; 
but as Honorius refused to comply with the stipulations of the treaty which had 
been concluded between the Gothic chief and the Romans, Alaric again directed 
his course to Rome and compelled the city to surrender. (A. D. 410.) The cap- 
tured city was given up to plunder, but' the Goths, professing to be Christians, 
spared the churches. 

Death and Burial of Alaric the Goth. — After Rome had suffered six 
days from the fury of the conquering Goths, the city was abandoned by them; and 
Jiey marched into Southern Italy, where Alaric died. The body of the barbarian 
chief was buried in the bed of a small stream, and "the captives who had prepared 
his grave were murdered that the Romans might never find the place of his sepul- 
chre. (A. D. 410.) 

REIQN OF VALENTINIAN III. (A. D. 42S-4SS).5 

The Visigoths in Spain. — Upon the death of Honorius (A. D. 423), his 
youthful nephew, Valentinian III., became Emperor of the West. The Goths soon 



112 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

withdrew from Italy, and that part of the nation known as Visigoths migi-ated to 
Spain, where they founded a kingdom of their own. 

The Vandals in Africa. — The Vandals, another tribe of Northern barbarians, 
led by their renowned king, Genseric, passed over from Spain into Africa, con- 
quered the Roman provinces there, and established a 1-ringdom which lasted more 
than a century. (A. D. 439.) 

Conquests of Attila, King of the Huns — Battle of Chalons. — About this 
time Attila, King of the Huns, a powerful Asiatic tribe, was spreading terror and 
desolation wherever he directed his course. Attila, justly called " the Scourge of 
God," subdued the Scythian and German tribes, defeated the Eastern Emperor, 
Theodosius II., in three bloody battles, devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, 
and at length invaded Gaul, where he was defeated by the united armies of the 
Romans and the Goths in the sanguinary battle of Chalons, in which 162,000 of 
the barbarians were slain. (A. D. 451.) 

Hunnic Invasion of Northern Italy — Founding of Venice. — Notwith- 
standing their defeat at Chalons, the Huns invaded Northern Italy the following 
year. (A. D. 452.) The fugitives who fled in terror from their homes founded the 
city and republic of Venice on a numl>er of small islands on the northern shores of 
the Adriatic sea. Soon after this invasion of Northern Italy, Attila died from the 
effects of intemperance. (A. D. 452.) 

REIGN OF MAXIMUS (A. D. 455). 

Genseric the Vandal's Invasion of Italy and Capture of Rome. — The 

Emperor Valentinian III. was assassinated by Maximus, whose wife he had corrupted 
iK. D. 455.) Maximus then became Emperor of the West; and on the death of 
his wife, which occurred soon afterward, he compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Val- 
entinian III., to marry him. In revenge, Eudoxia invited Genseric, the Vandal 
king of Northern Africa, to invade Italy. Genseric and his Vandal followers ac- 
cordingly crossed the Mediterranean sea into Italy and besieged Rome. (A. D,. 
455.) The Emperor Maximus was killed in a tumult which arose in the city. 
Rome soon fell into the hands of the besieging Vandals, who plundered the city of 
what the Goths had left. After the victorious Vandals had pillaged the city of 
Romulus fourteen days and nights, they withdrew ; but their vessel laden with the 
plunder of Rome was wrecked on its passage to Africa. 

THE LAST EMPERORS OF THE "WEST (A. D. 455-476). 

Avitus, Majorian, Severus, Anthemius, Olybrius, Glycerins, Nepos, 
and Romulus Augustulus. — During the twenty-one years after the pillage of 
Rome by the Vandals, eight emperors successively occupied the throne of the West. 
The first of these was a Gaul named Avitus, who had been raised to the throne 
through the instrumentality of Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths. Avitus was de- 
throned by the Sueve Ricimer, the commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, and 
Majorian was invested with the imperial purple. Majorian was deposed by the 
Eoldiers, and Severus was elevated to the throne by Ricimer, who retained all the 
real power in his own hands. Severus was soon deposed, whereupon the Eastern 
Emperor, Leo, appointed Anthemius Emperor of the West. Anthemius was put to 



HI STORY OF ROME. 



"3 



death, and Olybrius was raised to the throne. The last three Emperors of the West 
were Glycerins, Nepos, and Romulus Augustulus. 

Overthrow of the Western Roman Empire. — As the strength of the Ro- 
mans diminished, the insolence of the barbarians increased; and finally, when the 
demand of the barbarians for a third part of the lands of Italy was rejected, Odoa- 
cer, chief of the Heruli, a German tribe, dethroned the Emperor Romulus Augus- 
tulus, in the year 476 A. D., and, abolishing the title and office of Emperor of the 
West, assumed the title of King of Italy. Thus ended the Western Empire of the 
Romans: the once-proud city of Romulus was occupied by barbarian warriors, and 
a barbarian chief was seated on the throne of the Caesars. The Eastern, or Byzan- 
tine Empire, sometimes called the Greek Empire, continued to flourish for nearly 
a thousand years longer. 




BOOK II. 



MIDDLE AGES 



THE DARK AGES. 



ITALY AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 

ITALY UNDER THE HERULI AND THE OSTROGOTHS. 

Odoacer, King of Italy. — Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, as King of Italy, fixed 
his capital at Ravenna. He distributed the lands of Italy among his followers, making 
the peasants who lived upon the lands their slaves. Odoacer, however, allowed the 
old Roman laws and institutions to remain, and retained the Roman magistrates in 
their offices. 

Theodoric the Ostrogoth. — In the year 588 A. D., after Odoacer had reigned, 
not without renown, twelve years, Italy was invaded by the renowned Theodoric, 
King of the Ostrogoths. Odoacer was defeated and made a prisoner, and the king- 
dom of the Heruli in Italy was overthrown. In violation of his plighted word, 
Theodoric caused the captive Odoacer to be put to death at a riotous banquet. On 
the overthrow of Odoacer, Theodoric the Ostrogoth became King of Italy, and 
established his seat of government at Ravenna. Theodoric employed the original 
mhabitants of Italy in agriculture and commerce, while to his Ostrogothic followers 
he assigned the duty of defending the state. Like Odoacer, Theodoric allowed the 
ancient Roman laws and in-stitutions to remain, encouraged agriculture, manufac- 
tures, and commerce; and Italy enjoyed great prosperity under his rule. Italy con- 
tinued prosperous under the successors of Theodoric; but in the year 554''A. D., 
Belisarius, the illustrious general of the illustrious Justinian, Emperor of the East, 
invaded Italy, overthrew the Ostrogothic monarchy, and united Italy with the 
Byzantine Empire. 

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE UNDER JUSTINIAN. 

Accession of Justinian — War with Persia — ^Justinian's Armies.— For 
some time the Eastern Roman, or Greek Empire, often called the Byzantine Em- 
pire, had been distracted by domestic dissensions, which were only ended when 
Justinian, a man of humble origin, ascended the throne. During the first five years 
of his reign, Justinian waged an unsuccessful war against the Persians. Justinian's 
armies were never led by him in person, and were composed of barbarian mercena- 
ries, — namely, Scythians, Persians, Heruli, Vandals, Goths, and Thracians, — the 
inhabitants of the empire having long been forbidden to bear arms. 

Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in Africa by Belisarius. — The Empe- 
ror Justinian embraced the determination of conquering the kingdom of the Vandals 
in Africa, and also that of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and of restoring the vast empire 

C117) 



Iig MIDDLE AGES. 

of the great Constantine. Justinian's illustrious general, Belisarms, landed in Africa, 
in September, 533, at the head of 15,000 soldiers, and was joyfully received by the 
Afi leans, who were anxious to shake off the yoke of Vandal supremacy. Gelim^er, 
the Vandal king, wa«( twice routed in battle, and before the-'Close of November the 
monarchy of the Vandals in Africa was overthro-\vn. Gelimer passed the reihainder 
of his days contentedly in Galatia, in Asia Minor; and the dominion of the Greek 
Emperor was extended over Africa proper. 

Subversion of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy by Belisarms. — In the 
year 535 A. D., Belisarius landed in Sicily at the head of 7,500 Byzantine soldiers, 
and subdued that island in one campaign ; and in the following year (A. D. 536), he 
landed in Southern Italy, where he was hailed as a deliverer by the old Roman popu- 
lation. Belisarius obtained possession of Rome, in which city he was besieged for a 
year by the valiant Ostrogothic king, Vitiges, who failed to reduce the city; but 
nearly the entire population of the city perished from famine. Vitiges and his 
Ostrogoths were themselves next besieged in their own capital, Ravenna, which 
they were finally compelled to surrender, and Vitiges was carried a prisoner to the 
Byzantine capital; but he was treated with remarkable generosity by the Emperor 
Justinian, who allowed the captive king to pass the remainder of his days in afflu- 
ence in Constantinople. 

Another War Between the Byzantine and Persian Empires. — In the 
year 540 A- D-, another war broke out between the Byzantine and Persian Empires, 
and Belisarius was summoned from Italy to take the field against the Persians. 
For a jjeriod of sixteen years (A. D. 540-556), Justinian waged war against the 
Persian monarch, Khosrou the Great. Hostilities were conducted with the most 
unrelenting obstinacy on both sides. After a fearful destruction of human life, 
peace was finally made in 556, leaving the frontiers of the two empires nearly the 
same as they were before the war. 

Justinian's Treatment of Belisarius — Final Conquest of Italy by Narses. 
— Belisarius was at length treated with ingratitude by the Emperor Justinian, in 
whose service he had conquered two kingdoms. On the recall of Belisarius from 
(taly to operate against the Persians, the Ostrogoths recovered their supremacy in 
Italy. Belisarius was sent back to Italy to recover what had been lost, but he was 
soon recalled by the jealous emperor, and the command of the Byzantine army in 
Italy was assigned to Narses, who soon and unexpectedly proved himself a great 
peneral like Belisarius. After many bloody encounters, and after two valiant Ostro- 
githic kings, Totila and Tejas, had been defeated and slain in battle, the Ostro- 
gothic kingdom in Italy was finally subverted, and the dominions of the Eastern 
Emperor were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Italy. (A. D. 554.) 
Narses, as the Byzantine Emperor's lieutenant, governed Italy from Ravenna with 
the title of Exarch. 

Repulse of the Barbarians by Belisarius — Justinian's Ingratitude to 
Belisarius. — In his old age Justinian again had recourse to the services of his aged 
general, Belisarius, to drive away the barbarian Bulgarians and Slavonians, who 
bad approached the gates of Constantinople. At the head of a small but valiant 
band, Belisarius repelletl the barbarians, but the applauses which the old hero 
received from the people again excited the jealousy of Justinian; and the ungrateful 
emperor, charging his faithful servant with aspiring to the imperial throne, caused 



THE DARK AGES. Hq 

his eyes to be put out and all of his possessions to be confiscated; and the illustrious 
general who had subdued two kingdoms was often seen blind, and led by a child, 
begging alms in the streets to support his living. 

"The Pandects and Code of Justinian " — Silk Manufacture — Church 
of St. Sophia. — The period of Justinian's reign, known as the " Era of Justinian," 
is one of the most important epochs in the history of the world. The conquests o! 
]u3tinian were not his greatest glory; but what has immortalized his memory \v?i? 
hi: celebrated compilation pf the Roman laws, known as the "Pandects and Code 
of Justinian," which were arranged by his illustrious minister, Tribonian, who, at 
the head of a commission of ten eminent lawyers, had been appointed for the pur- 
pi')se by the emperor. Justinian obtained silk-worms from China, and introduced 
the manufacture of silk into Europe. He also built the Church of St. Sophia, at 
Constantinople; but he stained his character by his persecutions ^of the pagans and 
the Arian Christians. 

Death of Justinian — Domestic Dissensions and Decline of the Greek 
Empire. — The Emperor Justinian died in the year 565 A. D., at the age of eighty- 
three years. After his death the Eastern Empire was again disturbed by domestic 
dissensions. The wickedness and depravity of the imperial court at Constantinople 
soon obscured the lustre that had been shed upon the empire during the reign of 
Justinian. Emperors ascended the throne by the most revolting crimes. The Greek 
Empire rapidly declined after the death of Justinian. The Emperor Heraclius, in 
the beginning of the seventh century, engaged in three great expeditions against 
the Persians, in which he displayed the greatest military ability, thoroughly defeated 
Khosron II., the great Persian king, and effectually broke the pov/er of the second 
great Persian monarchy. 

THE LOMBARD KINGDOM IN NORTHERN ITALY. 

Migration of the Lombards to Northern Italy. — In the year 568 A. D., 
the Lombards, or Longobards (men with long beards), who had for some time 
occupied Pannonia (now Hungary), led by their king, Alboin, crossed the Alps and 
settled themselves in that portion of Northern Italy which received from them the 
name of Lombardy. They took Pavia by storm after a siege of three years, and 
made it the capital of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards were among the 
rudest and fiercest of the German tribes. 

Treatment of the Conquered People — Assassination of Alboin.— The 
Lombards treated the conquered people with harshness, and deprived them of Iheir 
possessions ; but they also commenced to devote themselves to the cultivation of their 
newly-acquired lands, and began to make some progress in civilization. The warlike 
Lombard king, Alboin, was assassinated at the instigation of his wife, the beautiful 
Rosamunda, in revenge for compelling her, during a festival, to drink from the 
goblet which had been fashioned from the .skull of her father, the king of the 
Gepidce, whom Alboin had some years lief ore killed in battle. The Lombaid king 
dom in Northern Italy lasted more than two centuries, when it was subverted by 
Charlemagne, the great Carlovingian monarch of the Franks. (A. D. 774.) 



I20 MIDDLE AGES. 

THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN. 

Helplessness of the Britons — The Angles and Saxons Called to Bri- 
tain, — Under the rule of the Romans, the inhabitants of Britain became partially 
civilized and entirely lost their warlike spirit. When, about the middle of the 
afth century after Christ, tottering Rome was obliged to withdraw her armies from 
Britain and her other remote provinces to protect herself against the Northern bar- 
baiians, the peaceful Britons, unable to defend themselves against the savage Picts 
and Scots of Caledonia (now Scotland), called in the aid of the Angles and 
Saxons, two German tribes from the region embraced by modem Schleswig and 
Holstein. Accordingly, in the year 448 A. D., a party of about 300 Saxons, under 
two leaders, Hengist and Horsa, landed in Britain. Hordes of Saxons and Angles 
continued to pour into Britain, and assisted the Britons in driving the Picts and 
Scots back into Caledonia. 

Expulsion of the Britons by the Anglo-Saxons. — The Anglo-Saxons soon 
coveted the beautiful lands of Britain for themselves. They accordingly fell upon 
the defenseless Britons, whom they killed or drove away. In one of the conflicts 
between the Saxons and the Britons, the Saxon chief, Horsa, was killed. Many 
of the unfortunate Britons fled to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall; while 
others crossed the English Channel and settled in that part of France which is 
named from them Brittany, or Bretagne. The present inhabitants of Wales, Com 
wall, and Brittany are the descendants of the ancient Britons. 

The Saxon Heptarchy. — After the Anglo-Saxons had obtained possession of 
Britain, they established seven small kingdoms collectively designated the " Saxon 
Heptarchy." The seven kingdoms were Kent ; Sussex, or South Saxony; Wessex, 
or West Saxony; Essex, or East Saxony; East Anglia; Mercia, and Nortliumberland, 

Introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. — Towards the 
close of the sixth century of the Christian era. Pope Gregory the Great commis- 
sioned the Benedictine monk, Augustine, to preach the religion of the cracified 
Redeemer to the pagan Angles and Saxons in Britain. On Christmas day, 597 
A. D., io,oco Anglo-Saxons were baptized, and Augustine became Archbishop of 
Canterbury. The Anglo-Saxons soon abandoned their idols, and embraced the 
rehgion of the Cross. In the year 827 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon 
Heptarchy were united into one great state called Angle-land or England. 



THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 

MOHAMMED. 

The Arabs and their Ancient Religion. — The Arabs, who are descended 
Jrom Ishmael, "the wild man of the desert," a son of Abraham, have always been 
as free as the air they breathe. The ancient religion of the Arabs was Sabaism, or 
Star-worship. Many of the Arab tribes professed Judaism, some Christianity, and 
others the Persian religion of Zoroaster. There, in those deserts of Arabia, these 
wild people have roamed for ages, in proud independence, never bowing to the yoke 
of a foreign conqueror. 



THE DARK AGES. 121 

Appearance of Mohammed. — About the beginning of the seventh century 
of the Christian era, a new reUgion began to be preached to the Arabians by an 
iniposter called Mohammed, or Mahomet, a descendant of the priestly tribe of the 
Koreishites, who claimed to be descended from Koreish, the most distinguished of 
Ishmael's twelve sons. In his youth, Mohammed had made journeys as a merchant 
through the desert with the caravans, during which he became convinced of the 
superiority of the Christian and Jewish religions over the Arabian idolatry. Maho- 
met exhorted his countrj'men to abandon their gross idolatrous worship, and to 
recognize and reverence the One True God, the Creator and Ruler of the entire 
universe. It was believed by his followers that Mohammed was divinely inspired, 
and that the angel Gabriel was the medium of communication with the Prophet, to 
whom, during a period of twenty years, occasional revelations are said to have been 
made. As Mohammed could neither read nor write, the revelations which are 
said to have been made to him, were committed to writing by amanuenses; and 
two years after the Prophet's death they were published as the "Koran," or Moham- 
medan Bible. 

The Hegira. — At the age of forty, Mohammed proclaimed the cardinal princi- 
ple of his creed, "There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet." At 
first no one would believe Mohammed, with the exception of his wife, Ayesha; his 
father-in-law, Abubekir; and his son-in-law, Ali; and in a tumult at Mecca, in the 
year 622 A. D., the impostor was compelled to flee from that city to Medina. The 
flight of the Prophet from Mecca is called " the Hegira," and is the point from 
which the Mohammedans reckon time, as the Christians do from the birth of Christ. 

Progress of Islam — -Its Establishment in Arabia — Death of Mohammed. 
— At Medina, Mohammed was received by his converts with demonstrations of joy, 
and the whole city soon recognized him as its chief and prophet. Mohammed now 
declared that the new religion was to be established By the sword. The number 
of his disciples increased daily; and soon they ravaged the country in small bands, 
and extended the religion of the Prophet by force. After many victories, Moham- 
med obtained forcible possession of Mecca, and the inhabitants of that city soon 
acknowledged him as their temporal and spiritual ruler. All Arabia soon adopted 
the new religion, called Islam. Mohammed was grave and dignified in his manner, 
and was possessed of simplicity, benevolence, and other domestic virtues. He died 
in the eleventh year of the Hegira. (A. D. 632.) 

MOHAMMED'S SUCCESSORS. 

REIGN OF ABUBEKIR (A. D. 632-684) 

Abubekir, First Caliph — The Koran — Victories of Kaled, " The Sword 
of God." — Mohammed was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubekir, who was 
styled the First Caliph. Abubekir was the first convert to the religion of the 
Prophet, and after he became Caliph he collected and arranged the materials which 
had been prepared by Mohammed while at Medina into a book called " the 
Koran." The fundamental points of Judaism and Christianity, together with 
maxims derived from the fables, legends, and traditions of Arabian and Persian 
mythology, are among the doctrines taught by the holy book of the Koran. 
Mohammed required frequent prayers, fasts, giving of alms, and pilgrimages to 



122 MIDDLE AGES. 

Mecca, One great commandment of the Koran was to diffuse Islam by every 
means, and to compel all nations to accept it with fire and sword. Those who sac- 
rificed their lives for the propagation of the new faith were promised a paradise of 
sensual enjoyments. Abubekir's celebrdied general, Kaled, called "The Sword of 
God," subdued in a short time the few Arabian tribes who had abandoned the new 
faith, and reestablished the religion of Mohammed over the whole of Arabia. 

Invasion of Syria — Siege and Capture of Damascus — Death of Abube- 
kir." -After all Arabia had received the Moslem faith, it was resolved to carry ll e 
religi^ n of the Koran beyond the borders of Arabia; and preparations were imme- 
diate!)" made to invade the Byzantine and Persian Empires, both of which had been 
reduced to a condition of the most deplorable weakness from the long and deso- 
lating wars that had raged between them. Kaled invaded Persia with an immense 
army; but he was soon recalled to assist in the conquest of Syria, which had been 
invaded by several large Saracen armies. The great cities of Palmyra and Bozrah 
submitted to the invaders. Damascus was besieged by the Saracens, and finally 
carried by storm. On the very day of the capture of Damascus, Abubekir died. 
(August 3, 634.) 

REIGN OF OMAR (A. D. 634-644). 

Accession of Omar — -Battle of Yermouk — Fall of Jerusalem^Conquest 
of Syria. — Abubekir was succeeded as Caliph by Omar. After the fall of Damas- 
cus, Emessa and Baalbec or Heliopolis were also reduced by the Saracen arms. 
The Greek Emperor Heraclius made great efforts to save Syria to his empire; but 
his armies suffered an overwhelming defeat from the Saracen forces under Kaled 
in a great battle on the banks of the Yermouk, where 70,000 Byzantine soldiers 
laid down their lives. (A. D. 636.) After a siege of four months, Jerusalem sur- 
rendered to Omar, who caused the ground on which the Temple of Solomon had 
stood to be cleared of its rubbish and prepared for the erection of a Mohammedan 
mosque, or temple, which still bears the name of the Caliph. The reduction of the 
great cities of Aleppo and Antioch, in the year 638 A. D., completed the conquest 
of Syria by the Saracens. 

Invasion of Persia — Battle of Cadesiah — Conquest of Persia. — While the 
events just related were occumng in Syria, other Saracen generals were engaged 
in the subjugation of Persia. In the year of the battle of Yermouk (A. D. 636), one 
of the bloodiest battles recorded in history was fought between the Saracens and the 
Persians on the plain of Cadesiah, the Arabians losing 7,500 men and the Persians 
100,000. This great battle broke the power of the Persian monarchy, and five 
years afterward (A. D. 641), the Persian king, Yesdejird, like Darius Codomannus 
of old, having fled before his conquerors to the mountains, was assassinated by his 
own officers. With the death of Yesdejird ended forever the famous dynasty of 
the Sassanidas and the second great Persian Empire; and Persia yielded to the 
Saracen dominion. 

Invasion of Egypt — Capture of Memphis and Alexarfdria. — In the mean 
time, Eg)'pt, then a province of the Byzantine or Greek Empire, had been Ir vaded 
by the Saracen forces under Aniru. The Copts of Upper Egypt, descendants of the 
ancient Egyj^tians, joined the Arabians against the Greeks. Memphis surrendered 
to the Saracens after a siege of seven months; but Alexandria held out longer, and 



THE DARK AGES. 



123 



only fell into the hands of the Arabians in the year 640 A. D., after an ol)stinate 
defense. \Vlaen Amru asked Omar how he should dispose of the great library in 
Alexandria, the Caliph replied, " If these writings agree with the Koran, they are 
useless and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious and should 
be destroyed." Accordingly that great store of ancient learning was sacrificed to 
the bigotry and fanaticism of the Saracen monarch. 

Conquest of Egypt — Founding of Cairo — Assassination of Omar. — The 
.'aU of Alexandria decided the fate of Egj'pt, which country then became a provinct 
of the Saracen Empire. The Saracens founded in Egypt a new city which they named 
Cairo. In the year 644 A. D., Omar's life and eventful reign were terminated by 
the dagger of an assassin. During Omar's reign of ten years, the Saracens reduced 
36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 Christian churches, and erected 1,500 
Mohammedan mosques. . 

REIGN OF OTHMAN (A. D. 644-655). 

Accession of Othtnan — Conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes — Assassination 
of Othman. — Omar was succeeded in the Caliphate by Othman, Mohammed's early 
secretary, who published a new edition of the Koran. During Othman's reign of 
eleven years, the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes submitted to the Saracen power. 
Othman was assassinated on his throne in the year 655 A. D., while he covered his 
heart with the Koran. 

REIGN OF ALI (A. D. 65S-660). 

Accession of Ali — Civil War among the Saracens — Assassination of Ali, 

— Upon the assassination of Othman, Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, became Caliph. 
During the reign of Ali, the Mohammedan world became divided into two great 
religious parties, the Sunnites and the Shiites. A civil war now broke out among 
the Saracens ; and Ali was assassinated, and the throne of the Caliphs was seized by 
the family of the Ommiyades. (A. D. 660.) 

REIGNS OF THE OMMIYADES (A. D. 660-7S2). 

Damascus made the Saracen Capital — Conquests in India and Tartary, 
— The first Caliph of the dynasty of the Ommiyades was Moawiyah, who made the 
beautiful city of Damascus the capital of the Saracen Empire. Under the Ommi- 
yades, the empire of the Saracens and the religion of the Koran were carried into 
Northern Hindoostan and also into a great portion of Tartary. 

Unsuccessful Attacks on Constantinople. — Under the Ommiyades, the Sara- 
cens made several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the Byzantine or Greek Empire. 
During a period of seven years (A. D. 668-675), Constantinople withstood seven 
attacks, and was only saved by the newly-invented Greek fire. About forty years 
afterwards (A. D. 717), the Byzantine capital was again besieged by thAaracens; 
but after a siege of more than a year, it was relieved by the Bulgarians, who attacked 
the Saracens and inflicted upon them a crushing defeat. 

Siege, Capture, and Destruction of Carthage— Conquest of Northern 
Africa. — Under the Ommiyades, the Arabs prosecuted with vigor their conquests in 
Northern Africa. After a heroic resistance of nine years, Carthage was taken by 



1 24 



MIDDLE AGES. 



storm, and finally and completely destroyed. (A. D. 69S.) The Saracens encoun- 
tered a stubborn resistance from the Moorish and Berber races, whom they finally 
subdued in the year 709 A. D. ; and all Northern Africa became a portion of the 
vast Saracen Empire. The Moorish tribes, resembling the roving Arabs in their 
customs and manners, adopted the name, language, and religion of their conquerors. 

Saracen Invasion of Spl^n — Battle of Xerxes de la Frontera — Conquest 
of Spain — No sooner had the Saracens completed the conquest of Northern Africa, 
than they were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Spanish noble, in revenge for 
an injuiy which he had received from the tyrant Roderick, the Visigcthic king of 
Spain. Accordingly, in the year 71 1 A. D., Tarik, the Arabian general, with a 
large aimy, crossed the strait between Africa and Spain which has ever since been 
called Gibraltar, meaning Gebel al Tarik, or Hill of Tarik. After landing in Spain, 
Tarik overthrew Roderick in the great seven days' battle of Xeres de la Frontera, 
which terminated the Visigothic monarchy in Spain. (A. D. 712.) Roderick 
escaped from the battle-field, but found his death in the waters of the Guadalquivir, 
After a gallant defense, Merida, the Spanish capital, surrendered to the victorious 
Saracens, whose dominion was then established in the whole of Spain. (A. D. 713.) 

Saracen Invasion of France— Terrible Defeat of the Saracens near 
Tours. — After the conquest of Spain, the Saracens resolved to push their arms across 
the Pyrenees, and to extend their dominion and religion over France, and, if possible, 
over all Europe. The Gallic tribes of Southern France submitted without resistance 
to the conquering Arabs; and Abdelrahman, the Saracen governor of Spain, entered 
France at the head of a large Arabian and Moorish army, and marched biumph- 
antly northward, desolating the country along his route with fire and sword, to the 
very centre of France, and established his camp between Tours and Poitiers. But 
now the confederacy of Franks, which had long been torn by dissensions, united to 
oppose the common enemy of Europe and Christianity. In the year 732 A. D., 
Charles Martel, " the Hammer," at the head of a powerful army of Franks, met 
Abdelrahman and his Saracens near Tours; and after a great battle of seven days, 
during which several hundred thousand Moslems perished, the victory was decided 
in favor of the Christian Franks. The tide of Mussulman conquest was rolled 
back, and Europe was saved to the Christian religion. 

REIGNS OF THE ABBASIDES (A. D. 752-1218). 

Overthrow of the Ommiyades by the Abbasides — The Caliphate of 
Cordova. — The Saracen power had already been greatly weakened by domestic 
dissensions and civil wars; and in the year 752 A. D., twenty years after the defeat 
of the Saracens by the Franks, the dynasty of the Ommiyades was overthrown, and 
the family of the Abbasides, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, 
seized the throne of the Saracen Caliphate. Abderrahman, the only one of the ' 
Ommiyades who escaped destruction, fled' to Spain, in which country he founded 
the indefindent Caliphate of Cordova, which lasted 250 years. 

Bagdad Founded and Made the Saracen Capital. — Under Al Mansur, the 
cecond Caliph of the Abbaside dynasty, the Saracens built on the banks of the 
Tigris a new city which they named Bagdad, and which became the capital of the 
Saracen Empire and the great centre of Arabian civilization, learning, wealth, 
and refinement. 



THE DARK AGES. 



125 



Civilization of the Arabs. — During the reign of Haroun al Raschid (Aaron 
the Just) and several of his successors, the Arabs carried science and literature to a 
very high degree of perfection. Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova became famous as 
the seats of learning, while the greater part of Europe was slumbering in tie dark- 
ness of barbarism. The Arabs taught the arts, sciences, literature, and poetry 
wherever they established their dominion and religion. Architecture and music 
flourished in all the Arabian cities of Asia, Africa, and Spain. Agriculture, industry, 
and commerce were encouraged. 

Decline and Dissolution of the Saracen Empire. — The extensive Saracen 
Empire, torn by religious and political dissensions, soon declined in power and 
importance, and before the close of the ninth century it fell to pieces ; and numer- 
ous petty Mohammedan kingdoms arose from the fragments of the once-vast empire 
of the Caliphs. Although the civil power of the Saracens was thus subverted, the 
religion of Mohammed remained in all the countries in which it had been estab- 
lished. 

Decline and Overthrow of the Saracen Power in Spain. — Under the rule 
of the Mohammedans, Spain enjoyed a greater degree of prosperity and a higher 
state of civilization, than at any previous period. But the Saracen power in Spain 
soon began to decline; and in the year 103 1 A. D., the Caliphate of Cordova was 
dissolved into a number of small states, which were gradually conquered by the 
Christians from their mountainous seats of the Asturias, in the northern part of the 
Spanish peninsula. In the course of time arose the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, 
Castile, Leon, and Portugal, which waged continual wars against the Mohammedan 
kingdom of Granada, in the south of Spain. The kingdom of Granada was 
founded in, the year 1238 A. D., and conquered in 1492 by the united power of 
Aragon and Castile. With the conquest of Granada ended the Mohammedan power 
in Spain, after it had existed in that country eight centuries. 

THE FRANK EMPIRE. 

THE REIGNS OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 

Conquest of Gaul by Clovis, King of the Franks. — In the fifth century of 
the Christian era, the Franks, or Freemen, conducted by their warlike king, Clovis, 
invaded Northern Gaul, subdued the country, and, at Soissons, put to death Syag- 
rius, the last Roman governor in Gaul. Clovis soon conquered all the country 
between the Loire and the Seine, and fixed his capital at Soissons, after which he 
procecled against the Allemanni on the Rhine, whom he overcame in the battle of 
Tol'^iac. (A. D. 496.) During the battle, Clovis made a vow that if the God 
worshiped by his wife, who was a Christian princess, would give him the victory 
he would embrace Christianity. Clovis and 5,000 of his subjects were XhXiV.Lcd in 
the Rhine, on Christmas day, in the year 496 A. D. 

Savage Character of Clovis. — Christianity had little or no influence on the 
bloodthirsty disposition of Clovis. He put to death all the chiefs or kings who fell 
into his hands ; and, in order to secure himself against rivals, he caused his nearest 
relations to be murdered. Clovis, who had already made Paris the capital of his 
kingdom, died in the year 511 A. D. 



126 MIDDLE AGES. 

Division of the Frank Kingdom. — After the death of Clovis, his dominions 
were divided among his sons, and thus were formed the three kingdoms : Austrasia, 
east of the Rhine; Neustria, between the Rliine and the Loire ; and Aquitaine, be- 
tween the Loire and the Pyrenees. These three kingdoms were afterwards united 
under one sovereign, and were enlarged by tlie conquest and anne.\ation of Burgundy. 

Character of the Merovingian Kings. — Clovis and his descendants are called 
Merovingians, from Merovteus, their supposed ancestor. The reigns of the Mero- 
vingian kings were a period of crime and continual bloodshed. As soon as a king 
received his crown he caused his male relatives to be put to death. The conse- 
quence of these murders was that the Merovingian race was reduced to weakness 
and imbecility ; and finally the ministers of the kings, called Mayors of the Palace, 
usurped all the powers of sovereignty, leaving to the monarchs nothing more than 
the empty title of royalty. 

Pepin d' Heristal and Charles Martel. — At length Pepin d' Ileristal, Mayor 
of the Palace, united the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria, and Bur- 
gundy, and made the Mayoralty hereditaiy in his family; from which lime the 
Merovingian kings ruled only in name, while all the sovereign power was exercised 
by, the Mayors of the Palace. Pepin d' Heristal was succeeded in the Mayoralty by 
his son, the heroic and valiant Charles Martel, who by his great victory over the 
Saracens proved to be the saviour of Christianity in Europe. 

THE REIGNS OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

REIGN OF PEPIN THE LITTLE (A. D. 751-768). 

Usurpation of Pepin the Little — Beginning of the Pope's Temporal 
Power. — On the death of Charles Martel, his son Pepin the Little succeeded to the 
Mayoralty. Pepin put an end to the nominal reign of the Merovingian dynasty by 
deposing the imbecile Childeric III., and causing himself to be proclaimed King 
of the Franks. (A. D. 751.) Pepin the Little and his descendants are called Car- 
lovingians. The Pope confirmed the dethronement of the Merovingian race, hoping 
thereby to secure the assistance of PejDin against the Lombards. In return for this 
favor from the Head of the Church, Pepin endowed the Pope with a large portion 
of the Adriatic coast of Italy southward from Ravenna. This was the beginning of 
the temporal power of the Pope. 

Boniface or Winfried — Introduction of Christianity among the Germans- 
^During the reign of Pepin the Little, Boniface, or Winfried, the active and zeal- 
ous English missionaiy, first promulgated the doctrine of a crucified Redeemer to 
the savage inhabitants of Germany; and through his efforts churches and bishoprics 
were established in that country. Boniface preached the Gospel of Christ in Hesse, 
and displayed such zeal that he was surnamed " The Apostle of the Germans." 
After being made Archbishop of Mayence, Winfried, in his old age, undertook a 
mission to the pagan Finlanders, who put the noble missionaiy to a violent deathc 

REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE (A. D. 768-814). 

Accession of Charlemagne or Charles the Great. — Pepin the Little died in 
the ytar 768 A. D., and left the Frank kingdom to his two sons, Charles and Carlo- 



THE DARK AGES. 



127 



mar.. On the death of Carloman, m the year 871, Charles seized upon all the 
Prankish dominions, and thus became sole sovereign of the vast Frank monarchy. 
Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, as he is called, was one of the greatest and 
wisest monarchs of the Middle Ages, as he did much for the establishment of Chris- 
tianity and the revival of civihzation in Europe. 

Charlemagne's First War with the Saxons. — After crushing a revolt of the 
Aquitanians, Charlemagne led an ai-my against the^ Saxons of Northern Germany. 
Charlemagne took the fortress of Eresburg, destroyed the pagan idols, and in the 
year 772 compelled the Saxons to accept a treaty of peace. But this peace was of 
short duration; and for thirty-two years, Charlemagne waged war against the 
Saxons, for the purpose of punishing them for their repeated aggressions, and 
extending his empire and the Christian religion. 

Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy by Charlemagne. — After 
his first war with the Saxons, Charlemagne became involved in a war with the 
Lombards of Northern Italy. The Lombard king, Desiderius, had given protection 
to the widow of Carloman, the deceased brother of Charlemagne; and when Pope 
Adrian I. refused to anoint her sons Kings of the Franks, Desiderius threatened 
an invasion of the papal dominions. Upon the Pope's appeal for aid, Charlemagne 
crossed the Alps into Italy with a large army, and compelled Desiderius to shut 
himself up in his capital, Pavia, which surrendered to the Franks after a six months' 
siege. Desiderius was made a piisoner, and spent the remainder of his days in a 
cloister; and Charlemagne, placing upon his own head the iron crown of the Lom- 
bards, assumed the title of King of Italy, thus putting an end to the Lombard 
monarchy which had existed in Northern Italy for two centuries. (A. D. 774.) 

Charlemagne's Second War with the Saxons. — \Vhile Chartemagne was 
in Italy, the Saxons expelled the Frank garrisons from their ten^itory. But after 
the conquest of the Lombards, Charlemagne again led a large army into the Saxon 
country, subdued the barbarians a second time, and compelled the Saxon chiefs to 
agree to the peace of Paderbom. The warlike Saxon duke, Witikind, refusing to 
accept the treaty, fled to the Danes. (A. D. 777.) 

Charlemagne's Aid to the Christians of Spain — Battle of Roncesvalles. 
— In the year 7 78 A. D., Charlemagne went to the assistance of the Christians of 
Spain against the Saracens. He dismantled Pampehma and Saragossa, and united 
all that portion of Spain between the Ebro and the Pyrenees to the great Frank 
Empire. As the Frankish monarch was recrossing the Pyrenees into France, his 
rear-guard, under the command of his nephew Roland, was attacked and cut to 
pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles. Roland himself was among the slain. The 
battle of Roncesvalles gave rise to many romances, and was celebrated in the 
poetry of the Middle Ages. 

Renewal of the War with the Saxons. — While Charlemagne was fighting 
against the Mohammedans in Spain, the Saxons again took up arms against the 
Franks ; but after his return from Spain, Charlemagne again invaded and ravaged 
the territories of the Saxons, and again subjugated those fierce people after a series 
of desperate encounters. The victorious Frankish king compelled many of the 
conquered Saxons to join his armies in a war against the Slavonians in the East of 
Europe. 



128 MIDDLE AGES. 

Conquest of the Saxons by Charlemagne. — On tlae march against the Slavo- 
nians, the Saxons in Cliarlemagne's army fell suddenly upon the Frankish soldiers 
and massacred many of them. This treachery was terribly avenged by the Frankish 
monarch, who devastated the Saxon territory and caused 4,500 Saxons whom he had 
made prisoners to be put to death. The Saxons now renewed the war, but after 
sustaining a severe defeat on the Hase they were obliged to submit; and Saxony 
became a portion of the Frank Empire. Witikind, the Saxon chief, swore fealty to 
the Frankish monarch, received Christian baptism, and he and his people embraced 
Christianity. Bishoprics, monasteries, and churches, rapidly sprung up in the Saxon 
country. 

The Margraviate of Brandenburg — Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria. — In the 
year 788 A. D., not long after Charlemagne had established the Margraviate of 
Brandenburg as a check against the destructive inroads of the Slavonians, his nephew, 
Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria, endeavored to cast off the yoke of Frankish supremacy, 
with the aid of the wild Avars, who had established themselves in the East of 
Europe. The treacherous Bavarian duke was defeated, made prisoner, and pim- 
ished for his faithlessness by perpetual imprisonment in the cloister at Fulda, in 
Hesse. Charlemagne then incorporated the Dukedom of Bavaria with the great 
Frank Empire, and established the Eastern Margraviate to check the incursions of 
the Avars. 

Charlemagne Crowned at Rome Emperor of the West — Division in 
the Church. — When Charlemagne had become master of all. France, Germany, 
and Italy, and a large portion of Spain, he proceeded to Rome, where, on Christ- 
mas day, in the year 800 A. D., as the great Frankish monarch was attending divine 
service in the ^hurch of St. Peter, Pope Leo III. placed the golden crown of the 
Roman Empire upon his head, and saluted him with title of " Emperor of the Ro- 
mans," while the people in the church shouted, " Long life to Charles Augustus, 
crowned by the hand of God great and pacific Emperor of the Romans." The 
crowning of Charlemagne at Rome was regarded as a revival of the Roman Empire 
of the West; and Charlemagne was considered a successor of the Caesars. The 
capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aix-la-Chapelle. There were now two great 
empires in Christendom; — that of the East with Constantinople for its capital, and 
that of the West with Aix-la-Chapelle for its seat of government. The division 
which had for a long time existed in the Christian Church now ended in a complete 
separation; and thus arose the Eastern, or Greek Catholic, and the Western, or 
Roman Catholic Churches. 

Rebellion of the Saxons — Their Final Subjugation by Charlemagne. — 
Maddened by the oppressive system of militaiy service, and by the payment of 
tithes to the Church, the Saxons rose in rebellion against the Frank power; but they 
were finally reduced to submission in the year 840 A. D.; and 10,000 Saxon fami- 
lies \vr;re forced to settle among the Franks, while colonies of Franks were settled 
in the Saxon country. 

Charlemagne's Domestic Policy. — Charlemagne, who was extremely fond 
of learning, received instruction from the Saxon Alcuin, one of the greatest scholars 
of his time. He made the greatest exertions for the advancement of civilization 
among his subjects, and established order and improved the administration of justice 
throughout his vast dominions. He encouraged the arts, agriculture, commerce, 



THE DARK AGES. 



129 



and literature; and founded schools and cathedrals for the diffusion of intellectual 
enlightenment and Christianity. His capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was splendidly em- 
bellished with palaces, churches, and works of art. 

Death of Charlemagne. — This great monarch, who did so much to dispel the 
intellectual darkness which almost universally prevailed in Europe, died in the year 
814 A. D., leaving his extensive empire to his son, Louis the Debonnaire (the 
Good-natured). 

CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. 

Louis the Debonnaire — His Disposition— Civil War — Battle of Fon 
tenaille. — Charlemagne's successors were unable to keep together the great empire 
which he had built up. Louis the Debonnaire, who was a weak prince and unfit 
for government, was dethroned by his own sons, who had taken up arms against their 
father. The sons then quarreled, and a fierce civil war followed. A sanguinary 
battle of three days was fought at Fontenaille, in Burgundy, in the year 841 A. D., 
where many thousands of the bravest of the Frank nobles and soldiers were slain. 

Partition Treaty of Verdun— Dismemberment of the Frank Empire — 
— Charles the Fat. — Two years after the battle of Fontenaille (843 A. D.), the 
partition treaty of Verdun was concluded, by which the sons of Louis the Debon- 
naire divided the Frank Empire among themselves — Lothaire taking Italy, Bur- 
gundy, and Lorraine; Louis the German obtaining Germany; and Charles the 
Bald receiving France. By the rapid deaths of most of the Carlovingian princes, 
tlie empire of Charlemagne was restored in the year 884 A. D., under the imbecile 
Charles the Fat; but three years afterward (A. D. 887), it was finally dissolved. 

BARBARIAN RAVAGES IN EUROPE. 

The Slavonians or Slaves and the Avars.— The dissolution of the Frank 
Empire was followed by a time of great confusion, during which Europe was 
gieatly harassed on all sides by the ravages of barbarians. In the East of Europe 
were the Slavonians, or Slaves, who made the most destructive inroads into the 
Eastern portions of Germany. The Avars, another fierce tribe, also made very de- 
structive incursions on the Eastern frontiers of Germany. 

The Hungarians or Magyars. — Gemiany was a prey to the ravages of a 
fiercer and more valiant people than either the Slavonians or the Avars, — namely, 
the Hungarians, or Magj'ars, a warlike and ferocious tribe of Tartars from Asia, 
who, after crossing the Ural, under their leader, Arpad, settled in the valleys of 
the Theiss and Danube rivers, which region has ever since been called Hungary. 
For several centuries, Germany was harassed by these fierce barbarians, whose 
ferocity was only tamed when they embraced Christianity, toward the close of rhe 
tenth century. 

The Saracens in Italy. — ■\^'hiIe the barbarian Slavonians, Avars, and Magj'ars 
ravaged Central Europe, the Saracens ravaged the coasts of Italy after they had 
established themselves in Sicily. The armies of the Byzantine Empire for a time 
defended Southern Italy against the Arabs, whose ravages in Italy were only termi- 
nated after their defeat by Otlio II., Emperor of Germany, in the tenth century. 
9 



130 



MIDDLE AGES. 



The Northmen or Normans. — A far more daring and formidable race of Dar- 
barians than tlie Slaves, the Avars, or the Hungarians, were the freebooting North- 
men, or Normans, from the Scandinavian peninsula, yi\\Q kept the coasts of Germany, 
France, and England in constant alarm. In their light vessels, the Normans rav- 
aged the coasts of the North Sea, sailed up the mouths of rivers, and, after securing 
a vast amount of booty, returned with it to their homes. For two centuries, the 
Normans, under the name of Danes, ravaged England. A band of Normans, led 
by 2 chief named Rollo, settled in that portion of France named from them, Nor 
mandy. Ruric, a Norman Varangian chief, became the prince of the Russians, a 
Slavonic race to the south of the gulfs of. Bothnia and Finland. Iceland was dis- 
covered and peopled by Norwegians, who established in that remote island a flour- 
ishing republic. Greenland was discovered and peopled from Iceland. The Nor- 
mans are said to have visited the North American continent. 



EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

Origin of the Feudal System — Division of Lands among the Barba- 
rians. — We will now proceed to give an account of the Feudal System, or form of 
government which prevailed throughout Europe, during the Middle Ages. The 
barbarians who overthrew the Western Roman Empire divided the conquered lands 
among themselves. The chief of each of these tribes' of barbarians was called a 
"king." Under him were other chiefs or leaders called " barons." Under each 
of these baf ons there were still other chiefs, and under each of these last was a large 
body of people. The military organization was kept up in the conquered countries. 
The barbarian conquerors devoted themselves entirely to war, leaving the tilling of 
the soil to the conquered inhabitants, who became slaves or serfs. The serfs could 
not be taken from the lands on which they lived, but were bought and sold with 
them. 

Castles of the Kings and Barons — Allotment of the Lands — Feuds or 
Fiefs. — The kings and barons owned large stone castles, to which they retired 
when attacked by an enemy. All the personal property of the conquered people 
was divided by lot among the conquerors; but the lands were regarded as the pro- 
perty of the king, not to retain, however, but to grant to his followers. The king 
kept a portion of the lands for his own use. These were called "crown lands;" 
and the king's power depended upon the extent of his private estates. The remain- 
der of the lands was bestowed on his subordinate chiefs, the barons, to be held by 
them for life. At the death of a chief or baron, his portion of land, called a '*feud,' 
or " fief, " was again taken by the king, who then bestowed it on some other baron. 
From tlie term " feud," the word " feudal" is derived; and by the Feudal System 
is meant the system based on the feuds or fiefs. 



EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 



^31 



Vassals and Lord-paramount — Conditions of the Allotment — Sub- 
fiefs. — Those to whom the king granted fiefs were called "vassals of the crown," 
or "liegemen." The giver of the lands was called a "liege-lord," or "lord-para- 
mount." The king bestowed the lands on his vassals, on condition that they should 
join him with a cartain number of soldiers whenever he should call them to arms. 
To this tl,ey bound themselves by a solemn oath, which was called "swearing fealty." 
The king, who was lord-paramount, or liege-lord, in return, swore to protect 
iiis vassal, and not to continue in arms more than forty days at a time, nor war 
against the Church. On the same condition, the vassals of the crown distributed 
their lands among their followers or vassals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and 
sub-fiefs on his vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his liege-lord. 
So there were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. 

Fiefs and Titles become Hereditary. — These fiefs, which were at first granted 
only for life, at length became hereditary in the families of the great vassals of the 
crown, each of whose estates at his death passed into die possession of his eldest 
son. In the same manner, great offices and their titles, such as duke, marquis, 
count, or baron, finally became hereditary also. Out of this state of things origin- 
ated the exclusive privileges yet enjoyed by the nobility of Europe. 

CHIVALRY. 

Origin of Chivalry — Devotion to the Cause of the Weak and Oppressed. 

— The great oppressions and abuses to which the Feudal System gave rise, led to 
the establishment of a remarkable institution throughout Europe about the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century. This peculiar institution, called Chivalry, originated 
in the piety of some nobles who wished to give to the profession of arms a religious 
tendency. These nobles devoted their swords to God, and bound themselves by a 
solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the weak and the oppressed. Those 
who took upon themselves these vows were called "knights." Very soon every 
noble aspired to the honor of being a knight; and the result was that much attention 
was given to the education of the young, for more than physical power was needed 
before any one could be admitted to the honors of knighthood. 

Virtues Requisite for Knighthood — Education of a Knight. — The aspi- 
rant to knighthood was required to be brave, courteous, generous, truthful, obedient 
and respectful to his superiors in age or rank, and also to the ladies. The result 
of the development of these virtuous and noble qualities was that the candidate for 
knighthood became kind and afTable to all who were below him in rank or fortune. 
The young noble who aspired to knighthood was placed at a very early age under 
tlie care of some noble distinguished for his chivalrous qualities, who, in his castle, 
instructed the young aspirant to knighthood in all the duties of Chivalry. 

Ceremonies of Admission to Knighthood. — The ceremonies of admission 
Ic the order of knighthood were somewhat singular. The candidate was first 
placed in a bath, to denote that in presenting himself for knighthood, he must pre- 
sent himself washed from his sins. When he left the bath he was clothed; first in 
a white tunic, to signify the purity of the life he was vowing to lead ; then m a 
crimson vest, to denote that he was called upon to shed blood ; and lastly in a com- 



132 MIDDLE AGES. 

plete suit of black armor, whicli was an emblem of death, for which he must always 
be prepared. He took an oath to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect 
the distressed, to practice courtesy, to defend the Christian religion, to despise the 
allurements of ease, and to vindicate the honor of his name. 

Dress and Arms of a Knight. — The knight was dressed in a suit of arm'/r 
which protected his whole person. This armor was sometimes made of mail, that 
is, links of iron forming a kind of net-work dress, which a sword or a lance could 
not easily penetrate. Often this armor consisted of plates of iron, which protecte*! 
the whole body of the knight. The aggressive weapons of a knight were a lance 
twelve or fifteen feet in length, a large sword, a dagger, and sometimes a battle-axe, 
or a steel club called "mace-at-arms." The knight's war-horse, like himself, was 
protected by a covering of mail or iron plato. 

Knights-errant — Tournaments. — Those knights who traveled about from 
place to place, independent of each other, were called " Knights -err ant." Some- 
times a great entertainment, called a " tournament," was given by some king or 
rich prince, at which a mock combat was held for the knights to display their skill 
in the use of arms. A vast number of ladies and gentlemen assembled to witness 
these friendly trials of slcill. At the conclusion of the exercises, the judges, who 
were usually old knights, declared the victors ; and the prizes were presented to the 
successful knights by the noblest or most beautiful lady present. 

Good Effects of Chivalry on European Civilization. — The good effects of 
the institution of Chivalry were many. \\Tiile it protected the defenseless and the 
downtrodden in that warlike and barbarous period, the Middle Ages, it contributed 
much to the final overthrow of feudalism and the revival of European civilization, 
which had disappeared with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Commerce 
increased, talent and invention received encouragement, the arts and the sciences 
began to flourish, and many new towns were built and peopled. 

! THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY. 

The Papal Power — Hildebrand. — The Pope, or Head of the Church, assumed 
command or authority over all the princes and kingdoms of Christendom. He 
regarded the empire of Germany and all other Christian kingdoms as papal fiefs. 
From the eleventh to the sixteenth century the papal power was at its height. 
During that period the power of the Pope was so great that the most powerful 
monarchs of Europe could be subjected to the greatest humiliations by His Holiness. 
The most powerful and most illustrious, and the ablest of the Topes, and the one 
who raised the papacy above every other power in Christendom, was Gregoiy VII. 
(Hildebrand), who compelled Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, to coire to Italy 
and stand three days and three nights barefoot in the snow, without tasting a mMUth^ 
ful of food. 

Interdict and Excommunication.— The two punishments by the influence ci 
which the Pope endeavored to maintain his authority were the interdict and L: e 
excommunication. The papal punishment by the interdict was forbidding or inter- 
dicting divine service to be publicly performed. When a nation was under an 
interdict, the churches were all closed, the bells were not rung, the dead were thrown 
into ditches and holes without any funeral ceremonies, diversions of all sorts were 



EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 



T^ll 



forbidden, and everything presented an appearance of gloom and mourning. An 
interdict was leveled at a village, a city, a state, or a nation; but an excommunica- 
tion was directed against individuals. A person excommunicated by the Pope was 
regarded as unholy and polluted; and every person was forbidden to come near 
him or render him any friendly assistance. If the sentence of excommunication 
could be enforced, as in most cases it could, the proudest and most powerful mon- 
arch could become, by a single decree of the Holy See, a miserable outcast. 

The Power and Influence of the Clergy. — The power and influence of the 
(iergy during the Middle Ages was almost as gi'eat and important as was that of 
the nobles and the princes. Besides their ecclesiastical dignities, the superior clergy 
often held the most important offices of state; and by degrees great numbers of the 
archbishops, bishops, and abbots acquired extensive possession^, so that they finally 
became as powerful and influential as most of the princes. The magnificent cathe- 
drals and abbeys, adorned with all the productions of art, fully attested the greatness 
of the ecclesiastical residences. 

MONACHISM. 

Origin of Monachism or Monasticism — Life of Solitude and Religious 
Devotion. — Monachism, or Monasticism, had its birth-place in the East, where a 
life of solitude and devotion to the contemplation of divine subjects was by degrees 
adopted by so many, that about the close of the third century of the Christian era, 
the Egyptian Antonius, who had divested himself of all his vast possessions and 
selected the desert for his residence, collected the hitherto scattered monks, or mona- 
chi, as ihey were called, into enclosed places styled monasteries, cloisters, or con- 
vents. In these monasteries the monks lived together in fellowship; and Pachomius, 
the disciple of Antonius, gave the fraternity a rule. 

The Benedictine Monks — The Augustinians and other Monastic Or- 
ders. — Monasticism soon extended into Western Europe. In the sixth century, 
Benedict of Nursia established a monastery on Mount Casino, in Southern Italy, 
and thus became the founder of the famous order of Benedictine monks, which 
rapidly spread into all European countries and built many cloisters. Numerous 
orders of monks arose in the course of time, among which were the Augustinians, 
so called from their founder, St. Augustine. Other noted monastic orders were the 
Cistercians, the Premonstrants, and the Carthusians. 

The Franciscan and Dominican Monks. — Two celebrated monkish orders 
arose in the thirteenth century, — the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The order of 
Franciscans was founded by the pious Francis of Assisi, a wealthy merchant's son, 
who, in 1226, renounced all his possessions, clothed himself in rags, and went from 
place to place, begging and preaching the Gospel. His wonderful zeal for the sal- 
vation of soul-s made for him many disciples, who, following his example, renounced 
Iheir worldly possessions, fasted, prayed, and supported themselves by alms and 
donations. The order of Franciscans became wide-spread throughout Europe. 
Abou* the same time arose the order of Dominicans, founded by the learned Span- 
iard, Dominicus. The chief aim of the Dominican monRs was the extinction of all 
heretical doctrines and the preservation of the predominant faith in its original 
purity. The Dominicans took a vow of absolute poverty, and sought to gain heaven 



134 



MIDDLE AGES. 



by austerity of manner and by a strict religious devotion. The Court of the Inqu'- 
sition, with all its horrible examinations, dungeons, and tortures, was assigned to 
the Dominicans for the extermination of heretics, as all who differed from the estab- 
lished Church were called. The Franciscan monks, who mingled with the people, 
were chiefly engaged in the salvation of souls; while the Dominicans, who gave 
their attention to the sciences, filled, by degrees, the chairs of the universities. 

Monastic Vows — Nuns and Nunneries — Relations of Monachism to 
the Papacy. — All monks were obliged to take the three vows of celibacy, persona! 
poverty, and obedience. Females who took upon themselves the obligations of 
Monachism were called "nuns," and their cloisters or convents were styled "nun 
neries." The monastic orders were the strongest support of the power of the Pope, 
who endowed them with the greatest privileges and removed them from the author- 
ity of the bishops. 

Beneficial Influence of Monachism on Civilization and the Manners of 
the Age. — Monachism proved a blessing to humanity during the dark and barba- 
rous period of the Middle Ages. It preserved the remains of ancient civilization, 
afforded an asylum or place of refuge for the down-trodden and the oppressed, and 
diffused morality and intellectual enlightenment, and softened the rude manners of 
those benighted times by the preaching of the Gospel, and by the establishment of 
schools for education. 



THE CRUSADES. 



THE FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096-1099) 

Christian Pilgrimages to Jerusalem — Outrages upon the Pilgrims — 
Frgm the time of the triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world 
in the fourth century, it had been a custom among the people of Christian Europe to 
make pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the purpose of expiating a sinful life, praying at 
the Holy Sepulchre, and exhibiting gratitude for heavenly mercies. As long as 
Syria and Palestine formed a part of the Byzantine, Greek, or Eastern Roman Em- 
pire, access to the Holy City was secured to these pilgrims. WTiile the Holy Land 
remained under the enlightened dominion of the Saracens or Arabians, the Christian 
pilgi-im was also unmolested in his journey to and from the Holy Sepulchre. But 
when the Seljuk Turks, a race of fierce barbarians from the plains of Tartary, took 
Jerusalem in 1076, and obtained full possession of the Holy Land in 1094, the 
native Christians and the pilgrims from Europe were ill-treated, and many of them 
became martjTS to their religion. Those who returned to Europe from their pil- 
grimages gave a melancholy account of the cruelties and oppressions suffered by 
the Christians in Palestine at the hands of the infidel Turks, and thus excited the 
greatest indignation in Christian Europe. 



THE CRUSADES. 



135 



Preaching of Peter the Hermit — Enthusiasm of the People of Europe. 

— Among others who had been witnesses of the cruelties and oppressions suffered 
6y the Christians in Palestine was the zealous and fanatical monk, Peter the Hermit, 
of Amiens, in the French province of Picardy. On his return to Europe from a 
pilgrimage to the Holy J^and, Peter the Hermit resolved to arouse the Christian 
nations of Europe to a gigantic effort to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the 
infidels, Peter went from town to town, and from castle to castle, preaching of the 
luty of Christian Europe to expel the barbarian Turks from the Holy City. Wncr 
ever he went, numerous crowds assembled to hear him; and very soon all France 
and Italy were aroused to the wildest enthusiasm for an expedition against the infidel 
desecrators of the shrine of the Saviour. 

Pope Urban II. and the Council of Clermont. — Pope Urban H., who zeal- 
ously abetted the design for an expedition for the redemption of tfie Holy Land, as- 
sembled a Council of the Church at Clermont, in Southern France. This Council 
was attended by numerous bishops and an immense concourse of people. When 
the Pope, addressing the clergy and the multitude, said, " It is the duty of eveiy 
one to deny himself and take up the cross, that he may win Christ," there arose a 
simultaneous shout, "It is the will of God!" and great numbers demanded to be 
enlisted in the sacred army. As the symbol of enlistment in the cause of God was 
a red cross to be worn on the right shoulder, the expedition w^ called a "Crusade," 
and those who engaged in it were called " Crusaders." All who engaged in the 
enterprise received from the Church the promise of a remission of sins and an eter- 
tal heavenly reward after death. 

The First Band of Crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the 
Penniless — The enthusiasm for the Crusade was so great throughout Christian 
Europe that many became impatient at what they considered the slowness of the 
preparations of princes; and accordingly, in 1096, numerous bands, consisting of 
thousands of the lowest classes of society, set out for the Holy Land without order 
or discipline. They were led by Peter the Hermit and a French knight called 
" Walter the Penniless." They proceeded through Germany and Hungary towards 
Constantinople, but very few of them ever reached Asia. Having attempted to 
obtain the necessaries of life by forcible means in the countries through which they 
passed, and having carried robbery and desolation through Bulgaria and stormed 
Belgrade, the inhabitants of those countries rose against them and destroyed nearly 
the entire band of Crusaders; and Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless had 
very few followers when they reached Constantinople, where they waited to join 
the gieat army of the First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon. 

Fate of other Disorderly Bands. — Other disorderly and undisciplined bands, 
ivliich violently persecuted and even murdered Jews and others who rejected 
Christ, followed those of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless; but they 
were totally destroyed before they reached Constantinople by the people wlirm 
trey had robbed and plundered. 

The Great Army under Godfrey of Bouillon — The other Chief Leaders. 

— Nearly 300,000 of the Crusaders had already perished when the valiant Godfrey 
of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, led a powerful and disciplined army toward the 
Holy Land. The principal leaders of the Crusaders next to Godfrey of Bouillon 
were Count Hugh ^f Vermandois, brother of King Philip I. of France; Duke Robert 



136 



MIDDLE AGES. 



of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror of England ; Count Stephen of Blois, 
father of King Stephen of England ; the chivalrous Count Raymond of Toulouse ; 
Earl Robert of Flanders; and Bohemond, brother of Robert Guiscard, the Norman 
prince of Southern Italy. This great army of Crusaders set off for Palestine in six 
divisions, which took different routes to Constantinople, where all were united be- 
fore passing over into Asia. ^Vhen the Crusaders arrived in Asia their army con- 
wsted of 400,000 men, of whom 100,000 were cavalry. 

Siege and Capture of Antioch by the Crusaders — Their Cruelties. — The 
Crusaders captured Nice, in Asia Minor, in 1097, after a siege of two months, and 
defeated the Turks in the battle of Dorylseum. Proceeding in their victorious 
career, the Christians next laid siege to Antioch. That city was finally taken by the 
strategy of Prince Bohemond and the treachery of one of the Turks, who left a gate 
open to the besieging Crusaders. The greatest cruelties were perpetrated upon the 
unfortunate inhabitants of Antioch, by the victorious Christians, after the capture oi 
the city. « 

Great Christian Victory at Antioch. — A few days after the Crusaders had 
taken Antioch, an army of 300,000 Turks and Persians appeared before that city. 
The finding of a "holy lance" in the Church of St. Peter raised the courage of the 
Christians, who sallied out of the city, and, "after a desperate battle, totally defeated 
the infidels and forced them to a precipitate flight. 

Siege and Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders — Massacre of Mo- 
hammedans. — Onward the Crusaders proceeded. When they came in sight of 
Jerusalem they shouted and wept for joy, and fell down on their knees and offered 
thanks to God; but their joy was succeeded by rage at beholding the Holy City in 
the possession of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders therefore laid siege to the 
city, which they finally took by storm, in July, 1099, after a siege of nearly six 
months. The streets of the captured city were soon filled with the bodies of 70,000 
slaughtered Mohammedans. The conquering Christians believed that they were 
doing God good service by slaughtering all who rejected the Saviour; and both 
Jews and Mohammedans were massacred. After this most shocking atrocity, the 
Crusaders proceeded with hymns of praise to the Hill of Calvary, and kissed the 
stone which had covered the body of the Saviour ; and then offered thanks to the 
God of Peace for the signal success of their undertaking. 

Founding of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. — After the capture of 
the Holy City, the Crusaders established the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem, 
which lasted nearly a century. Their gallant leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was 
made ruler of the new state. He was too pious to assume the title of "King;" 
but called himself "Defender of the Holy Sepulchre," and wore a crown of thorns 
instead of one of gold. Godfrey gained a great victory over the Sultan of Eg}'pt, 
at Ascalon, in August, logg. He died in the following year (A. D. iioo), and was 
succeeded at the head of the new state by his heroic brother Baldwin. 

Founding of the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templars. — 
Some time after the First Crusade, two celebrated orders of knighthood arose at 
Jerusalem. These were the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, and the Knights 
Templars, or Red Cross Knights. Both these orders became famous for their mili- 
tary exploits against the infidels. 



THE CRUSADES. 



THE SECOND CRUSADE (1147-1148). 



^37 



Loss of Christian Fortresses in Palestine — Preaching of St. Bernard. 

— The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem suffered many attacks from the infidels, 
and some of the principal Christian fortresses in Palestine were lost. Under these 
circumstances, Christian Europe undertook a Second Crusade. The pious and 
e^jquent St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Burgundy, preached the cioss ,11 
liance and Germany. (A. D. II47-) 

Expeditions under Conrad III., of Germany, and Louis VIL, of France. 
— Powerful expeditions were led toward the Holy Land by Conrad III., Emperor 
of Germany, and Louis VIL, King of France. The army under Conrad marched 
by way of Constantinople into Asia Minor, where it was decoyed by the treach- 
erous Greek generals into a watei^less desert, where the Turkish cavahy sud 
denly attacked and thoroughly annihilated the army of German Crusaders, only a 
tenth part of whom succeeded in escaping to Constantinople. The French anny, 
led by King Louis VII., marched along the coast, but the greater portion perished 
from famine and fatigue, and by the swords of the infidels, before reaching Jerusa- 
lem. The shattered remnants of the immense hosts of French and Germans, led 
by the two sovereigns, after reaching the Holy Land, engaged in an unsuccessful 
siege of Damascus, which^as the termination of the Second Crusade. 

THE THIRD CRUSADE (A. D. 1189-1192). 

Conquest-of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, Sultan 
of Egypt. — The situation of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem became more 
and more perilous after the Second Crusade; and at length the valiant Saladin, 
Sultan of Egypt, reduced a part of Palestine under his sceptre. The magnanimous 
Saladin finally granted the Christians of Palestine a truce; but when a Christian 
knight interrupted the passage of Saladin's mother, seized her treasures, and slew 
her attendants, the exasperated Sultan of Egypt recommenced hostilities, defeated 
the Christians in the battle of Tiberias, took Joppa, Sidon, Acre, and other towns, 
and in 1187 Jerusalem also fell into the possession of the conquering infidel. Sala- 
din, who surpassed his Christian foes in virtue, generosity, and nobleness of heart, 
treated the inhabitants of the Holy City with mildness, but caused the crosses to be 
torn down and the furniture of the Christian churches to be destroyed. 

Expeditions of Frederic Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard 
the Lion-hearted. — Upon the arrival of intelligence of the capture of Jerusalem 
by Saladin, great alarm prevailed throughout the whole West of Europe; and fiom 
tlie shores of the Mediterranean to the coasts of the Baltic, armed bands set off for 
the Holy Land. The three most powerful sovere'igns of Europe, Frederic Barbai- 
ossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted ol 
England, led powerful armies against the infidels. (A. D. I1S9.) 

Frederic Barbarossa's Victory at Iconium-^His Accidental Death. — 
The Emperor Frederic Barbarbossa with the German army marched by land to 
Asia Minor, and defeated the Sultan of Iconium in a great battle near the walls of 
his chief city; but the noble-hearted German Emperor lost his life in a stream 



138 



MIDDLE AGES. 



which he had attempted to cross. His second son, Frederic, with a part of the 
expedition, proceeded to Palestine, and took part in the siege of Acre. 

Siege and Capture of Acre by Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip 
Augustus. — Kings Richard the Lion-hearted and Phihp Augustus, with the Eng- 
lish and French armies, after reaching the Holy Land by sea, laid siege to Acre, 
which fell into their hands in 1192, after a siege of nearly two years, during which 
nine great battles were fought before the city. Richard the Lion-hearted was 
noted for his energy, ability, and valor, as well as for his pride, severity, and 
cruelty. 

Arrogance and Cruelty of Richard the Lion-hearted. — By :he orders of 
Richard the Lion-hearted, the German banner, which Duke Leopold of Austria 
had caused to be erected on the battlements of Acre, was torn down and trampled 
under foot by the English. When the infidels failed to fulfil the stipulations for 
the payment of a ransom for the captive Saracens, 3,500 of them fell victims to the 
fiery temper of the English king. Richard's courage made him feared and 
respected by the infidels ; but notwithstanding his militaiy skill and bravery, his 
efforts for the recapture of Jerusalem were unavailing. 

Quarrel of the Kings of England and France — Richard's Captivity in 
Germany. — The King of France was jealous of the superior militaiy ability of the 
King of England. The two monarchs soon quarreled, and Philip Augustus returned 
to France. After gaining a great victory over Sultan Saltdin near Ascalon, Richard 
the Lion-hearted set out on his return, by sea, to his kingdom. (A. D. 1192.) His 
vessel, having been driven by a storm to the coast of Italy, Richard proceeded on 
his way to England, by land, through Gemiany; but he was seized and imprisoned 
in the castle of Trifels, by order of the Emperor Henry VI. of Gei-many, in revenge 
for the insult to the German flag after the capture of Acre, ai^d only obtained his 
release upon the payment of a heavy ransom by the English people. 



THE FOURTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1202-1203). 

Expedition of French and Italian Knights under Count Baldwin ol 
Flanders. — In the year 1202 A. D., the Fourth Crusade was undertaken by French 
and Italian knights, under Count Baldwin of Flanders, at the instigation of Pope Inno- 
cent III. After assembling at Venice for the purpose of being conveyed to Pales- 
tine, the Crusaders captured Zara, in Dalmatia, for the Venetians; but instead of 
sailing to the Holy Land, they proceeded against Constantinople for the purpose of 
restoring to the throne of the Byzantine Empire, Isaac Angelus, who had been de- 
throned and imprisoned by his own brother. 

Storming of Constantinople by the Crusaders. — Headed by the bhnd old 
Dandolo, Doge of Venice, the Crusaders appeared before Constantinople, took the 
city, and restored Isaac Angelus to the Greek throne ; but when the Fiench Crusa- 
ders demanded the rewards which had been promised to them, the inhabitants of 
Constantinople raised an insurrection in which the Emperor Isaac Angelus and his 
son Alexius perished. Thereupon the French Crusaders stormed and took the 
Byzantine capital, plundered the churches, palaces, and dwellings, destroyed many 
valuable monumerts of art, and filled the whole city with terror and desolaliun 




RICHARD, THE LION-HEARTED. 



THE CRUSADES. I^Q 

Temporary Subversion of the Greek Empire — A New Roman or Latin 
Empire. — After plundering Constantinople, the French Crusaders subverted the 
Byzantine or Greek Empire, and established in its stead a new Roman or Latin 
Empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and Count Baldwin of Flanders for its 
sovereign. This Latin kingdom lasted fifty-six years, after which it was overthrown, 
and the old Byzantine dynasty was restored to the throne of Constantinople in the 
person of Michael Palseologus. 



THE FIFTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1228-1229). 

Separate Bands of Crusaders — The Child's Crusade — Expedition of 
Andrew II. of Hungary.— The Fourth Crusade was without results, concerning 
Jerusalem; and at times after its conclusion separate bands of "Crusaders, without 
chiefs or without discipline, made journeys to the Holy Land, and ventured upon 
the hazardous undertakings of restoring the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem and 
defending the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. On one occasion, 20,000 children 
left their homes in Europe on a journey to the Holy Sepulchre, but they perished 
from hunger and fatigue, or were sold into slavery. In 1218, King Andrew II. of 
Hungary began the Fifth Crusade; but his expedition to Egypt had a disastrous 
result. 

Expedition of Frederic II. of Germany to Palestine — Treaty with Melek 
Kamel. — In 1228, the excommunicated Frederic II., Emperor of Germany, led an 
expedition into Palestine, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt was at war with the 
governor of Damascus respecting the possession of Syria and Palestine. The Pope 
forbade all Christian warriors from joining the expedition until the Emperer Fred- 
eric II. should be relieved from the curse of the Church. In 1229, Frederick II. 
concluded a treaty with Sultan Melek Kamel of Egypt, by which Jerusalem and 
the greater part of the Holy Land were surrendered to the Christians ; but the Pope 
excommunicated the Holy City, and Frederick II. was crowned at Jerusalem with- 
out being consecrated by the Church. The abandoned Emperor soon returned to 
Germany. 



THE SIXTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1250-1251). 

Ravages of the Corasmins in Palestine — Capture and Massacre of 
Jerusalem. — In the year 1243 A. D., fourteen years after the Fifth Crusade, the 
Corasmins, a fierce tribe of barbarians from the plains of Tartary, overran Pales- 
tine, carrying slaughter and desolation wherever they appeared, took Jerusalem, 
massacred its inhabitants, destroyed the Hply Sepulchre, and wasted the flower of 
the Christian chivalry in a desperate battle at Gaza; but they were finally defeated 
by the Christian and Turkish armies, which, for the moment, united against the 
jommon enemy. 

Expedition of St. Louis to Egypt — Captivity and Release of St. Louis. 
— The horrible deeds of the Corasmins in Palestine led to the Sixth Crusade, which 
was conducted by the French king, Louis IX., or St. Louis, who, in 1250, accom- 
panied by many of his nobles, sailed at the head of a powerful expedition to Egypt. 



T40 



MIDDLE AGES. 



After taking the town of Damietta, the French fleet was destroyed in the Nile by 
means of Greek fire ; and St. Louis was taken prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, and 
only obtained his freedom by the payment of a heavy ransom. (A. D. 1250.) At 
length the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians who had been held as slaves in Egypt, 
obtained control of the government of that countiy. 



THE SEVENTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1270-1271). 

Expedition of St. Louis to Tunis — Siege of Tunis — Death of St. Louis 

— In 1270, St. Louis undertook the Seventh Crusade — the last of those great expe- 
ditions of the Christians against the infidels. The French fleet, having been driven 
by a storm upon the coast of Sai'dinia, St. Louis resolved to attack the piratical 
Moors of Northern Africa. The valiant French monarch landed near Tunis, and 
besieged that city; but soon a pestilential disease carried St. Louis and the greater 
number of his followers to their graves. The surviving French leaders concluded 
a treaty of peace with the Moors, and returned to France. 

Exploits of Prince Edward of England in the Holy Land. — Prince Ed- 
ward of England (afterward King Edward I.), who participated in the Seventh 
Crusade, went to the Holy Land, where he performed many gallant exploits, and 
struck such terror into the hearts of the Saracens that they hired an assassin to mur- 
der him. Prince Edward wrenched a poisoned dagger from the hand of the assas- 
sin; but in the scuffle, the prince received a wound in the arm which might have 
proved fatal had not his affectionate wife, Eleanor, who had accompanied him to 
Palestine, sucked the poison from the wound. 

Siege and Capture of Acre by the Turks — Loss of the Holy Land to 
the Christians. — The infidels gradually recovered their lost power in Palestine; 
and, in 1291, a Turkish army of 200,000 men appeared before Acre, and, after a 
vigorous siege, took the city by storm. The remaining Christians voluntarily retired 
from Syria, which for two centuries had been drenched vdth the blood of millions 
of Christian and Mohammedan warriors. 



CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRUSADES. 

Influence of the Crusades on Chivalry. — The Crusades ennobled the 
knightly class by furnishing a higher aim to their efforts, and gave rise to the estab- 
lishment of new orders, which presented a model of Chivalry and were pixsumed to 
possess all the knightly virtues. Of these new orders were the Knights of St. John, 
the Knights Templars, and the Teutonic Knights, which combined the spirit of the 
knight and the monk, their vows being chastity, poverty, obedience, and war against 
the infidels. 

The Knights of St. John. — After the re-conquest of the Holy Land by the 
Turks, the Knights of St. John established themselves in the Island of Pvhodes, 
which was finally wrested from them by the Ottoman T^ks, in 1522, when they 
received the island of Malta from the celebrated Charles V., Emperor of Germany 
and King of Spain. 

The Knights Templars. — The Knights-Templars acquired gi-eat wealth by 



THE CRUSADES. 



141 



donations and legacies. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine, the greater 
number of them returned to France, where they abandoned themselves to infidelity 
and corruption, the consequence of which was the final dissolution of their order. 

The Teutonic Knights. — The Teutonic Knights were celebrated for their 
services in the civilization of the countries on the shores of the Baltic sea. They 
defended Christianity, against the heathen Prussians in the region of the Vistula, 
and converted the inhabitants of the territory between the Vistula and the Niemcti 
to (Christianity, and established there the German language, customs, and civiliza 
tion. The cities of Culm, Thorn, Elbing, Konigsburg, and others arose; bishop- 
rics and monasteries sprung up; and German industry and civilization produced a 
complete change. 

Influence of the Crusades on the Feudal System. — The Crusades gave 
rise to a free peasantry and tended to break up the Feudal System, as by their 
means great numbers of serfs received their freedom, and extended the power and 
influence of the burgher class and of the towns. The rich barons were compelled 
to sell their possessions, for the purpose of raising money to equip troops and to 
transjx)rt them to the Holy Land. 

Diffusion of Knowledge. — The Crusades promoted the diffusion of knowledge 
and the advancement of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were 
at first deplorably ignorant and illiterate; but when they came in contact with the 
Greek and Arabian civilization,' they acquired a fondness for science and literature, 
and after returning to Europe they imparted the same spirit to their countrymen. 

Development of Commerce. — The Crusades gave great encouragement to 
commerce, as by their means different countries were brought into communication 
and more intimate commercial relations with each other; and the advantage of a 
mutual exchange of products was soon perceived. In consequence, great progress 
was made in the arts of navigation and ship-building; and many flourishing cities, 
such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, acquii-ed immense wealth and attained to vast 
commercial importance. 

Influence of the Crusaders on the Church — Crusade against the Albi- 
genses. — The Crusades gave greater power and influence to the clergy, and multi- 
plied the riches of the Church. They also tended to exalt the religious enthusiasm 
pi-oduced by them into a spirit of fanatical intolerance. This intolerance was soon 
manifested in a crusade against the Albigenses, a new religious sect which arose in 
the South of France. Pope Innocent III. ordered the cross to be preached against 
the Albigenses and their protector. Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; whereupon 
bands of fanatical warriors overran the fertile region inhabited by the new sect, and 
spread death and desolation wherever they appeared, destroying cities, towns, and 
villages, massacring the inhabitants, and converting that beautiful region into a 
vast wilderness. Finally, in 1228, King Louis VIII. of France undertook a bloody 
campaign against the heretics; and after a desolating war, Count Raymond was 
defeated and subdued, and the unfortunate creed of the Albigenses was extinguish d 
in blood. 

The Assassins and The Old Man of the Mountain. — About the time of 
it First Crusade, the Mohammedan prophet, Flassan, founded the fanatical sect 
of the " Assassins," who dwelt in the mountains of Syria, and who became the 



142 MIDDLE AGES. 

terror alike of Christians, Jews, and Turks. These Assassins were blindly devoted 
to their chief, "The Old Man of the Mountain," and paid the most implicit obedi- 
ence to his commands; and they believed that if they sacrificed their lives for his 
sake, they would certainly be rewarded with the highest joys of paradise. When- 
ever the Old Man of the Mountain considered himself injured by any one, he dis- 
patched some of his Assassins secretely to murder the aggressor. Thus was derived 
the common name of "assassin," which has ever since been applied to a secret 
tiuiderer. 



LATIN STATES. 



ITALIAN STATES. 
THE PAPAL STATE OF ROME. 

Rome under the Popes. — From the time that Pepin the Little, King of the 
franks, endowed the Pope with a large tract of ten'itory in Middle Italy, the city 
of Rome, with its neighboring territory, had been under the dominion of the Popes, 
who, in uninterrupted succession, have filled the Chair of St. Peter. 

Feuds at Rome — Rise of Cola di Rienzi — His Fall and Assassination. 
— During the seventy years that the Pope resided at Avignon, in France, Rome was 
a prey to interna,! dissensions, and suffered greatly from the lawlessness of the 
nobles. Out of these intestine disorders and quarrels of the familes of Orsini and 
Colonna arose Cola di Rienzi, called the "Last of the Tribunes," who was imbued 
with the spirit of the ancient Roman republicans, and who endeavored to restore 
Rome to its former glory and preeminence. Having gained the support of the 
Roman people by his fiery addresses, Rienzi was made a Tribune of the People ; 
and he seized the supreme power in Rome in 1347, and expelled the lawless nobles ; 
but his impolicy in loading the Roman people with the most oppressive taxes, soon 
made him unpopular, and, after a brief existence of seven months, his government 
was overthrown, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi afterwards returned to Rome, 
and was assassinated during a tumult in the city, in 1354. 

THE DUCHY OF MILAN. 

Northern Italy under the Emperor of Germany. — After the fall of the 
Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, that country was a prey to confusion 
and anarchy, until it passed under the sway of the Emperor of Germany, m the tenth 
century. In the course of time, Milan and other towns emerged into importance. 

The Lombard League — Peace of Constance — Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
— In 1 1 77, Milan and other towns of Lombardy formed the Lombard League against 
the German emperor, and by the Peace of Constance, in 1183, the Lombard cities 
secured their independence; but Italy was distracted for centuries by the civil waxi 



LATIN STATES. 



143 



Detween the Giielphs, or supporters of the Pope, and the Ghibelhnes, or adherents 
of the Emperor of Germany. 

Milan under the Families of Visconti and Sforza. — MiLin, which wa3 
luled by the family of Visconti, iisi the process of time acquired nearly the whole of 
Lombardy. The ruler of Milan and its territory received the title of Duke from the 
Emperor of Germany. On the death of the last Milanese duke of the family ;>f 
Visconti, in 1450, the government of the duchy was bestowed on Francisco Sforza. 

Milan under the French and the Spaniards. — In 1500, the Duchy of Milan 
was subdued by Louis XII., King of France, and the Milanese duke, Louis Moro, 
was kept a prisoner for ten years; but the French were finally driven away and 
Moro was restored to his dukedom. In 15 15, the French again took possession of 
Milan, after their king, Francis I., had defeated the Milanese and their allies, the 
Swiss, in the battle of Marignano, or "the Battle of the Giants.'" In 1525, Milan 
was conquered by the Spaniards, who retained the duchy for almost two centuries. 

REPUBLIC OF VENICE. 

Italian Republics — Origin of Venice. — During the Middle Ages, a number 
of small republics ai-ose in Italy, the most prominent of which were Venice, Genoa, 
Pisa, and Florence, which were gi'eatly renowned for their extensive commerce and 
maritime power. The most famous of these Italian republics was Venice, which 
was founded in the year 452 A. D., by the Veneti, a people of Northern Italy, who 
fled in terror from their homes during the frightful ravages in Italy by Attila and 
his Hunnic followers. The fugitive Veneti took refuge among the small islands at 
the head of the Adriatic sea, and there founded a settlement called Venezia, or 
Venice. 

The First Doge, or Duke of Venice— The Rialto.— For more than two cen- 
turies, Venice was a simple republic; but in the year 697 A. D., its form of govern- 
ment was changed by the election of a Doge, or Duke, who was vested with almost 
absolute power. In the beginning of the ninth century, the central island, Rialto, 
was connected with the other islands by bridges, and this city of bridges and canals, 
instead of streets, became a great commercial power. 

St. Mark — Venetian Aid to the Crusaders. — In the twelfth century, the 
Venetians adopted St. Mark as their patron saint, having brought, as it is said, his 
body from Alexandria, in Egj'pt, to Venice. (A. D. 829.) During the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth centuries, Venice greatly increased in wealth, commerce, and 
naval power ; and its territories were enlarged by the annexation of Dalmatia and 
other provinces. In the First Crusade, the Venetians aided Godfrey of Bouillon 
with a fleet of 200 vessels ; and during the whole period of those Holy Wars, 
Venice was the great commercial centre and the empoi^ium of the trade between 
the nations of Europe and those of the East. 

Ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic." — In the twelfth century, the cere- 
mony of "wedding the Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge of 
Venice with a ring for the purpose. The ceremony was performed with gieat 
pomp, and consisted in casting a ring into the Adriatic, to indicate that the sea was 
subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband. 



144 



MIDDLE AGES. 



Acquisitions of Venice— Domestic Dissensions — Council of Ten, — 
Venice acquired possession of many rich towns in Lombardy, and also of Crete, 
CyjDrus, the Peloponnestis, and the islands of the Archipelago (the ancient ^gean 
sea). Venice, like all the other Italian republics, was torn by the contests of 
domestic factions. In the fourteenth century, the democratic system in Venice was 
overthrown, and a government of the aristocracy was erected in its stead. A 
"Council of Ten" was appointed to prevent any attempt at the reestablishment of 
democracy. 

Height of Venetian Glory — Check Against the Turkish Naval Pow« j . 
— At the commencement of the fifteenth century, Venice attained the highest pitch 
of greatness and prosperity, and was for more than a century the chief commercial 
and maritime power of the world. Venice did very important service to all Chris- 
tian Europe by checking the naval power of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterra- 
nean sea; but her long maritime wars finally exhausted her resources, and her gov- 
ernment grew despotic and coiTupt. 

Decline of Venetian Commerce and Maritime Power. — The discovery of 
a sea-passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope sealed the fate of Venice, 
and her commercial and maritime glory, in a great measure, departed from her; 
but for several centuries longer Venice continued formidable, and her fleets con- 
tended succesefully against the Ottoman Turks, who endeavored to secure the 
control of the Mediterranean sea." 

League of Cambray Against Venice. — \\Tien, at the beginning of the six- 
teenth century, Venice attempted to extend her territorial possesions in Italy, the 
powerful "League of Cambray" was formed against her by Pope Julius II., King 
Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, King Louis XII. of France, and the Emperor 
Ma.ximilian I. of Germany. (A. D. 1508.) The Venetians soon succeeded in 
winning the Pope and the King of Spain to their interest, and so contrived to dis- 
solve the league; and the French, who had threatened the independence of Venice, 
were soon expelled from Italy. 

REPUBLIC OF GENOA. 

Genoa's Naval Wars with Venice — Domestic Dissensions. — The Repub- 
lic of Genoa, the great commercial rival of Venice, was often engaged in naval 
wars with that powerful maritime republic. In these wars, Venice was generally 
successful. Genoa was greatly weakened by dissensions between the democracy 
and the aristocracy, or Guelphs and Ghibellines. 

Acquisition of Genoa by the French — Its Liberation by Andrea Doria. 
— In the latter part of the fifteenth century, Genoa came into the possession of the 
French, and afterwards of the Duchy of Milan. In 1528, Andrea Doria, the great 
Genoese admiral, liberated Genoa from the sway of the French, and reestablished 
the republican government, thus winning for himself the title of " Father of his 
■ountry and Restorer of its Liberities." 

REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE 

Conquest of Pisa by Florence — Domestic Dissensions. — The commercial 
city of Pisa was the first town of any importance in Tuscany; but in a war with 



LATIN STATES. 145 

Genoa its power was greatly weakened, and finally Pisa was conquered by the 
Republic of Florence and became a dependency of that powerful state. Florence, 
which was also distinguished for her commerce and manufactures, was likewise 
gre-^tly weakened by the quarrel between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines; and 
t*ie state was alternately governed by the aristocracy and the democracy. 

Wise Rule of Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo the Magnificent.— In 1428, 
Cosmo de Medici assumed the government of Florence and ruled with almost dic- 
tatorial power ; but he used his power wisely, thus earning the glorious title ol 
« Father of his Countiy." Under the rule of Cosmo de Medici, and that of his 
distinguished grandson, Lorenzo "the Magnificent," Florence enjoyed the greatest 
prosperity; and the arts, sciences, and literature flourished in the state. After the 
death of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the democratic government was reestablished in 
Florence; but in 1530 the republican constitution was again overthrown, and the 
House of Medici was restored to the government of Florence, through the interfer- 
ence of Pope Clement VII. and the Emperor Charles V. of Germany. 

THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 

Expulsion of the Saracens from Southern Italy by the Normans. — In 

the ninth centuiy. Southern Italy was invaded by the Saracens, against whom that 
country was defended by the armies of the Byzantine and German Empires ; but the 
Saracens retained possession of many places in Southern Italy, until they were ex- 
pelled by the Normans, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Hordes of Normans 
from Normandy poured into Southern Italy and took possession of the country. 

Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Southern Italy. — In 1060, Robert 
Guiscard, a Norman chieftain, led a band of his countrymen into Southern Italy ; and 
was acknowledged by the Pope, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and other territories 
in Italy and Sicily which he might wrest from the Greeks and the Saracens. The 
Norman duke, who was the greatest soldier of his age, extended his conquests 
throughout Southern Italy, and put an end to the dominion of the Eastern Emperors 
in Italy. He afterwards led a large army, officered by Norman knights, into the 
other territories of the Greek Empire, and captured Durazzo after a seven months' 
siege; and then marching eastward, he threatened Constantuiople. He was, how- 
ever, recalled by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), to defend the Head of the 
*Church against his inveterate enemy, Henry IV., Emperor of Germany. 

Kingdom of Naples and Sicily — Royal Houses of Hohenstauffen and 
Anjou. — Roger I., the brother, of Robert Guiscard, wrested Sicily from the Sara 
cens after a war of several years; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman 
territories in Italy and Sicily, and founded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily; but 
with the death of William II., the grandson of Roger II., the Nonnan dynasty in 
Italy became extinct ; and Southern Italy passed under the sway of the GeiTuan 
House of Ilohenstauflen, and thus remained until the reign of Manfred, who, in 
1266, was defeated in the battle of Benevento, by Charles of Anjou, whc thus ob- 
tained the throne of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and retained it until th{ 
bloody massacre of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. 

Naples and Sicily under the Spaniards. — By the massacre of the' Sicihan 
Vespers, Charles of Anjou lost Sicily, but he and his posterity ruled over Naples 
10 



146 



MIDDLE AGES. 



until 1435, when Naples passed under the dominion of the kings of Aragon, wno 
had ruled over Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. The French kings 
endeavored to wrest Naples from the^kings of Aragon; but in 1504, Ferdinand the 
Catholic, King of Spain, effected the final subjugation of Naples and united it with 
Sicily. The kingdom of Naples and Sicily belonged to Spain for more than two 
centuries. 

KINGDOM OF FRANCE, 

CARLOVINGIAN KINGS OF FRANCE. 

France under the Carlovingian Dynasty^Chailes the Simple. — Under 
the Carlovingian dynasty, France was divided into a number of principalities vir- 
tually independent of the central power of the monarchy. The royal power was 
reduced to mere shadow, and France suffered greatly from the predatoiy inroads of 
the Nomians from Scandinavia. Under Charles the Simple (898-922), so called 
because of his imbecility, the royal authority in France fell into contempt, the inso- 
lent nobles possessed all the power, and the king was closely confined by Count 
Hugh of Paris. 

Duke Rollo and the Normans — Usurpation of the throne by Hugh 
Capet. — In the year 91 1 A. D., a horde of Normans, led by Duke Rollo, made 
their appearance in France; and King Charles the Simple, unable to resist their 
progi-ess, offered Rollo his daughter in marriage and to cede to him a large tract of 
territory between the Seine and the English Channel, on condition that he should 
embrace Christianity and acknowledge the King of France as his feudal sovereign. 
Rollo accepted these propositions, and he and his followers settled in that part of 
Northern France called from them, NoiTnandy. The Normans immediately aban- 
doned their former predatory habits, and became peaceful citizens, cultivating the 
soil, practicing the arts of civilized life, and adopting the religion, the language, 
and the customs and manners of the French. On the death of Louis V., the last 
Carlovingian monarch of France, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, usurped the French 
throne. At this period, the French kingdom consisted of only a small temtory 

about Rheims and Paris. 

I 

FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF CAPET. 

REIGN OF HUGH CAPET (A. D. 987-996). 

Accession of Hugh Capet — Weakness of the Royal Power.- -Hugh 

Capet gained the French clergy to his interest by renouncing the rich abbeys wliich 
he had inherited from his father. In an assembly at Noyons, Hugh was formally 
elected King of France, and was immediately consecrated at Rheims. (A. D. 987.) 
This was the commencement of the Capetian dynasty, which occupied the throne 
of France for three and a half centuries. The reign of Hugh Capet was disturbed 
by the restlessness and ambition of the French nobles. There were at this tmie 
eight powerful principalities in France, each independent of the French crown; — 
namely," Burgundy, Aquitaine, Normandy, Bretagne, Gascony, Flanders, Cham- 
pagne, and Toulouse; and the royal authority was most insignificant. 



LATIN STATES. 1 47 

REKIN OF ROBERT THE PIOUS (A. D. 096-1O31). 

Supposed Approach of the End of the World — Excommunication of 
King Robert. — Hugh Capet died in 996, and was succeeded on the French 
throne by his son, Robert the Pious. It was generally believed that the world was 
only to las' 1,000 years after the birth of Christ; and on the approach of the year 
J 000 A. D a general gloom and dread prevailed. The more serious and pious 
people employed themselves in acts of religious devotion. King Robert was 
excommunicated and his kingdom laid un^ler an interdict by Pope Gregory V., and 
the king was obliged to divorce his beloved wife, Bertha, beause she was his 
fourth cousin. Robert then married Constance of Provence, a proud and indolent 
princess. 

REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. lOSl-lOGC)). 

Project of Queen Constance — Weakness of the Royal Authority. — On 
the death of King Robert the Pious, in 103 1, his son, Henry I. ascended the 
throne of France; but Robert's widow, Constance, endeavored to place her favor- 
ite son on the throne. With the assistance of Duke Robert the Magnificent of 
Normandy, the fitther of King William the Conqueror of England, King Henry I. 
defeated the project of Constance, who ended her life in prison. So little was the 
authority of Henry I. respected that the leading French nobles, such as the Counts 
of Toulouse, Flanders, and Champagne, eclipsed the king in p>ower. 

REIGN OF PHILIP I. (A, D. 1060-1108). 

King Philip I. and Count Baldwin of Flanders. — King Henry I. died in 
ro6o, leaving the crown of France to his son, Philip I. ; and the wise and virtuous 
Count Baldwin of Flanders was appointed the young king's guardian. King 
Philip I. became a slave to his vices. 

Duke William of Normandy and his son Robert. — One of King Philip's 
most powerful vassals, Duke William of Normandy, conquered England and seated 
himself on the throne of that kingdora. This aroused the jealousy of Philip, who 
excited Robert, Duke William's son, to rebellion against his father. William 
besieged his rebellious son in a castle in Normandy; and Robert sallied forth, and 
encountered a knight, whom he threw down, horse and man, but when he sud- 
denly discovered that he was about to slay his own father he assisted him to rise 
and implored his pardon. 

The First Crusade. — During the reign of Philip I., the First Crusade was 
undertaken by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. Hundreds of thous- 
ands of Crusaders left Europe for the redemption of the Holy Land, and great 
numbers of them perished. Antioch and Jerusalem were, however, wrested from 
tie infidels, and a new Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, which continued 
for nearly a century. 

Wretched Condition of France Under Philip I. — "The Truce of God ' 
•—The condition of France under King Philip I. was most wretched indeed. The 
lawless nobles and knights erected castles in the vicinity of Paris, and committed 
the grossest outrages upon the unoffending inhabitants; but the insolent nobles were 
chastised by the king's son, Louis. In order to check the violence which at this 



148 MIDDLE AGES. 

time so universally prevailed, the bishops published what was called " The Truce 
of God," which enacted that no act of violence should be committed from Wed- 
nesday evening to Monday morning. 

REIGN OF LOUIS VI. (A. D. 1108-1187). 

Good Character of Louis the Fat. — King Philip I. died in iioS, leaving lie 
crown of France to his son, Louis VI., who, on account of his corpulence, was 
Eurnamed "the Fat." Louis VI. was possessed of a good heart, an inflexible 
love of justice, a friendly disposition, and a gay and cheerful temper, although he 
had no taste for learning and no political talents. He was brave and active, and his 
magnanimity in sharing with his soldiers their hardships and dangers won for him 
their attachment and esteem. Louis the Fat acquired great popularity by humbling 
the lawless nobles and knights, who had perpetrated the greatest outi-ages upon the 
defenseless people. 

Formation of Communes. — With the view of humbling the French nobles, 
King Louis VI. granted to the inhabitants of cities and towns charters for fomiing 
themselves into associations for mutual defense, called Communes, which freed the 
citizens from feudal servitude, pennitted them to nominate their own magistrates, 
•nd required them to take the field only at the command of their sovereign. 

REIGN OF LOUIS VII. (A. D. 11S7-1180). 

Annexation of Aquitaine — Count Thibault of Champagne — Second 
"Crusade. — King Louis VI. died in 1137, and was succeeded on the French 
•hrone by his son, Louis VII., sumamed " the Young," to distinguish him from 
tiis father. Louis VII. had previously married Eleanor, the sole heiress of Aqui- 
taine, thus uniting that extensive territory to the French crown. Count Thibault 
of Champagne had rebelled against the king, but had been reduced to submis- 
sion and pardoned. But Thibault took up arms a second time; and Louis VII., 
exasperated at his conduct, attacked his castle of Vitry, and set it on fire, but the 
flames spread to a village close by and destroyed a church and many of its inmates. 
Shocked at this accident, the king made peace with' Count Thibault; and, as an 
atonement for the dreadful accident, Louis VII., in connection with Conrad III., 
Emperor of Germany, engaged in the Second Crusade; but both monarchs were 
unfortunate in that undertaking, and after losiiig all but a few of their followers 
they returned to Europe. 

Loss of Aquitaine — War between Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet. 
— King Louis VII. quarreled with his wife Eleanor, and obtained a divorce 
from her, thus losing all the vast dower which he had received with her. Eleanoi 
soon afterward married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Nonnandy, afterward King 
Henry 11. of England, and thus her extensive possessions were annexed to the 
English crown. For twenty years Louis and Henry were engaged in almost con- 
tinual war, as the French king claimed the right of feudal superiority over the English 
monarch. During his war with the Duke of Normandy, Louis besieged Rouen 
and after granting the citizens of the beleaguered town a. truce, he perfidiously as- 
saulted the city, but was justly punished by a vigorous repulse. 



LATIN STATES. 
REIGN OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS (A. D. 11SC-122S'. 



149 



Remarkable Increase of the Royal Power — Improvement of Paris. — • 
Kinw Louis VII. died in 1180, and left the crown of France to his son, Phihp 
II., surnamed Augustus, under whom the political condition of France underwent 
an entire change. Before this period, the King of France had been merely the 
feudal chief of a confederacy of princes, but now he became an absolute monarch. 
Phi'ip Augustus greatly improved Paris and enclosed the city with a strong wall, 
an'.' built the famous pjilace of the Louvre. Eager for war with King Henry 
II. jf England, one of the most powerful monarchs of that age, Philip Augus- 
tas induced that king's sons, Richard and John, to take up arms against their father. 

Third Crusade — Quarrel betwreen Philip and Richard the Lion-hearted. 
— King Philip Augustus, in conjunction with King Richard the Lion-hearted of 
England and the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa of Germany, undertook the Third 
Crusade. After taking Acre, the Kings of England and France quarreled ; and 
Philip Augustus returned to France, and his ungenerous heart was filled with joy 
when Richard the Lion-hearted, while on his return to England, was imprisoned in 
Germany. 

Conquest of Normandy and the other English Possessions in France 
by Philip. — Upon the death of Richard the Lion-hearted, in 1 189, his brother 
John usurped the throne of England, and murdered his nephew. Prince Arthur of 
Bretagne, the rightful heir. Philip Augustus, desirous of the acquisition of Nor- 
mandy, summoned John, as Duke of Normandy, to Paris, to answer for his conduct ; 
and upon John's refusal to comply, the French king seized on all the English pos- 
sessions in France, — namely, Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou. 

Coalition of England, Germany, and Flanders against France — Battle 
of Bouvines. — A powerful coalition was now formed against the King of France 
by the King of England, the Emperor of Germany, and the Count of Flanders. 
France was invaded, but King Philip Augustus defeated the united English, Ger- 
man, and Flemish forces, numbering 50,000 men, in the battle of Bouvines, near 
Tournay, on the 27th of August, 12 14. 

Fourth Crusade — Crusade against the Albigenses. — In the meantime, the 
Fourth Crusade, undertaken by French and Italian knights, resulted in the tempor- 
ary subversion of the Greek Empire, and the substitution, in its stead, of a new Latin 
Empire, with Count Baldwin of Flanders on the throne of Constantinople. The 
Crusade now undertaken against the new religious sect of the Albigenses, in South- 
em France, resulted in the defeat of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, the chief ot 
the sect, and the sacrifice of thousands of Albigenses to the fanaticism of their 
conquerors. 

French Invasion of England. — The English barons, having risen in rebellion 
against King John, invited Prince Louis, a son of Philip Augustus, to come to Eng- 
land and be their king. Prince Louis accepted the invitation gladly, landed in 
England with a French military force, and had almost completed the conquest of 
tha^ kingdom, when King John died, in 121 6. Thereupon the English barons 
abandoned Prince I^ouis and refused to recognize him as their sovereign; and the 
prince was obliged 3 return to France. 



1^0 MIDDLE AGES. 

REIGN OF LOUIS VIII. (A. D. 1228-1226). 

Successful War against Henry III. of England.— On the deatli of King 
Pliilip Augustus, in 1223, his son, Louis VIII., became King of France. Louis 
VIII., surnamed "the Lion," was a weak monarch; but the wise policy of his 
father had given such an impulse to the affairs of France that the French contin- 
ually triumphed (.ver the English, whose king, Henry III., had repeatedly attacked 
the French dominions. 

Conquest of the Albigenses. — Under the authority of the Pope, Louis Ihc 
Lion undertook a campaign against the Albigenses ; and with a powerful army ht 
besieged Avi'^non, but only obtained possession of the town after a heroic defense 
on the part of its inhabitants, and after 20,000 of his troops had miserably perished 
from disease and famine. 

REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS (A. D. 1226-1270). 

Character of Louis IX. or St. Louis — Regency of Queen Blanche. — King 
Louis VIII. died in 1226, a short time after the fall of Avignon, and left the 
crown of France to his eldest son, Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, on 
account of his piety. Saint Louis possessed a mild, upright, benevolent, and for- 
giving disposition. During the minority of Saint Louis, his mother, Queen Blanche, 
governed the French kingdom as regent. 

Sixth and Seventh Crusades — Captivity and Death of St. Louis. — Saint 
Louis undertook the Sixth Crusade against the infidels. Instead of leading an 
expedition to the Holy Land, Saint Louis invaded Egypt ; and after taking Dami- 
etta, he was made a prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, but was released on the pay- 
ment of a heavy ransom. In the Seventh Crusade, twenty years later (A. D. 
1270), Saint Louis sailed to Africa and besieged Tunis; but a plague which broke 
out in the French camp carried Saint Louis and many of his soldiers to their graves. 

REIGN OF PHILIP THE HARDY (A. D. 1270-1285). 

Reduction of the King of Tunis. — St. Louis was succeeded on the throne oi 
France by his son, Philip III., surnamed "the Hardy," who continued the war 
against the Moors of Africa, and with his uncle, Charles of Anjou, King of Naples 
and Sicily, reduced the King of Tunis to submission. 

Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers.— Charles of Anjou greatly oppressed his 
Sicilian subjects, who, in revenge, massacred 8,000 French in Palermo when the 
church bell sounded for vespers, on Easter day, 1282. This is known as the Mas- 
sacre cf'the Sicilian Vespers. Charles of Anjou then lost Sicily, and that island 
passed under the dominion of Peter the Cruel, King of Aragon. 

REIGN OF PHILIP THE FAIR (A. D. 1285-1S14). 

War with Edward I. of England — Revolt of the Flemings. — King Philip 
the Hardy died in 1285, and was succeeded on the French throne by cis sen, 
Philip IV., surnamed "the Fair." For seven years, Philip the Fair waged an 
unsuccessful war against King Edward I. of England for the acquisition of Gai- 
enne. Philip the Fair acquired Flanders, which he governed so oppressively that 
the Flemings rose in rebellion, massacred 3,000 French in Flanders, and success- 



LATIN STATES. I^I 

fully rcbisied all the efforts of the French king to compel them to submission. The 
Flemings were at this time celebrated for their skill in weaving and in other indus- 
tiial arts 

Quarrel Between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. — A fierce 
quarrel arose between King Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII., through the 
attempt of Boniface to prevent the taxation of the clergy in France. The French 
.nonarch treated with contempt every bull of excommunication issued by the Pope, 
and after the death of Boniface, Philip the Fair placed the Archbishop of Bordeaux 
n the papal chair, with the title of Clement V., and transferred the residenc e of the. 
Fo] e from Rome to Avignon, in the vSouth of France, where it remained for seveniy 
years. 

Dissolution of the Order of Knights Templars — The Third Estate. — 

King Philip the Fair also caused the celebrated order of Knights Templars to be 
condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and immorality; and the Grand 
Master and many other members of the order were burned alive, while the rest 
were treated with the most barbarous cruelty. During the reign of Philip the Fair, 
the representatives of the Third Estate, or the Communes, were called to meet with 
the nobility and the clergy in the grand council of the French kingdom, in order to 
give their consent to the levy of taxes. (A. D. 1302.) 

REIGN OF LOUIS X. (A. D. 1314-1316). 

Tumultuous Conduct of the Nobles — Enfranchisement of the Serfs. — 
On the death of King Philip the Fair, in 13 14, the crown of France fell to his eldest 
son, Louis X., surnamed " Hutin," meaning disorder or tumult, from the tumultous 
conduct of the French nobles and clergy, who compelled Louis to restore to them 
most of the privileges of which they had been deprived by Philip the Fair. Louis 
-X. issued an order enfranchising all the French serfs within the royal domains. 
Louis X. was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois, who caused 
DeMarigny, the illustrious prime minister of Philip the Fair, to be executed on the 
absurd charge of sorcery. 

REIGN OF PHILIP THE TALL (A. D. 1316-1321). 

The States-General — The Salic Law — Persecution of the Jews. — Or. 
the death of King Louis X., in 1316, the throne of France fell to his brother, 
Philip v., surnamed " the Tall," who assembled the States-General, or the grand 
assembly of the French nation, to pronounce upon his right to the French throne, 
which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. The States-General issued a 
decree declaring females incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree 
was based on the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, and is therefore called the 
" Salic Law." The reign of Philip the Tall is remarkable for a terrible persecution 
of the Jews in France, and many of them were barbarously massacred in Touraine. 

REIGN OF CHARLES THE FAIR (A. D. 1321-1328) 

Accession of Charles the Fair — End of the Direct Line of Capet. — 
Philip the Tall died in 1321, and as he only left daughters and no sons, his brother, 
Charles IV., surnamed "the Fair," became King of France by the operation of the 



^52 



MIDDLE AGES. 



Salic Law. On the death of Charles the Fair, without heirs, in 132S, the direct 
*line of the House of Capet became extinct; and the crown of France fell to Philip 
of ValoJ i, a nephew of Philip the Fair. 

FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

REIGN OF PHILIP OF VALOIS (A. D. 1S29-1SSO). 

Claims of Edward III. of England — His Invasion of France— Battle 
of Crecy. — Philip of Valois, or Philip VI., the first Frencli king of the House 
of Valois, soon had a competitor to contend with, in the person of Kmg Edward 
[II. of England, who claimed the crown of France as a direct descendant, 
through his mother, of Philip the Fair; but the French considered this claim invalid, 
because, by the Salic Law, Isabella, Edward's mother, had no right to the French 
throne, and therefore Edward could inherit no claims from her. But the King of 
England, resolving to make his claim good by force of anns, invaded France with 
a powerful army; and on the 25th o'f August, 1346, he defeated an immense French 
army under King Philip VI., in the famous battle of Crecy, in which the French 
lost 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. In the 
battle of Crecy, the English had several pieces of cannon, which was the first 
instance of those weapons of warfare being used. Among those who distinguished 
themselves by their bravery at Crecy was the English monarch's son, Edward the 
Black Prince. 

Defense of Calais — Its Surrender — Story of Eustace St. Pierrel — After 
the battle of Crecy, King Edward HI. laid siege to Calais, the gate to France. The 
inhabitants had made an obstinate defense for nearly a year, when, threatened with 
all the horrors of famine, they were finally forced to surrender to the victorious in- 
vaders. It is said (though the story is now generally discredited) that the King of 
England, exasperated at the stubborn resistance of the citizens of Calais, agreed to 
spare the inhabitants, if six of the principal citizens were brought to him, with halters 
about their necks, ready for hanging; whereupon Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy mer- 
chant of Calais, offered himself as the first victim, and five other leading citizens 
followed his noble example. When the six citizens appeared before Edward III., 
the stern monarch ordered them to execution, and their lives were only spared 
through the earnest entreaties of the English nobles, of King Edward's heroic son. 
the Black Prince, and of his noble-hearted queen, Philippa, who fell on her knees 
before her husband and exhorted him not to violate the laws of religion and honor 
by so inhuman an act. King Edward III. expelled the French inhabitants of Calais 
and peopled the city with English; and for two centuries tliat important town 
remained in the possession of the English. 

Acquisition of Dauphiny — The First Dauphin— The Black Plague.-- 
Near the close of the reign of Philip of Valois, the province of Dauphiny was an- 
nexed to the territories of the French crown, on condition that the French king's 
eldest son should thereafter be called "The Dauphin," as the eldest son of the 
British monarch is styled " the Prince of Wales." During the years 1348 and 1349, 
the Black Plague raged throughout France, and in Paris alone 50,000 persons fell 
victims to its ravages. 




EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. 



LA TIN ST A TES. .1^3 

REIGN OF JOHN THE GOOD (A. D. 13SO-1S64) 

English Invasion of France — Battle of Poitiers — King John a Prisoner. 

— King Philip VI. died in I350,and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, 
John the Good. During this reign an Enghsh army of 12,000 men, under Edward 
the Black Prince, landed in the province of Guienne, and advanced into the very 
centre of France, where it was confronted by an army of 60,000 Frenchmen under 
King John. The Black Prince hereupon offered to suiTcnder the conquered teiTi- 
tory and give up the war, if he were permitted to retreat unmolested; but the obsli- 
nacy of the French monarch, who insisted on terms of unconditional submission, 
brought on tlie celebrated battle of Poitiers, which was fought on the 19th of Sep- 
tember, 1356, and in which the French were most disastrously defeated, and King 
John was taken prisoner. 

King John's Captivity in London — The Dauphin made Regent of 
France. — King John was carried a captive to London by the victorious Black 
Prince, who treated the unfortunate monarch with the utmost generosity; and 
during the four years of his captivity in the English cajiital, John was treated by 
King Edward III. more like a guest than a prisoner. During King John's captivity 
in London, his son Charles, the Dauphin, was made regent of France. 

The States-General — Marcel's Insurrection. — During the regency in 
France, the Parisian populace, under the leadership of Marcel, the chief of the 
municipality of Paris, endeavored to restrict the despotic power of the sovereign and 
to obtain a shai-e in the government of France. The States-General were assembled 
and conceded the privileges demanded by the people of Paris; but these privileges 
were afterwards annulled, in consequence of which a frightful insurrection broke 
out and continued for some time, but it was finally ended by the death of Marcel 
and the defeat of the cause of popular liberty. 

Insurrection of the Jacquerie, — At this time a sanguinary insurrection of the 
French peasantry burst forth, in consequence of the miserable condition of serfdom 
in which the peasants had so long been kept by the despotic nobility. This great 
popular revolt is known as the "Insurrection of the Jacquerie," from Jacques Bon- 
homme, the name given in derision to a French peasant. The insurgent peasants 
sacked the feudal castles, and put to death their inmates, without respect to age or 
sex. After the peasants had been repulsed in an attack upon one of the towns, they 
were hunted down like wild beasts, and thousands of them were brutally massacred; 
and many of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a sad picture 
of ruin and desolation. 

Another Invasion of France by Edward III. — Honorable Conduct of 
King John. — In the meantime King John, still a captive in England, agreed to 
surrender to the English monarch a large portion of the French dominions, in order 
to obtain his release; but the States-General of France refused to ratify so humili- 
ating a treaty ; and King Edward III. of England again invaded France, but finally 
made peace, agreeing to release the French monarch on more reasonable conditions. 
After a four years' captivity in England, King John the Good returned to his king- 
dom, atid was received with almost universal demonstrations of joy by his subjects; 
but when his son, Louis, who had been delivered to the King of England as a 
hostage for the fulfillment of the treaty, escaped, the conscientious King John vol- 



154 



MIDDLE AGES. 



untarily returned to captivity in England, and died soon after his arrival there 
(A. D. 1364.) 

Beginning of the Ducal House of Burgundy. — In 1363, the year previous 
to his death, King John the Good assig-ned to his son, Philip the Good, the Duchy 
of Burgundy, as a reward for his gallantry in the battle of Poitiers. This was the 
beginning of that celebrated Ducal House of Burgundy, which lasted more than a 
century, and which is so celebrated in French histoiy. 

REIGN OF CHARLES THE ^A;'ISE (A. D. 1S64-1S80). 

Character of King Charles the Wise. — John the Good was succeeded on 
the throne of France by his son, Charles V., surnamed " the Wise," who was of a 
peaceful disposition, and whose wise measures contributed much to restore pros- 
perity to the French kingdom. Charles the Wise was fond of study, and possessed 
talents for statesmanship. He founded the Royal Library in Paris, and liberally 
patronized literature and art. 

DuGuesclin — Battle of Navaretta — Loss of English Possessions in 
France. — King Charles the Wise appointed the great general, DuGuesclin, to the 
position of High Constable of France. DuGuesclin was defeated and taken pris- 
oner by the English under the Black Prince in the battle of Navaretta; but after 
the death of that great English warrior, the Constable conducted the war against 
the English with great success, depriving them of most of their territories in France. 

REIGN OF CHARLES VI. (A. D. 13SrO-1422). 

Regency of the Duke of Anjou — Popular Insurrection in Paris. — On 

the death of King Charles the Wise, in 1380, the crown of France fell to his son, 
Charles VI., who wa.s then only twelve years old. During the minority of Charles 
VI., his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, acted as Regent of France. The unjust and 
oppressive taxes imposed upon the French people occasioned a formidable populai 
insurrection in Paris, and order was restored with great difficulty. 

Revolt of the Flemings — Battle of Rosbecque. — The Flemings having 
revolted against their ruler. Count Louis of Flanders, a French army was sent to 
subdue them. In the battle of Rosbecque, in which the King of France himself 
was present, the Flemish leader, Philip Von Artevelde, and 25,000 of his followers, 
were defeated and slain by the French commanded by Oliver Clissons, High Con- 
stable of France. (A. D. 1382-.) 

Increase of the Royal Power — Execution of Popular Leaders. — The 
great victory at Rosbecque strengthened the royal power in France. All the French 
towns which had resisted the tyrannical exactions of the monarch were obliged to 
yield, and all their citizens who had taken a conspicuous part in the popular move- 
ment were mercilessly put to death, 3,000 being led to the scaffold in Paris alone. 
(A. D. 1382.) 

Invasion of France by Henry V. of England— Battle of Azincourt — 
Treaty of Troyes. — King Charles VI. at length became a victim to insanity; 
and while in consequence France was distracted by domestic dissensions respecting 
the Regency, King Henry V. of England invaded the French kingdom, took Har- 
Ueur, and on the 14th of October, 1415, with only 8,000 men, he defeated a French 



LATIN STATES. 



155 



anny of 50,000 men, in the great battle of Azincourt, and conquered Normandy, 
after taking its capital, Rouen. In 1422, the Treaty of Troyes was concluded, by 
which Henry V. of England was to become King of France on the death of King 
<3harles VI., in exclusion of the rights of the Dauphin. Although the States-Gen- 
eral of France ratified this ti^eaty, it was never carried into efr(^t, Charles VI. 
cutiiving Hemy V. several months. (A. D. 1422.) 

REIGN OF CHARLES THE VICTORIOUS (A. D. 1422-1461) 

Charles VII. and Henry VI. of England Crowned Kings of Fiance. — 
On the death of the imbecile Charles VI., in 1422, his son, the Dauphin, was 
crowned at Poitiers, King of France, with the title of Charles VII.; but, in accord- 
ance with the Treaty of Troyes, the infant Henry VI. of England had already 
been crowned at Paris, King of England and France. The army of Cha?les VII. 
had been disastrously defeated by the Duke of Bedford, the English legent in 
France (1424); and town a^ter town fell into the hands of the English, until, in 
1428, Orleans was the only stronghold remaining in the possession of the French, 
and even that city was besieged by the victorious invaders. 

Siege of Orleans — Appearance of Joan cf Arc, the Maid of Orleans. — 
The English pushed the siege of Orleans with vigor. A sally was made by the 
French, but they were repulsed after a short engagement known as "the Battle of 
the Herrings," so called because an attack had been made on an English escort 
which was conveying a supply of herrings to the camp of the besiegers. Orleans 
was on the point of surrender, when the beleaguered city was relieved, and the 
deliverance of Charles VII. was effected by one of the most extraordinary circum- 
stances recorded in history. Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy, in Lor- 
raine, aged nineteen years, had been told by a prophecy that France could only be 
delivered from its English invaders by a virgin, and her mind became impressed with 
the belief that she herself was divinely commissioned to effect this great object. 
She soon induced others, among them King Charles VII. and his officers, to be- 
lieve in the truth of her divine mission. Charles VII. gave her the command of 
his army, and she was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor and provided with 
a train of attendants. Under her leadership, the French, influenced by superstition, 
seemed inspired with fresh courage and hopes, and they soon compelled the Eng- 
lish to raise the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) 

Coronation of Charles VII. at Rheims — Capture and Death of the 
Maid of Orleans. — Joan of Arc, now called the Maid of Orleans, next urged 
Kmg Charles VII. to proceed to Rheims, in order to be there crowned and conse- 
crated King of France; and after several more victories, under the leadership of the 
valiant Maid, Rheims was wrested from the Enghsh, and Charles VII. w:is crowned 
in the great cathedral of that city. (A. D. 1429.) Joan then declared her mission 
fir ished, and wished to retire from the army ; but as the French king insisted upon 
tier remaining with the army until the expulsion of the English invaders from 
\ ranee, she complied with his wishes. As a reward for the heroine's services, 
Charles VH. ennobled her family. The English lost town after town and suffered 
defeat after defeat. At length, the French officers, jealous of the fame of Joan of 
Arc, allowed the Duke of Burgundy, the ally of the English, to make hei a prisoner 
m a sally from the town of Compeigne. The Duke of Burgundy sold her to the 



156 



MIDDLE AGES. 



Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France, who caused the heroic Maid of 
Orleans to be burned alive, on the charge of sorcery, in the market-place of Rouen, 
(A. D. 1431.) 

Expulsion of the English from France— Wicked Conduct of the Dau- 
phin. — Although the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they 
were victorious ; and finally, in 1453, the city of Calais was the only place in all 
France remaining in the hands of the English. Duke Philip the Good of Bur- 
gundy had become reconciled to the French monarch. In 1436, King Charles 
VII., now surnamed "the Victorious," because of his triumph over the English, 
entered Paris, and reigned in peace. Although Charles the Victorious was re- 
lieved of the English invaders, the wickedness of his son Louis, the Dauphin, pre- 
vented him from enjoying quiet. Louis excited a rebellion against his father, who 
forgave him, but was soon obliged to banish him to Dauphiny, where he so op- 
pressed the people that they compelled him to flee to Burgundy, where he excited 
dissatisfaction against Duke Philip the Good. The ,wicked Dauphin sought to 
procure his father's death by poison, and the unhappy king was so afraid to taste 
food that he died from starvation. (A. D. 1461.) 

REIGN OF LOUIS XI. (A. D. 1461-14SS). 

King Louis XI. and "The League of the Public Good." — The good 
Charles the Victorious was succeeded as King of France by his wicked son, Louis 
XL, who, immediately upon his accession, proceeded to measures so extreme to 
degrade the French nobles that they fomied a defensive league, known as " The 
League of the Public Good." At the head of this formidable confederacy were the 
Dukes of Berri, Bretagne, and Bourbon, and Count Charles of Charolois. The 
league collected a large army, which advanced to Paris, but after some fighting 
without much result, the crafty king, by the most liberal promises, which he never 
intended to fulfill, contrived to dissolve the league. 

The Dukedom of Burgundy — Louis XI. a Prisoner to Charles the Bold. 
— At this period the Dukedom of Burgundy was tlie most prosperous country in 
Europe; and the cities of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, and Arras were widely cele- 
brated for their manufactures and commerce. The Duke of Burgundy, though a 
vassal of the French crown, was more powerful than most kings, and his court 
was the most splendid in Europe. In 1468, Kiijg Louis XL went to meet Duke 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, at Peronne; and when Charles discovered that the 
artful Louis had treacherously excited the Duke's subjects to rebellion, he seized 
the pei-fidious monarch and kept him a prisoner for some time. The Fiench king 
obtained his release only on the most humiliating conditions: he was obliged to 
surrender several counties to the Duke of Burgundy, and to accompany the Duke 
to Liege and assist in quelling the revolt which he himself had excited. The two 
princes vented their anger and disappointment on the unfortunate inhabitants, who 
were slaughtered without mercy. 

Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England — Disasters to Charles 
the Bold. — In 1475, King Edward IV. of England invaded France with a pow- 
erful army. Louis XL, recollecting the terrible days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- 
court, was exceedingly alarmed at this English invasion; but he succeeded by large 
bribes in inducing the English monarch to consent to a treaty of peace. In 1476, 



LATIN STATES. 



157 



Charles the Bold, the mighty Duke of Burgundy, made war on the Swiss, by whom 
he was defeated in the great battles of Granson, Murten, and Nancy, in the last ol 
which he was slain. (A. D. 1477). 

Reannexation of Burgundy — Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of 
Austria. — Upon the death of Duke Charles the Bold, King Louis XI. seized on 
Burgundy proper and reannexed that territory to the possessions of the French 
crown ; but he was frustrated in his attempts to obtain possession of the ether terri- 
tories of the late Duke, as Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, 
disgusted with the treachery of the French king, married the Archduke Maximilian 
of Austria, afterwards Emperor of Germany, who obliged Louis XL to resign his 
pretensions. The result of this marriage was a rivalry of more than two centuries 
between France and Germany. After the death of Maiy, the King of France 
incited the Netherland towns to rebellion against Maximilian, but the insurgents 
were soon reduced to submission. 

Last Days and Death of King Louis XI. — By secret treachery or open 
violence, King Louis XL had greatly enlarged the French dominions. His consti- 
tution was broken down and his mind was approaching imbecility. So suspicious 
was he that his oppressed subjects would revenge themselves by assassinating him, 
that he shut himself up closely in his castle of Plessis, which he strongly fortified, 
and no one was permitted to visit him without his invitation. In this gloomy cas- 
tle, Louis diverted himself with various amusements, one of which was rat-hunting. 
Louis XL was delivered from his miserable existence by a slow disease, of which 
he died in August, 1483. 

REIGN OF CHARLES VIII. (A. D. 1483-1498). 

Charles the Courteous and the Acquisition of Brittany. — The wicked 
Louis XL left the French crown to his son, Charles VIII. , who, on account of his 
kindness of manner and his amiable qualities, was surnamed "the Courteous." 
During his minority, Charles VIII. was under the guardianship of his aunt, the 
Duchess Anne of Beaujeu. Charles resolving upon the conquest of Brittany, or 
Bretagne, the only fief in France that yet remained independent of the French 
crown, a war ensued; and the Bretons were defeated by the French army in the 
battle of St. Aubin, on the 2Sth of July, 148S. The Duke of Bretagne died soon 
afterv/ard; and his daughter Anne, sole heiress of the Duchy of Brittany, married 
King Charles VIII. in 1491, thus xmiting the whole of France under one sovereign. 

Conquests of Charles VIIL in Italy — Battle of Fornova — Loss of 
Naples. — France was now at the highest pitch of power; and King Charles die 
Courteous resolved upon enforcing some claims which he had upon the kingdom 
of Naples, and for this purpose he invaded Italy with an army of 18,000 men; and 
after receiving the submission of many Italian cities, he entered Rome and Naples 
in triumph. But when the King of France considered his Italian conquests secure, 
a powerful coalition was formed against him by the Italian princes, the Empero' 
Maximilian I. of GeiTnany, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The allies at 
tempted to cut off Charles's retreat to France, but he defeated their united forces in 
the battle of Fomova, and reached his kingdom in safety ; but all his conquests in 
Italy were lost to him. The whole kingdom of Naples was soon recovered from 
tUcr French by the able Spanish general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, " the Great Captain." 



158 MIDDLE AGES. 

REIGN OF LOUIS XII. (A. D. 1498-1515). 

Character of Louis XII., " The Father of his People."— On the death of 
Charles the Courteous, in 1498, without children, his third cousin, the Duke of 
Orleans, ascended the throne of France with the title of Louis XII., and proved to 
be one of tire best kings that ever wore a crown. He was so solicitous to promote 
the welfare and happiness of his subjects, and was so dearly beloved by them in 
return, that he was called "The Father of his People." Louis XII. took great pains 
to lessen the taxes and improve the administration of justice. He retained Brittany 
by marrying Anne, the widov\' of Charles VIII. 

French Conquests in Italy — League of Cambray — Battle of Ravenna. 
— In 1499, King Louis XII. s-ent an army into Italy to enforce his hereditaiy claims 
upon Milan. The French conquered Milan and Genoa, and Louis XII. and King 
Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain wrested Naples from its king, Frederic; but a 
quarrel arose between the robbers, and the Spanish king forced the French monarch 
to yield his claim upon Naples. In 1508, Pope Julius II., the Emperor Maximilian 
I. of Germany, King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, and King Louis XII. of 
France fonned the powerful League of Cambray against the Republic of Venice; 
but the Pope and Louis soon quarreled and open war ensued, and the Venetians 
secured the alliance of the Pope and the King of Spain. The French defeated the 
combined forces of their enemies in the great battle of Ravenna, on the nth of 
April, 1512. In the following year (1513), King Henry VIII." of England invaded 
France and won the battle of the Spurs, near Toumay. Louis XII. died in 1515, 
and was succeeded by his cousin Francis I. 



IBERIAN KINGDOMS. 

Christian Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal — Battle of To- 

losa. — During the Middle Ages, the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and 
Portugal arose in the Iberian or Spanish peninsula. These kingdoms waged con- 
stant wars against the Moors in the Southern portion of the peninsula. In 12 12, 
the united armies of Aragon and Castile achieved a great victory over the Moors at 
Tolosa, in the Sierra Morena, after which Saracen power in Spain rapidly declined. 

Aragon's Foreign Possessions — Alphonso the Wise and Alphonso 
XI. of Castile. — Aragon conquered the Spanish provinces of Valencia, Murcia, 
and Catalonia; and also the Mediterranean islands of Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, 
and Sicily; the latter during the reign of Peter HI., and the kingdom of Naples in 
the time of Alphonso V. Castile wrested much of the Southern portion of Spain from 
the Moors, thus obtaining the towns of Seville, Cadiz, and Cordova. The most cele- 
brated kings of Castile were Alphonso the Wise, noted for his fondness for learning, 
particularly asti-onomy, and Alphonso XL, famous for his victories over the Moors. 

Rise of Portugal. — Alphonso VI., King of Castile, bestowed the Earldom of 
Portugal on his chivalrous son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule in fief. 
The Earl Alphonso I., having gained a great victory over the Moors in 1139, was 
crowned the first King of Portugal, which he liberated from Castilian supremacy. 
King Alphonso III. extended Portugal to its present limits by the annexation of 
Algarve, the most southern province, which he had conquered from the Moors. 



GERMANIC STATES. 



159 



Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella — The In- 
quisition. — In 1474, Isabella ascended the throne of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdi- 
nand the Catholic became King of Aragon. The tM'o kingdoms were united into 
one, called Spain, by the marriage of Isabella with Ferdinand. The horrible Cou-t 
of Inquisition, which condemned Mohammedans, Jews, and others charged with 
heresy, to tortures, imprisonment, and death itself, was established in Spain by 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 

Fall of Granada and End of the Saracen Power in Spain — Conquest of 
Navarre. — In 1481, Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Moorish 
kingdom of Granada, in the South of Spain, and their armies took the city of Gran- 
ada, with its famous fortress, the Alhambra, in 1492, after a siege of ten years, thus 
putting an end to the Saracen power in Spain, after it had existed in that country a 
period of about eight centuries. In 15 12, the whole of Spain was united under one 
scepter by the conquest and annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, on the south 
side of the Pyrenees. 



GERMANIC STATES. 



THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY. 

THE CARLOVINGIAN SOVEREIGNS OF GERMANY. 

Germany under the Carlovingian Dynasty — Charles the Fat and Ar- 
nolph. — The existence of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany began with the 
Partidon Treaty of Verdun, in the year 843 A. D. Under the Carlovingian sover- 
eigns, Germany was in a most deplorable condition. Charles the Fat was deposed 
by the German nobles, for making a humiliating peace with the free-booting Nor- 
mans, and his valiant nephew, Amolph, was elevated to the imperial throne of 
Germany. Amolph defeated the savage Avars and Slavonians, and called in the 
aid of the wild Magyars, or Hungarians, from the region of the Ural; but the Mag- 
yars soon proved to be a more dangerous enemy than either the Avars or the Sla- 
vonians. 

GERMANY UNDER THE SAXON AND PRANKISH 
EMPERORS. 

REIGN OF CONRAD I. OF FRANCONIA (A. D. 911-919). 

Germany an Elective Empire.— On the death of Louis IV., the last of the 
Carlovir.gian sovereigns of Germany, in 911, the Dukes of Franconia, Saxony, 
Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, and Lorraine elected Duke Conrad of Franconia Em- 
peror of Germany. From that time until 1806, Germany continued to be an elec- 
tive empire. The Emperor Conrad I. spent the whole of his reign of seven years 
in repelling the invasions of the ilungarians. 



l6o MIDDLE AGES. 

REIGN OF HENRY THE FOWLER (A. D. 919-936). 

Defeat of the Hungarians at Merseberg. — On the death of the Emperor 
Conrad I., in 919, the German princes elected Duke Henry the Fowler of Saxony 
to the German imperial throne. Henry I. extended the German Empire in all 
directions, and defeated the Hungarians in the battle of Merseberg, in 933. 

REIGN OF OTHO THE GREAT (A. D. 9S6-97S). 

Italy Annexed to the German Empire — Otho Crowned at Milan and 
Rome. — On the death of Henry the Fowler, in 936, his son Otho I., surnamed 
"the Great," was elected Emperor of Germany. Italy was now annexed to the 
German Empire; and Otho the Great was crowned at Milan with the iron ciown 
of Lombardy, and at Rome with the golden crown of the Empire. 

Otho's Protectorship over the Pope — Defeat of the Magyars at Lech- 
feld. — The Emperor Otho the Great made himself protector of the Pope, and in- 
duced the Roman people to swear that they w^ould recognize no Pope without the 
concurrence of the German Emperor. Otho the Great defeated the Magyars in 
the battle of Lechfeld, in 973, the year of his death. 

REIGN OF OTHO II. (A. D. 973-988). 

War with the Greeks in Italy — Otho's Defeat at Bassantello. — On the 

death of Otho the Great, his son, Otho II., was elected Emperor of Germany. 
WTiile Otho II. was in Italy, the Greeks disputed his claims to possessions in that 
country; and the Emperor was defeated by the Greeks and the Saracens in the 
battle of Bassantello, and only escaped capture by his skill in swimming. 

REIGN OF OTHO III. (A. D. 988-1002.) 

Character of Otho III. — Defeat of the Slavonians. — Otho II. died in 983, 
and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his son, Otho III., who 
was more learned and refined than most princes of his time. Otho III. defeated 
the Slavonians, who had waged long wars against the German Empire, and com- 
pelled their leader, Micislaus, Duke of Poland, to do homage. 

REIGN OF HENRY THE SAINT (A. D. 1002-1024.) 

Character of Henry II. — End of the Saxon Line of Emperors. — On the 
death of Otho HI., in 1002, Henry II. of Bavaria, a relative of the Othos, was 
chosen Emperor of Germany by the Electoral Princes. Henry II. had a great 
fondness for the clergy; and on account of his piety he was surnamed "the Saint." 
The line of Saxon Emperors ended with the death of Henry, in 1024. 

REIGN OF CONRAD II. (A. D. 1024-1039). 

Burgundy Annexed to the German Empire — Founding of the Cathedral 
at Spire. — On the death of Henry the Saint, Duke Conrad of Franconia was electee" 
Emperor of Germany, with the title of Conrad II. Conrad received the iron crown 
of Lombardy at Milan and the imperial crown at Rome. Conrad II. united the 
Duchy of Burgundy with the Gennan Empire. His son-in-law, Ernest of Swabia, 
claimed the imperial throne of Gennany, and raised an insurrection, which was 



GERMANIC STATES. i6i 

suppressed after a severe struggle. Conrad II. founded the Cathedral of Spire, 
where he and succeeding Emperors of Germany were buried. 

REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1039-1056). 

Designs of Henry III. against the German Princes and the Pope. — 

The Emperor Conrad II. died in 1039, and his son, Henry III., was chosen his 
successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Henry III. endeavored to diminish 
the power of the German princes, make himself an absolute monarch, and change 
Germany from an elective to an hei-editary empire. This emperor also tried ;o raise 
himself above the Roman pontiff. Three Popes were ruling at this time, and Henry 

III. intended to depose them and put German bishops in their places. 

REIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 10S6-1106). 

Rebellion in Saxony against the Emperor Henry IV. — Henry III. died 
in 1056, and was succeeded as Emperor of Germany by his son, Henry IV., who 
so oppressed the nobility and people of Saxony, that they rose in rebellion against 
him, and compelled him to leave the Saxon territory, where he had established his 
court. After a fierce struggle, Henry IV. conquered the Saxon insurgents by a de- 
cisive victory which he gained over them on the Unstruth, in 1075. 

Quarrel of Henry IV. with Pope Gregory VII. — The Emperor Henry 

IV. had a violent quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who endeavored 
to raise himself above all the princes of Christendom, whom he claimed to be his 
vassals. Henry was summoned to appear before Gregory, to answer for his conduct 
in Saxony, but refused obedience to the Pope's command, and caused the Council 
of Worms to proclaim the deposition of Hildebrand. The Emperor and his parti- 
sans were in consequence excommunicated by the Pope. About this time, Henry 
IV. lost the respect of his subjects by a quarrel with his wife; and he was threat- 
ened with dethronement by the German Princes, unless he would free himself from 
his excommunication by Hildebrand. In this desperate situation, the Emperor went 
to Italy, but was refused admission into the Pope's presence, until he had stood three 
days barefoot in the snow, without tasting any food. After Henry had imdergone 
this humiliation, he was released from the excommunication. 

Civil War between Henry IV. and Rudolph of Swabia. — While the Em- 
peror Henry IV. was in Italy, Rudolph of Swabia was invested with the dignity of 
Emperor of Germany. The consequence of this was a civil war, in which 
Henry was victorious ; and Rudolph died from the loss of a hand in the battle of 
Elster. 

Deposition of Hildebrand by Henry IV, — In 1081, the Emperor Henry IV. 
led an army into Italy, deposed Pope Gregory VII., who had again excommunicated 
him, and placed Clement HI. in the papal chair. The deposed Hildebrand retired 
to Naples, where he was protected by Robert Guiscard, the Norman king of that 
country. 

Henry's Quarrel with Pope Clement III. — Rebellion of Henry's Sons. 

— Plenry IV. was at length excommunicated by Pope Clement III., and the impe- 
rial crown of Germany was claimed by two rivals. The Emperor's own sons rebelled 
against their father. One of them, Henry, was elected Emperor, and took his father 
II 



1 62 MIDDLE AGES. 

prisoner. The Emperor made his escape, and died at Liege, in Flanders, in the 
year 1106 A. D. 

REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1106-112S). 

Disagreement Between Henry V. and Pope Clement III. — Upon the 
death of Henry IV., his son, Heniy V.,who had so long warred against his father, 
obtained undisputed possession of the German imperial throne. Pope Clement 
III , who had been his ally against his father, now quarreled with him. Henry V. 
was excommunicated by the Pope for seizing the cardinals; but he succeeded, by 
the Concordat of Worms, in having the power of investing the bishops and abbots 
with their privileges bestowed on the emperor, while they were to be chosen to their 
offices by the Pope. 

REIGN OF LOTHAIRE THE SAXON (A. D. 1125-1188). 

The Hohenstauffens and Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria. — On the 

deatli of Henry V., the last German emperor of the House of Franconia, Lothaire 
of Saxony received the imperial crown of Germany. As the Hohenstauffens refused 
to recognize Lothaire as Emperor, the latter strengthened himself by conferring 
Saxony on Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria and forming a marriage alliance with 
the House of Bavaria. The Hohenstauffens, unable to withstand so powerful a 
combination, found themselves obliged to recognize Lothaire and to accompany him 
on his expedition to Italy. 

GERMANY UNDER THE HOHENSTAUFFENS. 

REIGN OF CONRAD III. (A. D. 1188-1152). 

Rebellion of Henry the Proud — Guelphs and Ghibellines. — On the death 
of the Emperor Lothaire, in 1138, Conrad HI., of the House of Hohenstauffen or 
Swabia, obtained the imperial crown of Germany from the Electoral Princes in the 
Diet of Coblentz. Henry the Proud of Bavaria, Lothaire's son-in-law, who aspired 
to the imperial dignity, rose in rebellion against Conrad III. A civil war was the 
consequence. It was during this civil war, at the siege of Weinsberg, that the 
cries of "Hurrah for Welf!" "Hurrah for Waibling!" from which arose the party 
designations of Welf and Waibling, or Guelph and Ghibelline, were first heard. 
The fortress of Weinsberg was compelled to surrender to the Emperor Conrad HI. 
The Welfs, or Guelphs, were the partisans of the Pope, and the Waiblings, or Ghi- 
bellines, were the supporters of the Emperor of Germany. The contests of these 
two parties distracted Germany and Italy for three centuries. The death of Henry 
the Proud only put an end to the struggle between himself and the Emperor 
Conrad III. Conrad engaged in the Second Crusade, but he was unfortunate in 
that undertaking. 

REIGN OF FREDERIC BARBAROSSA (A. D. 11S2-1190). 

Frederic Barbarossa's Expeditions to Italy. — Conrad HI. died m 1152, 
and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his nephew, the chivalrous 
Frederic Barbarossa, who ruled \yith firmness and wisdom, and made the German 
Empire respected abroad. Frederic Barbarossa led six military expeditions to Italy, 



GERMANIC STATES. ig, 

for the purpose of subduing the rebelhous Italians, who were founding independent 
republics, and openly setting the authority of the German emperor at defiance. 

Milanese Rebellion — Siege and Destruction of Milan. — The powerful 
city of Milan refused to do homage to the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who 
received the crown of Lombardy at Pavia and the crown of the Empire at Rome. 
After Frederic's return te Germany, the Milanese destroyed the city of Lodi, which 
was loyal to the Emperoi Frederic proceeded to Italy a second time, and over- 
r:arpe the Milanese in a b.oody war. Milan fell into the Emperor's hands, after a 
siege of nearly four years, when the walls and buildings of the proud and rebellious 
city were destroyed. 

Second Milanese Revolt^Battle of Lignano — Peace of Constance. — 
The Emperor Frederic Barbarossa at length quarreled with Pope Alexander III., 
who excommunicated the Emperor and allied himself with the Lombards, who, led 
by the Milanese, who had rebuilt their city, had again revolted against the imperial 
authority, and built the city of Alexandria, which was named in honor of the Pope. 
Frederic Barbarossa left Italy, but soon returned with a powerful army and laid 
siege to Alexandria; but Henry the Lion of Brunswick refusing to aid the Emperor, 
the German army was disastrously defeated by the gallant Milanese in the battle of 
Lignano, in 1176. Frederic Barbarossa himself was missing for several days. 
The heroism displayed by the chivalrous Emperor won the respect of the Lombard 
confederates and of the Pope; and a truce of six years was agreed upon, which 
was the forerunner of the Peace of Constance, which was concluded in 1183, and 
which was honorable to all parties. At the conclusion of this Lombard war, 
Frederic Barbarossa returned to Germany. 

Rise and Fall of Henry the Lion of Brunswick. — Henry the Lion of 
Brunswick, the enemy of Frederic Barbarossa, had in the meantime conquered the 
Slavonic provinces of Mecklenburg and Pomerania and other small states, and an- 
nexed them to his dominions. He also founded the flourishing cities of Munich 
and Lubec. Henry the Lion was hated by all the other princes of the German 
Empire, as well as by the Emperor, so that the latter was enabled to take posses- 
sion of Henry's dukedoms of Saxony and Bavaria. Frederic gave Saxony to 
Albert of Bemhard and other princes of the House of Hohenstaffen, and Bavaria 
to the House of Wittelsbach. But the Lion successfully defended himself with the 
power of his anns for several years; but was finally compelled"" to submit to the 
Emperor, when, being obliged to leave Germany, he retired to England. 

Frederic Barbarossa as a Crusader. — Having overcome all his foes in his 
own dominions, the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa went with King Richard the 
Lion hearted of England and King Philip Augustus of France on the Third Cru- 
sade, in which the Emperor defeated the infidel Turks at Iconium, but he soon 
afterwards lost his life while crossing a sfream. (A. D. 1190.) 

RKIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1190-1197). 

Conquest of Naples and Sicily by Henry VI.-^Frederic Barbarossa's suc- 
cessor on the imperial throne of Germany was his son, Henry VI. This tyrannical 
sovereign spent most of his time in Italy. He desired to obtain the crown of the 
Kingdom of Naples and Sicily for his family; but the Neapolitan nobles placed 



1 64 MIDDLE AGES. 

one of their own number, Tancred, on the throne of Naples and Sicily, on the 
death of the last Norman king. A war followed, in which the Emperor Henry "VI, 
succeeded, with the aid of the German Crusaders, in subduing the Neapolitans, and 
in securing the crown of Naples and Sicily for the Hohenstauffen family. The 
cruel victors treated the vanquished with the harshest severity, putting out the 
eyes of many of the captive Neapolitan nobles, burning some, and burying others 
alive. 

REIGN OF OTHO IV. AND PHILIP OF SWABIA (A. D. 1197-12x8) 

Civil War Between the Rival Emperors. — On the death of Henry VI., .1 
civil war arose respecting the succession to the imperial throne of Germany. Some 
of the German princes chose Otho IV., brother of Henry VI., while others pro- 
claimed Philip of Swabia Emperor. This civil war lasted ten years, during which 
many cathedrals and churches were destroyed. 

Assassination of Philip — Otho's Quarrel with the Pope. — Philip of Swa- 
bia was assassinated, in 1208, by Prince Otho of Wittelsbach, from motives of pri- 
vate revenue; but a dispute now arose between the Emperor Otho IV. and Pope 
Innocent III. This Pope, who was ambitious, asserted that, as he was the Head 
of the Church, he was superior to all the princes of Christendom, who were his 
vassals; but Otho resolved not to yield to the Pope, and was consequently excom- 
municated. 

Frederic II. — Renewal of the Civil War. — The Pope sent Frederic of 
Hohenstauffen to claim the imperial crown of Germany; and a civil war followed 
between the Guelphs, or adherents of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, or supporters 
of the Emperor Otho IV. 

REIGN OF FREDERIC II. (A. D. 1218-12SO). 

Difficulties between Frederic II. and Pope Gregory IX. — When Otho IV. 
died, in 1218, the right of Frederic II. to the imperial throne of Germany was 
undisputed. The free-thinking and accomplished Frederic II. was engaged in a 
continual struggle with the Roman pontiff, who, fearing the loss of his temporal 
possessions and his power as Head of the Church, endeavored to separate Naples 
and Sicily from the dominion of the House of Hohenstauffen. As Frederic II. de- 
layed going on a promised crusade against the infidels, he was excommunicated by 
Pope Gregory IX. The following year (A. D. 1228), the Emperor went to Pales- 
tine on the Fifth Crusade, without having the excommunication removed. Frederic 
defeated the infidel Turks, and obtained Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem from 
them by treaty; but the Pope now forbade all Christian warriors from joining the 
standard of the Emperor, who was crowned King of Jerusalem without being con- 
secrated by the Church. Frederic II. soon returned to Europe, and proceeded to 
Italy to protect his Neapolitan possessions, which had been invaded by Papal troops. 
The Emperor drove the invaders from Naples and marched toward Rome, when 
the Pope made peace with Frederic and freed him from the excommunication. 

Subjugation of the Lombards by Frederic II. — Frederic II. now returned 
to Germany and devoted his attention to the internal affairs of his empire, but his 
determination to enforce the stipulations of the Peace of Constance involved him in 



GERMANIC STATES. 165 

a furious war with the Lombard towns, which refused to recognize the regalian 
rights which the Emperor claimed over them. Frederic, assisted by the Ghil)ellines 
and by the Saracens whom he had settled in Italy, subdued the Lombards after a 
sanguinary contest. 

Quarrel between Frederic II. and the Pope. — When Frederic II. threatened 
Milan with the same fate which it had experienced from Frederic Barbarossa, and 
created his son Enzio King of Sardinia, he was again excommunicated by Pope 
Gregory IX., who accused the free-thinking Emperor of being an enemy to the 
Christian religion and a secret Mohammedan. The Emperor repelled all the Pope's 
charges against him, but as public opinion was on the side of the Church, the Pope 
got the better in the quarrel. Gregory IX. died in 1241. His second successor in 
the papal chair, Innocent IV., summoned a Council of the Church at Lyons, in 
France, and excommunicated the Emperor Frederic II., whom he 'considered false 
to the Church and a believer in Mohammedanism. 

Civil War — Henry Raspe of Thuringia and William of Holland. — 
Another fierce civil war now broke out in Germany and Italy between the Guelphs 
and the Ghibellines. The Guelphic party in Germany chose Henry Raspe of 
Thuringia as Emperor, in 1246. After the battle of Ulm, in Swabia, Henry died, 
whereupon Count William of Holland was chosen to succeed him. The civil war 
w-as carried on with great cruelty in Italy by both parties. 

THE INTERREGNUM (A. D. 1250-1273). 

Conrad IV. and the Fall of the House of Hohenstauffen. — The Emperor 
Frederic II. died in 1250, and was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, 
Conrad IV., who, with his half-brother, Manfred, King of Naples, was excommu- 
nicated by Pope Innocent IV., who declared Naples and Sicily to be papal fiefs. 
The Emperor Conrad IV. soon died; and Pope Urban IV., the second successor 
of Innocent IV., bestowed Naples and Sicily as papal fiefs on Duke Charles of 
Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, King of France. Manfred was defeated and killed 
in the battle of Benevento, in 1266; and with the defeat and execution of his son 
Conradine ended the power of the Ghibellines and the House of Hohenstauffen in 
Naples. 

Deplorable Condition of Germany — Charles of Cornwall and Alphonso 
of Castile. — After the death of the Emperor Frederic II., in 1250, Germany was 
reduced to a most deplorable condition. Lawlessness and robbery prevailed to an 
alarming extent in every part of the Empire. The Princes of the Empire were 
constantly at war with each other. Foreign princes were elected Emperors of 
Germany. Charles of Cornwall, brother of King Henry HI. of England, was 
chosen by one faction, and Alphonso the Wise, King of Castile, by another. This 
interregnum in Germany lasted about twenty-three years. (A. D. 1 250-1 273.) 

The Hanseatic League — The Confederation of the Rhine. — In Northern 
Germany, the leading towns, such as Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Stralsund, Riga, 
and others, united themselves in a confederation well known in history as the 
"Hanseatic League." The objects of this confederacy of cities were the advance- 
ment of commerce, the suppression of piracy and lawlessness, and the restoraticm 
and preservation of public order. In Western Germany, the towns of Worms, 



1 65 MIDDLE AGES. 

Spire, Mayence, Strasbiirg, Basle, and others, formed the "Confederation of the 
Rhin^," also in the interest of social order. 

EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. 

REIGN OF RODOLPH OF HAPSBURG (A. D. 1270-1291) 

Overthrow and Death of Ottocar, King of Bohemia. — In 1273, the Elec- 
toral Piinces of the German Empire chose the energetic, chivalrous, and pious 
Count Rodolph of Hapsburg to the imperial throne of Germany. King Ottocai 
of Bohemia refused to recognize Rodolph, and the Emperor consequently waged 
war against the Bohemian king and overthrew him in the bloody and decisive battle 
of Marchfekl, in 1278. Ottocar himself was among the slain. 

Founding of the Royal Austrian House of Hapsburg. — The Emperor 
Rodolph left Wenceslaus, Ottocar's son, in possession of only Bohemia and Mora- 
via. Ottocar's other territorial possessions — namely, Austria, Styria, and Carniola — 
Rodolph bestowed on his own sons, and thus became the founder of the RoyJ 
Austrian House of Hapsburg, which has ever since occupied the Austrian throne. 

Restoration of Order in Germany. — By his energy, fimmess, and justice, 
Rodolph succeeded in restoring law and order throughout the Empire. The chiv- 
alrous Emperor traversed Germany, and reduced the lawless nobles and robber 
knights to submission, and razed their castles and strongholds to the ground. The 
illustrious Rodolph died in 1291, and was buried in the Cathedral of SjDire. 

REIGN OF ADOLPH OF NASSAU (A. D. 1291-1298). 

Purchase of Thuringia by Adolph — War with Frederic "With the Bit- 
ten Cheek." — On the death of Rodolph of Hapsburg, in 1291, the German Elec- 
toral Princes chose Count Adolph of Nassau to the imperial throne. Adolph 
purchased a portion of the Thuringian teixitories from Duke Albert the Uncourteous, 
— a step which involved the Emperor in a war with Albert's sons, Frederic "with 
the bitten cheek" and Dietzman, who were heirs to their father's territorial posses- 
sions. 

Dethronement of Adolph and Election of Albert of Austria. — The dis- 
graceful and dishonest m.eans which the Emperor Adolph employed for the aggran- 
dizement of his family rendered him exceedingly unpopular with the Gemian 
j/eople, and disgusted the Electoral Princes to such a degree that they deposed him 
in 1298, and elected Albert of Austria, son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, Emperor in his 
stead. Adolph resolved upon a struggle to preserve his crown, but was defeated 
and killed at Worms by Albert. 

REIGN OF ALBERT OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1298-1808). 

Austrian Tyranny over the Swiss. — Helvetia was a component part of the 
German Empire. When the Hapsburgs, whose territorial possessions lay to the 
north of the Swiss Cantons, came into possession of the hereditary Austi-ian states, 
they endeavored to annex Switzerland to the hereditary Austrian dominions, and 
the Emperor Albert's governors were instructed to exercise the greatest t}'ranny 
over th*" sturdy Swiss mountaineers. 



GERMANIC STATES. 



167 



League of Rutli — Legend of William Tell — Assassination of Albert. — 
The tyranny of the Austrian governors in Switzerland led to the formation of the 
League of Rutli by three Swiss Cantons, — Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalder. ; — and 
the tyrannical governors were expelled by the Swiss. One of these governors. 
Gesler, according to a well-known legend, was killed by William Tell, whom the 
tyrant had compelled to shoot an apple from his son's head, for refusing to bow to 
the ducal cap of Austria, which the governor had placed upon a pole in a conspic- 
uous place. The assassination of the Emperor Albert, in the year 1308, by hi.'- 
nt j)hew, John of Swabia, only saved the Swiss from his vengeance. 

REION OF HENRY VII., OF LUXEMBURG (A. D. 130S-1818). 

Henry's Expedition to Italy. — Upon the assassination of Albert of Austria, 
the Electoral Princes of Germany invested Henry VII., of the Hpuse of Luxem- 
burg, with the imperial dignity. Henry VII. led a military expedition into Italy, 
where he was well received by the Ghibellines; but the Guelphs rose against the 
Emperor. Henry marched to attack Florence, a Guelphic city; but he died on the' 
way, and was buried in the Ghibelline city of Pisa. (A. D. 1313.) 

REIGN OF LOUIS THE BAVARIAN AND FREDERIC THE FAIR 
OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1318-1349). 

Civil War Between the Rival Emperors — Honorable Conduct of Fred- 
eric. — On die death of Henry VII., another civil war arose in Germany concern- 
ing the succession to the imperial throne. Some of the German Electoral Princes 
chose Louis of Bavaria, while others declared for Frederic the Fair of Austria. 
Frederic was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Muhldorf; but Duke 
Leopold of Austria, Frederic's bi^other, refused to accept peace, and Pope John 
XXII. , who sided with Leopold, excommunicated Louis the Bavarian. Frederic 
the Fair was at length restored to freedom, on condition of persuading his brother 
Leopold and the Pope to agree to a peace ; but as tieither Duke Leopold, nor the 
Head of the Church, would listen to any proposals of peace, the honest Frederic 
voluntarily returned to captivity; which conduct led to the closest friendship be- 
tween Frederic and Louis, and the latter was willing to allow his rival a share in 
the Empire, but the Electoral Princes would not agree to such an arrangement. 

The Swiss Confederation — Battle of Morgarten. — Upon the ass.issination 
of tlie Emperor Albert I., in 1308, his brother Leopold succeeded him in the sove- 
reignty of the hereditary Austrian territories. Duke Leopold marched against the 
Swiss Confederates, but he was thoroughly defeated by them in the narrow pass of 
lllorgarten, in 1315, and only saved himself by a disgraceful flight from the scene 
of acdon. The three revolted cantons, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, were soon 
joined by the towns of Lucerne, Berne, Zug, and Zurich. 

Quarrel between the Emperor Louis and Pope John XXII. — Soon after 
Frederic the Fair had returned to captivity, his brother, Duke Leopold of Austria, 
died; and as Pope John XXII. still obstinately refused peace, the Emperor Louis 
appointed Frederic the Fair regent of the Empire, and led an army into Italy to 
humble the stubborn pontiff. Louis caused another Pope to be elected; and before 
his return to Germany, Frederic the Fair had died. In consequence of the obsti- 
nacy with which Pope John XXII. and his successor, Benedict XII., retained the 



x68 MIDDLE AGES. 

excommunication against the Emperor Louis, the German Pnnces declared in the 
Electoral Diet that in future the confirmation by the Pope should be unnecessary to 
tl;e validity of the election of Emperors. 

Charles IV., of Luxemburg. — The ambition of the Emperor Louis finally 
made him unpopular, and the Electoral Princes raised Charles IV., soi c>f King 
John of Bohemia, of the House of Luxemburg, to the imperial dignity; bu, Charle? 
was not fully acknowledged Emperor until Louis the Bavarian had been killed it. 
a bear hunt near Munich. 

GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG. 

REIGN OF CHARLES IV. (A. D. 1349-1378.) 

Founding of the University of Prague — The Golden Bull. — The Emperor 
Charles IV. was an ambitious and avaricious monarch ; but he did much for the 
welfare and prosperity of Gei-many. In 1348, he founded the University of Prague, 
which was attended by over 5,000 students. Charles IV. also established the code 
of laws known as " The Golden Bull," by which the election of Emperors was left 
exclusively to the seven leading Princes of Germany. 

REIGN OF ■WENCESLAUS (A. D. 1378-14.00). 

Lawlessness and Confusion — The Faust-recht. — On the death of Charles 
IV., in 1378, his son, the dissolute and hard-hearted Wenceslaus, was chosen Em- 
peror of Germany. During the reign of Wenceslaus great confusion and lawlessness 
prevailed throughout the Empire. The only law which prevailed over all others was 
the Faust-recht, or club-law, which called upon every man to take care of himself. 

Wars betv/een the Cities and the Knights. — To put an end to the prevail- 
ing disorder and confusion, the towns of Southern and Western Germany formed 
confederations against the lawless nobles and knights. To oppose these confeder- 
ations of towns, the knights also united themselves in leagues. Destructive wars 
ensued between the cities and the knights, and the people of South Germany were 
reduced to great distress. 

The Swiss — Battle of Sempach — Patriotic Devotion of Arnold Winkel- 
ried. — Duke Leopold of Austria was at this time engaged in a war with the Swiss 
Confederates. In 1386, the Swiss gained a victory over Leopold and his Austrian 
and German chivalry in the battle of Sempach, famous for the self-devotion of 
Arnold Winkelried, a gallant knight of Unterwalden, who plunged into the midst 
of the enemy, tearing their spears from their hands and burying them in his body, 
and opened a way for his countrymen, who rushed upon the Austrians and killed 
or routed their whole force. Duke Leopold and 656 of his nobles were among the 
slain. 

REIGN OF RUPERT OF THE PALATINATE (A. D. 1400-1410) 

Deposition of Wenceslaus and Election of Rupert of the Palatinate. — 
Disorder, robbeiy, and lawlessness prevailed to such an extent in Germarv that the 
Electoral Princes deposed Wenceslaus from the imperial throne, in the year 1400, 
and chose Rupert of the Palatinate in his stead. Rupert, however, did not su-cceed 



GERMANIC STATES. I go 

in restoring order and tranquillity to the German Empire. He also failed in his 
endeavors to heal the dissensions in the Church. 

REIGN OF SIGISMUND (A. D. 1410-1487). 

Council of Constance (1414-1418). — The Emperor Rupert died in 1410, and 
Sigismund, King of Hungary, brother of Wenceslaus, received the imperial dignity 
from the Electoral Princes of Germany. In order to heal the dissensions in the 
Church, the Emperor Sigismund induced Pope John XXHI. to summon a oreal 
t'ouncil of the Church at Constance. For seventy years, the Popes had resided al 
Avignon, in France. The Italians and Germans, not succeeding in having the 
pajDal residence reestablished in Rome, elected another Pope: so there vi^ere now 
tv?o Po^Des, one at Avignon and another at Rome. A Council of the Church 
which had convened at Pisa proclaimed the deposition of the two Popes, and chose 
another in theii stead ; but as the two Popes would not resign their dignities, there 
were now three Popes reigning at the same time. To remove this scandal, and to 
purge the Church of its many abuses and corruptions, the grand Council of Con- 
stance was called. The clergy and Church dignitaries from all Western and Central 
Europe hastened to Constance at the appointed time, and 150,000 men are said to 
have been assembled there. The first business of the Council was the deposition 
of the three Popes and the elevation of Martin V. to the pontifical chair. 

Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. — The Council of Con- 
stance, without effecting any refonnation in the Church, devoted itself earnestly to 
the consideration of doctrines and opinions differing from those of the Church, and 
condemned the writings of John Wickliffe, the gi'eat English reformer, to be burned. 
The Council also summoned the learned and pious John Huss, a i:)rofessor in the 
University of Prague, who had adopted the opinions of Wickliffe, and preached 
against the power of the Pope and condemned many of the practices of the Church, 
to appear and answer for his conduct. Being provided by the Emperor Sigismund 
with a safe-conduct, Huss went to Constance, but as soon as he arrived there he 
was imprisoned for preaching heretical doctrines. Having refused to recant, Huss 
was burned alive, in 1415, by order of the Council of Constance, notwithstanding 
the Emperor's promise that he should safely return to Prague, the Council beinw 
of the opinion that promises made to heretics were not binding. The following 
year (141 6), Jerome of Prague, a Bohemian nobleman, the associate and disciple of 
Huss, also perished at the stake. 

Hussite War. — The horrible deed just mentioned, aroused the adherents of 
Huss in Bohemia to a furious religious war of sixteen years' duration, in which 
they took a terrible revenge on the Empire and the Church for the death of the 
great reformer. In vain did the Pope issue interdict after interdict against the 
Hussites. They stormed the town-house at Prague and murdered the counsellors, 
which ace so enraged the aged ex-Emperor Wenceslaus that he died of apoplexy. 
Under the leadership of the valiant John Ziska, the Hussite Bohemians defeated 
;he armies of the Emperor Sigismund in many bloody battles. They burned churches 
and convents in Bohemia and Saxony, and compelled Brandenburg and Bavaria to 
pay tribute. By the death of Wenceslaus, his Bohemian crown fell to his brother, 
the Emperor Sigismund, but the latter was unable to obtain possession of the king- 
dom, until a reconciliation was brought about between the Church and the moderate 



170 



MIDDLE AGES. 



Bohemians, or Calixtines, and until the radical Hussites, or Taborites, suffered a 
defeat near Prague. Some of the Hussites afterwards withdrew from the Church, 
and formed the sect since known as "The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren." 

GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 

BEIGN OF ALBERT II. (A. D. 1488-1439.) 

The Hapsburg-Austrian Dynasty. — After the death of Sigismund, in 1437, 
his son-in-law, Albert II., of the House of Austria, or Hapsburg, was chosen Em- 
peror of Germany, from which time until the dissolution of the German Empire, in 
1806, the throne of Germany was occupied, with little intermission, by princes of 
the Hapsburg-Austrian dynasty. 

REIGN OF FREDERIC III. (A. D. 1440-1493). 

The Council of Basle (A. D. 1431-1449). — The Emperor Albert II. died 
in 1439, and his nephew, the weak and imbecile Frederic HI., was elected his 
successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Another great Comicil of the Church 
had been assembled at Basle, in 1431, during the reign of Sigismund, for the pur- 
pose of effecting the removal from the Church of all the abuses and corruptions 
which disgi-aced it. The Council of Basle continued in session until 1449, a period 
of nearly eighteen years, during which it endeavored to diminish the power of the 
Pope. To frustrate the designs of the Council, the Pope ordered it to be removed 
to Ferrara, and afterwards to Florence ; but the members of the Council refused to 
obey the order of the Father of the Church, and elected another Pope in his stead. 
Having secured the support of the Emperor Frederic HI., the lawful Pope, Euge- 
nius IV., finally triumphed; and the Church was left in her corruption. After 
having acknowledged Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., as Pope, the 
Council of Basle dissolved itself (1449). 

Imbecility of Frederic III. — The Emperor Frederic HI. possessed no talents 
for government. He looked on with seeming indifference when the Ottoman 
Turks were threatening his hereditary Austrian estates with plunder and desolation, 
and when the mighty Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy was extending his do- 
minions to the b.mks of the Rhine, while at home the imperial authority fell into 
contempt. 

Feuds of the Princes, Nobles, and Cities. — The German Empire was again 
a theatre of the greatest lawlessness. The German princes claimed the right of 
carrying on war against each other, and made themselves independent of the au- 
thority of the Emperor. A bloody war was waged by the Swabian League against 
the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Germany, — a war in which 
nine battles were fought and two hundred towns and villages laid in ashes. In 
Western Germany raged the war of the Palatinate, in which Ulric of Wurtemberg, 
the Margrave of Baden, and the Bishop of Metz were defeated and made prisoners 
by the Count Palatine, Frederic the Victorious, near Seckenheim, in 1461. Not- 
withstanding his success, Frederic the Victorious could not prevent the deposition 
of his ally, the Archbishop of Mayence, in whose cause he hac taken up arms. 



GERMANIC STATES. 1 71 

REIGN OF MAXIMILIAN I. (A. D. 149S-1S19). 

The Land-friede. — The weak and imbecile Frederic III. died in 1493, and 
was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, Maximilian I., who succeeded 
in securing the establishment, by the Diet of Worms, of the Land-friede, or Land- 
peace, which put an end to the prevailing lawlessness and private warfare in Ger- 
many. The Land-friede forbade any private redress of injuries by arms under the 
penalty of outlawry; and an Imperial Chamber was established to settle disputes 
among the Princes, and the German Empire was divided into ten Circles. 

Defeat of the Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss — Peace of Basle. — 
The Swiss having refused to recognize the Imperial Chamber, the Emperor Maxi- 
milian marched against them with an army, but he was defeated and compelled to 
retreat, and in the Peace of Basle, in 1499, '^'^ acknowledge the independence of 
Switzerland. ' 

Importance of the Reign of Maximilian I. — -The reign of Maximilian I. was 
an important epoch in the history of Europe ; as it was the transition period between 
the Middle Ages and Modern Times, — the period when the night of barbarism was 
passing away and the light of civilization was again dawning upon Europe ; when 
the Feudal System was giving way to more enlightened usages; and when Chivalry 
was in its decay. Maximilian died in 15 19, and was succeeded as Emperor by his 
grandson, Charles V. 

KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXON AND DANISH KINGS. 

REIGNS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS (A. D. 827-1017). 

Founding of the Kingdom of England — Egbert, First King. — In the 

year 827 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy in Britain were united, 
under the government of Egbert, King of Wessex, into one great kingdom, called 
Angle-land, or England. Egbert had been educated at the court of Charlemagne, 
and was an enlightened and accomplished prince. 

Predatory Incursions of the Danes into England. — During the reigns of 
Egbert and his successors of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, the Danes, a daring Scan- 
dinavian tribe, were continually making irruptions into England and securing a 
vast amount of booty, which they carried off to their own counti^v. 

King Alfred the Great and the Danes — Institutions of Alfred. — Durhig 
the reign of the good and illustrious Alfred the Great, who ascended the tlirone of 
England in 871 A. D., the Danes obtained possession of the greater part of the 
English kingdom ; and Alfred became a fugitive among his Anglo-Saxon subjects. 
On one occasion. King Alfred went into the camp of the Danes, disguised as a 
hai-per; and after having obtained the .knowledge he wanted, returned to his own 
subjects and led them against the Danes, whom he conquered after a severe struggle. 
The Danes whom Alfred had made prisoners, and among whom was their chief, 
Gu thrum, were allowed to remain in England, on condition of becoming Christians. 
King Alfred the Great had a great fondness for learning, and he gave great encour- 
agement to the arts, sciences, and literature. He founded the University of Oxford, 



172 MIDDLE AGES. 

improved London, reformed the Saxon division of the kingdom into counties or 
shires, instituted trial by juiy, and laid the foundations of the English navy. Alfred 
the Great, who was himself the most learned man in his kingdom, and who was as 
virtuous as he was learned, died in the year 901 A. D., and was succeeded on the 
throne of England by his son, Edward the Elder. 

Renewal of the Incursions of the Danes — Massacre of the Danes in 
England. — After the death of Alfred the Great the Danes again ravaged England; 
and in the reign of King Ethelred II., who ascended the English throne in 978, 
they obtained possession of the greater portion of the country, and King Ethelred 
several times bribed them to leave the kingdom. When the Danes again returned 
to England, in the year 1002 A. D., and committed their former ravages. King 
Ethelred II. caused all the Danes in England to be massacred. .To avenge their 
death, Sweyn, King of Denmark, with a large army of Danes and Norwegians, 
invaded England, which he soon subdued. King Ethelred II. fled to Normandy, 
but soon afterward returned to England. 

THE DANISH' KINGS OF ENGLAND (A. D. 1017-1041). 

Reign of Canute the Great. — King Ethelred II., at his death, was succeeded 
on the English throne by his son, Edmund Ironside. Sweyn's son, Canute the 
Great, King of Denmark, invaded England in 1016; and on the death of Edmund 
Ironside, the next year, became sole King of England. At first Canute the Dane 
treated his Anglo-Saxon subjects with great severity, but he soon embraced 
Christianity, and thereafter governed with mildness and wisdom. Canute the Great 
was one of the most powerful monarchs of his time ; and before his death, he wore 
the crowns of four kingdoms, having been King of Denmark since his father's 
death, in 1013, and having conquered England in 1016, Sweden in 1025, and 
Norway in 1027. 

Short Reigns of Harold Harefoot and Hardicanute. — On the death of 
Canute the Great, in 1035, his son Harold, surnamed " Harefoot," on account of 
his swiftness in running, became King of England. Harold Harefoot died in 1039, 
and was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother Hardicanute, who died 
ater a tyrannical reign of two years. (A. D. 1041.) 

THE RESTORED SAXON DYNASTY (A. D. 1041- 1066). 

Reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold. — Upon the death of Har- 
dicanute, in 1041, the Saxon dynasty was restored to the throne of England, in the 
person of Edward the Confessor. On Edward's death, in 1066, the English crown 
was usurped by his wife's brother, Harold. Tostig, Hai-old's brother, claimed the 
English throne, and, with the aid of the Kings of Scotland and Norway, he raised 
ft large army, but was defeated by Harold in a great battle on the river Tyne, in 
the North of England, on the 25th of September of the same year. (A. D. 1066.) 

Invasion of England by Duke William of Normandy — Battle of Has- 
tings. — A few days after Harold's victory over his brother, Duke William of Nor- 
mandy, to whom Edward the Confessor had bequeathed the English kingdom, and 
whose pretensions were sanctioned by the Pope, landed on the Southern coast of 
England, at the head of 60,000 men. In the great battle of Hastings, which was 



GERMANIC STATES. 



173 



fought on the 14th of October, 1066, Harold was killed, and the Duke of Nor- 
mandy gained a victoi"y which changed the whole fate of England. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMAN DYNASTY. 

REIGN OF V/ILLIAM THE COKQUEROR (A. D. 1066-10(17) 

"The Norman Conquest" of England. — The battle of Hastings made tne 
Duke of Normandy King of England. F>om this time he %vas called "William 
the Conqueror," and his subjugation of Engkmd is styled " The Norman Conquest." 
The immediate result of the battle of Hastings gave William only about one-fourth 
of England, and it was only after a war of seven years that the Conqueror com- 
pleted the subjugation of the entire kingdom. 

Introduction of the Feudal System into England — Dohies-day Book. 
— William the Conqueror introduced the Feudal System into England by dividing 
the lands of the conquered kingdom among his Norman favorites, thus depriving 
the Anglo-Saxon nobility of their rights, and reducing the English peasants to a 
condition of serfdom. The account of the survey of the lands then made was 
vrritten in Domes-day Book, or "Book of Judgment," which is preserved in the 
Tower of London to this day. 

REIGN OF WILLIAM RUFUS (A. D. 1087-1100). 

Quarrel Between King William Rufus and His Brothers. — William the 
Conqueror died in 1087, and was succeeded as King of England by his second 
%o\{, William Rufus, or "the Red," so called from the color of his hair; while his 
eldest son, Robert, became Duke of Normandy. King William Rufus was 
involved in quarrels with his brothers, Rob'ert and Henry. He also waged war 
against Malcolm, King of Scotland. In order to obtain money to join in the First 
Crusade, Robert sold his duchy of Normandy to William Rufus, who obtained 
money to pay for it by forced levies upon his English subjects. 

REIGN OF HENRV I. (A. D. 1100-113S). 

Quarrel Between King Henry I. and His Brother Robert. — King William 
Rufus was accidentally killed by one of his companions while hunting, in the year 
1 100 A. D., and was succeeded on the throne of England by his younger brother, 
Henry; his elder brother, Robert, being absent in the Holy Land. King Henry 
I. was surnamed Beauclerc, or " Good Scholar." After his return from Palestine, 
Robert recovered Normandy; but a war arose between him and Heni-y L, and 
Robert was made prisoner and ended his days in a caistle in Wales. 

REIGN OF STEPHEN OF BLOIS (A. D. 11S5-11B4). 

Stephen's Usurpation — Civil War — Matilda's Triumph and Fall. — On 
the death of King Henry L, in 1135, the English throne was usurped by Count 
Stephen of Blois, the rightful claimant being Heme's daughtei", Matilda, the wife 
of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The result of Stephen's usurpation was a 
civil war, which ended in the triumph of Matilda, and she wa.s declared Queen of 
England; but her tyranny and arrogance disgusted her English friends, and she was 
finally compelled to flee from the kingdom; and Stephen was restored to the throne. 



174 MIDDLE AGES. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS. 

REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 11B4-1189). 

Usurpations of the Clergy — Constitutions of Clarendon — Assassination 
of Becket. — Upon the death of King Stephen, in 1154, the Plantagenet dynasty 
ascended the throne of England, in the person of Henry II., of Anjon, Matilda's 
son. Heniy II. was one of the greatest monarchs of the Middle Ages, and his 
reign was cotemporary with that of Frederic Barbarossa in Germany. In order to 
check the usurpations of the clergy va England, King Henry II. assembled the 
English nobles and priests at Clarendon, in 11 64; and by the " Constitutions of 
Clarendon," which were framed by this assembly, the privileges of the English 
clergy were restricted. But Pope Alexander III. and Thomas a Becket, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, rejected the Constitutions of Clarendon; and a long and bitter 
quarrel ensued between the King and the Archbishop. At last, Henry exclaimed 
in a fit of anger, "Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest!" whereupon four 
of the King's servants went to Canterbury and killed Becket. The conseqirence 
of this assassination was the final triumph of the Church ; the assassins were pim- 
ished, the Constitutions of Clarendon were abolished, and the murdered Becket 
was canonized by the Pope. Thousands of pilgrims visited Becket's altar, and 
King Henry II. at length went to the tomb of the murdered Archbishop, and there 
did penance for the crime by allowing the priests to assault him with rods. 

Conquest of Ireland by the English. — At this time Ireland was divided into 
five separate kingdoms. In 1 171, the Earl of Pembroke, sumamed Strongbow, 
went over into Ireland to assist Dermot Macmorrogh, King of Leinster, who had 
been driven from his dominions by the other Irish princes. Dermot soon recov- 
ered his kingdom, which, at his death, the following year (1172), he left to Earl 
Strongbow, who had married his daughter. Strongbow immediately resigned his 
kingdom to King Henry II., who immediately invaded Ireland and subdued the 
whole island. (A. D. 1 172.) Ever since this event the Emerald Isle has been 
subject to the English crown. 

Rebellions of King Henry's Sons. — The Sons of King Henry II. were sev- 
eral times induced by their wicked mother, Eleanor, to take up arms against their 
father, and were assisted in their rebellion by the Kings of Scotland and France, 
and also by the English barons. King William of Scotland was taken prisoner by 
a band of English knights, but was afterwards released, on condition that he and his 
successors should do homage to the English monarchs for their crown. King 
Henry II. died in 1189, of grief and anxiety caused by the rebellion of his two 
■sons, Richard and John, who were aided by King Philip Augustus of France. 

REIGN OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED (A. D. 1189-1199). 

Richard's Deeds in Palestine — ^His Imprisonment in Germany. — Henry 
II. was succeeded on the English throne by his elder son, the chivalrous Richard 
the Lion-hearted, who was renowned for his deeds in Palestine as a Crusader. On 
his return home from the Holy Land, in 1 192, Richard was imprisoned in Ger- 
many, by order of the Duke of Austria and the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, in 
revenge for an insult to the German flag in Palestine after the capture of Acre. 
The English, people only obtained Richard's release by paying a ransom of 2 mil- 



GERMANIC STATES. 



175 



lion dollars. King Richard the Lion-hearted was killed in 1199, while l>esieging 
a castle in Normandy. 

REIGN OF JOHN (A. D. 1199-1216). 

Accession of John Lackland. — Richard the Lion-hearted was succeeded on 
the throne of England by his dissolute brother, John, sumamed "Lackland," be- 
cause he lost Normandy and the other territories which the English monarchs had 
oossessed in France, to the French Idng, Philip Augustus, after a long contest. 

King John's Quarrel with Pope Innocent III. — King John quarreled with 
Pope Innocent III. about the appointment of an Archbishop of Canterbury. The 
Pope laid the English kingdom under an interdict, and afterwards excommunicated 
King John, and called upon King Philip Augustus of France to invade England, 
lethrone John, and take possession of his kingdom. In order to' release himself 
from the excommunication, King John was compelled to surrender his crown and 
kingdom to the Pope, and to acknowledge himself the Pope's vassal, whereupon 
John received his kingdom back as a papal fief. The King of France was then 
forbidden to make war on England, which country the Pope now considered as 
one of the territories of the Church. 

Rebellion of the English Barons — Magna Charta Signed by King John. 
— Disgusted with the dissipation and tyranny of King John, Lhe English barons rose 
in rebellion against him; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymede, on the 
Thames, near Windsor, they compelled the king to sign Magna Charta, or Great 
Charter of rights and liberties. Among the important articles of this great docu- 
ment were the following: "No delay should take place in doing justice to every 
one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tene- 
ment, outlawed or banished, unless by the legal judgment of his peers." Magna 
Charta has ever since been considered the foundation of the free constitution of 
England. 

Civil War in England. — Irritated at the English barons, the Pope excommu- 
nicated them, and also absolved King John from the oath he had taken. Jolan 
collected an army of foreign mercenaries, and made war on his barons, who offered 
the crown of England to the French monarch's son, Louis, who imrriediately landed 
in England with an army, and prepared to contend with King John for the posses- 
sion of the English throne; but when John died, in 1216, Louis was suddenly aban- 
doned by the English barons. 

REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1216-1272). 

Civil War between Henry III. and his Barons — Simon de Montfort. — 
The dissolute King John was succeeded in the royal dignity by his son, Henry III,, 
who was a weak and profligate prince, and profuse to his favorites, who were gen- 
erally imworthy persons. King Henry III. was engaged in a continual struggle 
with tl !e English barons, who were endeavoring to secure their own rights and the 
liberties of the English people. The whole kingdom was rent by anarchy and civil 
war. The chief among the rebellious barons was Simon de Montfort, who, dis- 
gusted with the vicious conduct and tyranny of the King, called a Parliament, in 
1258, which deprived Henry III. of his authority; and a council of twenty-four 
barons was appointed to govern the English kingdom. 



176 MIDDLE AGES. 

Origin of the House of Commons — Civil War — Battles of Lewes and 
Evesham. — In 1265, Simon de Montfort, who had risen to the dignity of Earl of 
Leicester, called another Parliament, in which not only the English nobles, but also 
the cities and boroughs of England were represented. This was the origin of the 
House of Commons, which, as the popular branch of the English Parliament, has 
ever been the chief guardian of the rights and liberties of the people of England. 
An attempt of King Henry III. to recover his lost authority involved him in anotiier 
:.ivi] war with his barons. In the battle of Lewes, in 1264, the king was defeated 
and made a prisoner by the Earl of Leicester; but Henry afterwards obtained his 
freedom by the great victory which his son. Prince Edward, gained in the battle of 
Evesham, in which the Earl of Leicester and his son were slain. The wretched 
life and miserable reign of Henry HI. terminated with his death, in 1272. 

REIGN OF EDWARD I. (A.. D. 1272-1S07.) 

Edward I. in Palestine — Banishment of the Jews from England. — The 
chivalrous son of Henry HI., Edward I., who was at the time in Palestine as a 
Crusader, became King of England at his father's death ; but he did not return to 
England until two years afterward. King Edv/ard I. had a great hatred for the 
Jews, and, as soon as he arrived in England from the Holy Land, he confiscated 
the property of Jews, and banished 13,000 of them from his kingdom. 

Conquest of Wales by Edward I. — The First Prince of Wales. — Unlike 
his father, Edward I. was an able monarch. He humbled the English barons and 
restored order throughout his kingdom. His mind was occupied with the thought o\ 
uniting the whole island of Great Britain under one government. When Llewellyn 
Prince of Wales, refused to do the customary homage to the English king, Edward I. 
marched against him with an army ; and Llewellyn was defeated and slain in bajttle, 
and the principality of Wales was annexed to the English dominions. (A. D. 1282.) 
Irritated at the determined resistance of the Welsh, King Edward I. caused Llewel- 
lyn's brother, David, and the Welsh bards to be massacred; and then presented his 
own son, Edward of Caernarvon, to the Welsh people as their prince, since which 
time the eldest son of the British sovereign has been styled "Prince of Wales." 

The Scottish Succession — The Maid of Norway — ^John Baliol and 
Robert Bruce. — King Edward I. next attempted to subdue Scotland. When 
King Alexander HI. of Scotland died, in 12S6, the Scottish crown fell to his 
granddaughter Margaret, the daughter of the King of Norway, and the niece of the 
King cf England. Edward secured the marriage of the princess, known as the 
"Maid of Norway," with his son, the Prince of Wales. On her voyage from Nor- 
way to Scotland, the princess died ; and thus the plan for uniting England and 
Scotland under one sovereign was, for a time, frustrated. Among the Scots, many 
rival competitors now appeared for the crown of Scotland, the leading ones ol 
whom were John Baliol and Robert Bruce, who consented to let Edward I. decide 
upon their respective claims. The decision of Edward was in favor of Baliol, with 
the understanding that he should do homage to the King of England for his crown 
(A. D. 1293.) 

War between England and Scotland — Battle of Dunbar. — When Edward 
I. became involved in a war with King Philip the Fair of France, Baliol formed 
an alliance with the French monarch. The result of this step of the Scotch king 



GERMANIC STATES. 



177 



waj a furious war between England and Scotland. Edward I. led an army into 
Scotland, and defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar, in 1292. The victorious 
Edward soon compelled Baliol to suirender his crown, and carried to London the 
Scotch crown, sceptre, and the sacred chair at Scone, on which the Scottish kings 
S'lt when they were crowned. (A. D. 1296.) 

Sir William Wallace — Battles of Stirling and Falkirk — Robert Bruce. 
— The Scots revolted on Edward's return to England, and, being led by the ga-1- 
lant p.atriot, Sir William "Wallace, a man of obscure origin, gained a victory (iver 
the English at Stirling, and regained their independence. Edward I. again in- 
vaded Scotland, and defeated the Scots under Wallace at Falkirk, in 1298,. Wal- 
lace was betrayed to Edward, who carried the valiant patriot to London, and caused 
him to be executed. (A. D. 1305.) The Scots again revolted, and were led by 
Robert Bruce, a grandson of that Robert Bruce who had been k rival candidate 
with Baliol for the Scotch crown in 1292. In 1306, Bruce was crowned King of 
Scotland, at Scone. King Edward I. again marched toward Scotland with a 
powerful army, but died at Carlisle. (A. D. 1307.) On his death bed he ex- 
horted his son Edward to lead the expedition into Scotland, and not to give up the 
war until the Scots were entirely subjugated. 

REIGN OF EDWARD II. (A. D. 1307-1327). 

The W^ar with Scotland — Battle of Bannockburn — Independence of 
Sctoland. — King Edward I. was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, 
Edward II., who disobeyed his father's dying injunction, and disbanded the anny 
which had been raised for the subjugation of Scotland. For seven years, the Scots, 
under the leadership of their king, Robert Bruce, carried on the war against the Eng- 
lish. Finally, in 13 14, King Edward II. led an army of 100,000 men into Scotland; 
and on the 24th of June (1314), he fought with Robert Bruce, who had only 30,000 
men, the famous battle of Bannockburn, in which the Scots gained a glorious vic- 
to'y and secured the independence of their country. In 1315, Edward Bruce, 
Robert's brother, went over into Ireland, and the Irish proclaimed him their king; 
bat he was totally defeated by the English in the battle of Dundalk. 

Edward's Favorites — Rebellion of the Barons and the Queen — Murder 
of Edward II. — Edward II. was a weak and profligate sovereign, and he sur- 
rounded himself with the most unworthy favorites, the chief of whom was a 
Frenchman named Gaveston, who treated the English barons with such insolence 
that they openly rebelled, took Gaveston prisoner, and put him to death. Gaves- 
ton's place in the king's favor was supplied by the dissolute Hugh Spenser, a 
Welshman, who was as much hated by the English barons as Gaveston had been. 
The barons, with the Earl of Lancaster at their head, again rebelled against the 
king, and were joined irt their rebellion by the king's wife, Isabella, a daughter of 
King Philip the Fair of France. Edward II. was dethroned and imprisoned; and 
in 132^, he was brutally murdered, at the instigation of his queen and her unworthy 
favorite, Roger Mortimer. 

REIGN OF ED^A/-ARD III. (A. D. 1327-1377). 

War with Scotland— Battle of Halidon Hill — Flight of David Bruce. 
— The imbecile and dissolute Edward II. was succeeded as King of England by 



178 



MIDDLE AGES. 



his son, the biave and chivalrous Edward III., who was a very able sovereign 
Edward III., upon his accession to the throne, caused Roger Mortimer to be put to 
death, and his mother, Isabella, to be imprisoned, on account of her conduct toward 
his father. The attempt of King Edward III. to dethrone David Bruce, the reign- 
ing King of Scotland, led to a war between England and Scotland. Edward 
invaded Scotland, and gained a. victory at Halidon Hill, which placed Scotland at 
the mercy of the English monarch, King David Bruce being obliged tci seelc refusje 
;. i'lunce. 

Invasion of France by Edv/ard III. — Battle of Crecy — Cannon Firsl 
Used. — By the death of King Charles the Fair of France, the last of the direot line 
of the House of Capet, in 1328, the crown of France passed to his cousin, Philip of 
Valois, the nephew of Philip the Fair. But Edward III. of England claimed to be 
the proper heir to the French throne, because his mother, Isabella, was a daughter 
of Philip the Fair; but by the Salic Law, which has always prevailed in France, 
females are excluded from the throne, and therefore the French denied the validity 
of Edward's pretensions. To enforce his claims, the King of England led an army 
into France ; and inflicted upon the French army, far superior to his own in numer- 
ical strength, a complete overthrow in the battle of Crecy, fought on the 25th of 
August, 1346. The French lost over 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old 
King John of Bohemia. King Edward and his son Edward, the Black Prince, so 
called from the color of his armor, greatly distinguished themselves in the battle of 
Crecy for their braveiy. In the battle of Crecy, cannon, but of a rude construction, 
were first used, the English having several pieces. 

Siege and Capture of Calais by Edward III. — Eustace St. Pierre. — 

After his great victory at Crecy, Edward III. laid siege to Calais, the key to France. 
The city was stubbornly defended by the Franch for nearly a year, when, reduced 
by famine, Calais was obliged to surrender. It is said that the English king agreed 
to spare the inhabitants of Calais, whose long resistance exasperated him, if six of 
the leading citizens should be sent to him, with ropes about their necks, ready for 
hanging. The unfortunate inhabitants gave way to despair at these hard conditions ; 
but Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy merchant of Calais, offered himself as one of the 
victims. Inspired by his noble example, five others followed him. The entreaties 
of the English nobles, of Edward's queen, Philippa, and of bis heroic son, Edward 
the Black Prince, finally prevailed over the king's obstinate temper and saved the 
lives of the six noble-hearted citizens. This stoiy is very generally doubted. After 
the surrender of Calais, Edward III. expelled its French inhabitants, and peopled 
the city with English; and for two centuries, that important town remained in the 
possession of the English. 

Scottish Invasion of England — Battle of Nevil's Cross — David Bi-uce 
a Prisoner. — While the King of England was thus employed in France, the Srots 
had again raised David Bruce to the throne of their country. Upon his restoration 
to the Scotch throne, David Bruce invaded England; but in the battle of Nei il's 
Cross, near Durham, fought on the loth of October, 1346, the King of the Si-jte 
was defeated and made a prisoner by Philippa, the wife of Edward III. 

Invasion of France by the Black Prince — Battle of Poitiers — King John 
a Prisoner. — After a truce of several years. King Edward III. again resolved to 
attack France ; and for this purpose, he sent the Black Prince with an army to 



GERMANIC STATES. 



179 



Guienne, one of the Western provinces of France. The Black Prince advanced 
into the heart of France with only 12,000 men; but at Poitiers he found himself 
confronted by a French army of 60,000 men, under King John the Good, the suc- 
cessor of Philip of Valois on the throne of France. Desiring to retreat, the Black 
Prince offered to restore all his conquests in France and make peace ; but the French 
king rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the invaders, 
a battle ensued, which, owing to the bravery and skill of the Black Prince, ended 
in the total defeat of the French, King John himself being taken prisoner. Tlu.i 
memorable conflict, known as the battle of Poitiers, occurred on the 17th of Sep- 
tember, 1346. 

Captivity of King John of France in London — English Possessions in 
France. — Edward the Black Prince took King John of France a prisoner to Lon- 
don. Both the Black Prince and his father treated the captive monarch with the 
greatest generosity; and during the whole period of his captivity in England, the 
French king was treated more as a guest than as a captive. The English now had 
possession of the whole West of France, and the Black Prince and his wife, "the 
Fair Maid of Kent," established their court at Bordeaux. . 

Honorable Conduct of King John — Renewal of the War with France, 
■ — Edward III. now had two kings in his possession. The King of the Scots was 
soon ransomed by his subjects. In 1360, a treat)' of peace was made betw'een 
France and England, by which King John was to be released on the payment of a 
heavy ransom. One of the hostages delivered to the English king having escaped, 
the French monarch voluntarily returned to captivity in London, where he died in 
1364. The war between England and France was renewed in 1368. Edward the 
Black Prince, who had been highly esteemed for his generosity and moderation, 
died in 1376; and his father's death occurred the following year. 

REIGN OF RICHARD II. (A. D. 1S77-1S99). 

Wat Tyler's Insurrection, — On the death of King Edward III., in 1377, the 
son of the Black Prince ascended the throne of England, at the age of eleven 
years, with the title of Richard II. The lower orders of the English people were 
discontented with the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and with the 
oppressions which they suffered from the privileged classes; and in 1381, a dan- 
gerous insurrection of the lower classes was occasioned by the indignity which the 
daughter of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, at Deptford, in Essex, suffered at the hands 
of the brutal tax-gatherers. Enraged at the conduct of the tax-gatherers, the black- 
smith killed the tax-officer with his hammer ; and rousing the people to insurrection, 
placed himself at their head as leader. The insurgents, 100,000 in number, after 
assembling at Blackheath, uuder the leadership of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, 
broke into London, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the 
warehouses, and killed the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury, King 
Richard II. went to meet the insurgents, accompanied by a few attendants. Wat 
Tyler treated the king with such insolence that William Walworth, Lord Mayor of 
lyondon, struck him to the ground, whereupon the blacksmith was slain by others 
of the king's retinue. The enraged insurgents threatened to overwhelm the king's 
party, but this was averted by the presence of mind of Richard II., who kindly 
addressed the malcontents, and induced them to return to their homes by promising 



i8o MIDDLE AGES. 

them a release from some of the degrading conditions of serfdom. As soon as 
order was restored, the government broke its plighted faith by revoking the certifi- 
cate; of freedom which had been gi-anted to the peasants. The consequence of 
tb\s action was that Richard II. lost the favor of the lower orders. 

A Regency of Nobles. — The prodigality and dissipation of King Richard II , 
and his profusion to his unworthy favorites, such as Michael de la Pole, induce 1 
the king's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, to compel Richard to resign his authority 
to a regency of nobles. After several years, the king recovered his lost power, an^ 
caused his uncle to be put to death. 

Banishment of Henry of Lancaster— His Usurpation of the Crown. — 
Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, openly charged Richard II. with the mur- 
der of the Duke of Gloucester. The king's cousin, Henry of Lancaster, surnamed 
Bolingbroke, defended Richard against the charge. At length a personal combat 
was about to take place between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, but the king banished 
the two noblemen from the kingdom. At last, in 1399, when the king seized on 
the estates of Henry of Lancaster, that nobleman returned to England, and was 
'soon at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Plenry dethroned his cousin, and 
caused himself to be crowned King of England, with the title of Henry IV. The 
fallen Richard ended his life in prison. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER, 

REIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 1399-1413). 

Conspiracies and Rebellions Against Henry IV. — Battle of Shrews- 
bury — Owen Glendower. — Henry IV., surnamed Bolingbroke, was the first 
English king of the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had no 
legal right to the crown, for the true heir was Edmund Mortimer. No sooner had 
Henry IV. ascended the throne than a dangerous conspiracy was formed against 
him. At length, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of West- 
moreland, the two richest noblemen in England, and who had been chiefly instru- 
mental in raising Henry to the throne, raised the standard of rebellion against the 
king. These nobles had gained a victory at Homildon Hill, over the Scotch Earl 
Douglas, whom they took prisoner; and an order from King Henry forbidding 
them to admit any of their prisoners to ransom, provoked their resentment. Henry 
took the field against the rebellious barons, and defeated them in the great battle of 
Shrewsbury, on the 21st of July, 1403. Henry Percy, surnamed "Hotspur," the 
son of the Earl of Northumberland, was killed in the battle. This rebellion was 
now quelled, but another immediately broke out, headed by Scrope, Archbishop of 
Vork, and Thomas Mowbray, Earl-Marshal of England. This rebellion was also 
suppressed, and Scrope was beheaded. King Henry IV. had more difficulty in 
subduing the Welsh, who, under the leadership of the valiant Owen Glendower, 
ivhom they proclaimed Prince of Wales, fought seven years for their independence. 

Captivity of the Young Prince of Scotland in England. — One of th; 
most cruel acts of King Henry IV. was the seizure of the young prince James, son 
of King Robert III. of Scotland. This prince had been sent by his father to be 
educated in France; but he was seized on his voyage froin Scotland to France, by 
order of the English monarch, who kept the prince a prisoner for eighteen years, 



GERMANIC STATES. l8i 

when he was finally ransomed by the Scotch people, and became King James I. of 
Scotland. 

REICN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1413-1422). 

Reformation in the Character of Henry V. — Persecution of the Lol- 
lards. — King Henry IV. died of a broken heart, in 1413, whereupon his son, Henry 
v., became King of England. Henry V. had been very wicked in his youth, asso- 
'ialing with persons of the greatest vices; and on one occasion he was committed 
to prison by Chief- Justice Gascoigne, for striking the judge, who had sentenced one 
of the young prince's dissolute companions to prison for highway robbery; but when 
Henry ascended the throne, he immediately reformed, and became one of the most 
virtuous persons of his time. Henry V. was a great persecutor of the Lollards, as 
the followers of John Wickliffe, sometimes called " The Morning Star of the Refor- 
mation," were called. Lord Cobham, and many others of the most prominent 
Lollards, were condemned and executed. 

Invasion of France by Henry V. — Battle of Azincourt — Treaty of 
Troyes. — As France was at this time torn by internal dissensions. King Henry V. 
considered this a good opportunity to invade that kingdom and claim its crown. In 
1415, Henry landed on the Northern coast of France with 30,000 men, and took 
Harfleur; and, after his army had been reduced by sickness to 11,000 men, he de- 
feated the French army of 50,000 men, in the famous battle of Azincourt, on the 
24th of October, 1415, on which occasion 10,000 Frenchmen were killed, and 14,000 
were made prisoners, while the English lost only forty men. Henry V. again in- 
vaded France in 141 7, and in 1422, he concluded with the French king, Charles 
VI., the Treaty of Troyes, by which the English king was declared to be the suc- 
cessor to the crovvn of France. 

REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1422-1461). 

Coronation of Henry VI. at Paris — The Dauphin, afterward King 
Charles VII. — King Henry V. died in 1422, and was succeeded on the English 
throne by his son, Henry VI., who was then only nine months old. King Charles 
VI. of France died the same year, and the infant Henry VI. was crowned in Paris, 
King of England and France. Charles's son, the Dauphin, afterwards King Charles 
VII., resolved to expel the English from France, and secure the French crown, 
which of right belonged to him. 

Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans — Expulsion of the English from 
France. — The English were now in possession of almost the whole of France. 
To\vn after town submitted to them, until Orleans was the only place that remained 
in the possesion of the French, and even that city was besieged by the English. 7* l 
length, the famous Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy in Lorraine, de- 
chred that she had received a mission from Heaven to drive the English invaders 
from the soil of France and restore her country's independence. The Dauphin, 
having faith in the truth of her mission, gave her command of the anny defending 
Orleans; and the English, excited by superstitious fears, soon relinqu.shed the siege 
of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) The French next recovered Rheims from the English; 
and the Dauphin was crowned in that city as King of France, with the title of 
Charles VII. Joan's family was ennobled, and she was thereafter called the "Maid 



1 82 MIDDLE AGES. 

of Orleans." The French officers finally became jealous of the fame of the heroine, 
and allowed her to be taken prisoner by the Duke of Burgundy, who sold her to 
the Duke of Bedford, the English regent in ifrance. The Duke of Bedford stained 
his hi.herto irreproachable character by causing the valiant Joan of Arc to be burned 
alive as a sorceress, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. D. 1431.) Although the 
PVench were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious • and 
finally, in 1453, the English were completely driven out of France, Calais on'y 
remaining in their possession, and Charles VII. was left in full possession of hi? 
kingdom. 

Jack Cade's Insurrection. — England was now distracted by domestic troublcL. 
H ;niy VI. was a weak and idiotic prince, and unfit for the difficult station of king. 
In 1455, an insurrection of the lower classes broke out in Kent, the leader of which 
was Jack Cade. London was taken possesion of by the insurgents, but the rebel- 
lion was soon suppressed, and Jack Cade was afterwards killed in a garden in 
Sussex. 

The Duke of York Clainis the Crown — " Wars of the Roses" — Battle 
of St. Albans. — The reigning family of England had long been unpopular with 
the English people, on account of the imbecility of the king and the loss of the 
English conquests in France. This afforded Richard, Duke of York, a good oppor- 
tunity to claim the crown of England, which had been unlawfully wrested from his 
ancestors by Heniy of Lancaster in 1399. The Duke of York accordingly laid 
claim to the English crown, for the possession of which he began a war against 
King Henry VI., in 1455. On the 3d of May of that year, was fought the first 
battle of St. Albans, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Duke 
of York. The civil war which now commenced in England lasted thirty years, and 
is called " The Wars of the Roses," the badge of the adherents of the House of 
York being a white rose, and that of the partisans of the House of Lancaster a red 
rose. In this long civil war eighty princes of the blood-royal perished, and the 
ancient nobility of England was nearly annihilated. 

The Earl of Warwick — Death of the Duke of York — Dethronement of 
Henry VI. — The greatest general in the Wars of the Roses was the Duke of 
York's wife's brother, Nevil, Earl of Warwick, who was the richest nobleman in 
England, and who maintained on his different estates about 30,000 persons. In the 
battle of Northampton, in 1460, Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
Earl of Warwick. Duke Richard of York might now have obtained the royal 
crown without any difficulty, had, not many of the English nobility and King 
nenr)"s queen, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of masculine qualities, risen in sup- 
port ot the reigning sovereign ; but the Parliament declared the Duke of York to 
be the lawful successor of Henry VI., thus excluding Prince Edward, the son of 
Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, from the English throne. In 1460, Margaret 
defeated the Yorkists in the battle of Wakefield, in which Duke Richard of York 
himself was slain. The sanguinary Margaret caused the fallen Duke's head to be 
cut off and placed upon a pole upon the gates of York with a paper crown, in 
derision of his claim. Shortly afterward, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick 
in the second battle of St. Albans, and regained possession of the king's pei-son ; 
but Edward, son of the late unfortunate Duke of York, uniting his forces with 
those of the Earl of Warwick, compelled Margaret to retreat, and entered London ; 



GERMANIC STATES. ig^ 

whereupon the helpless Henry VI. was dethroned, through the agency of (he EarJ 
of Warwick, who caused the young Duke of York to be proclaimed King of En<T. 
land, with the title of Edward IV. • 

ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF YORK. 

REION OF EDWARD IV. (A. D. 1461-1488). 

Continuation of the Wars of the Roses — Battle of Towton. — EuwanI 
r V . was the first English king of the York branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. The 
dethronement of Henry VI. did not put an end to the Wars of the Roses; and in 
1461, was fought the sanguinary battle" of Towton, in which Margaret was de- 
feated by King Edward IV. and the Earl of Warwick, and in which 36,000 Lan- 
castrians were slain. Margaret and her husband fled to Scotland, but afterwards 
returned ; and, in 1464, Margaret was again defeated, after which she found refuge 
in France, and the poor, helpless Henry fell into the hands of Edward IV., who 
lodged him in the Tower of London. 

Marriage of Edward IV. — Warwick the King-maker's Alliance witti 
Margaret. — Although the Earl of Warwick had been chiefly instrumental in 
elevating Edward IV. to the throne of England, that powerful nobleman soon be- 
came the young king's most inveterate enemy. The Earl of Warwick desired 
Edward IV. to marry some foreign princess, and was so offended when the king 
married Lady Elizabeth Grey, an English lady, that he joined the Lancastrians 
and formed an alliance with Margaret; and Edward was obliged to flee from the 
kingdom, whereupon the Earl of Warwick dragged poor Henry from his prison, 
and restored him to the throne. As the Earl of Warwick was so powerful in rais- 
ing princes to the throne and deposing them again, he was called " the King- 
maker." 

Battle of Barnet and Death of Warwick — Battle of Tewksbury — Fate 
of Henry's Family. — Edward IV. soon returned to England, and, deposing 
Henry VI., regained possession of the royal throne. Edward next marched against 
the Earl of Warwick, who had taken a position at Barnet, near London. The 
treachery of the King-inaker's rvephew, the Duke of Clarence, who deserted with 
a part of the Lancastrian army to his brother. King Edward IV., brought about the 
victory of the Yorkists in the battle of Barnet, in which the Earl of Warwick was 
slain, while bravely fighting for the Lancastrians. (A. D. 1471.) A few werks 
later the cause of Margaret was ruined, and she and her son Edward were taken 
prisoners by Edward IV., in the decisive battle of Tewksbuiy. Prince Edward 
was murdered by the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, the brothers of King 
Edward IV. ; and a few days afterward Henry VI. was found dead in the Tower, 
supposed to have been murdered by the Duke of Gloucester. Margaret was im- 
prisoned in the Tower for five years, after which she was ransomed by the King 
.if France, in which country she then found refuge and died in 1480. 

Character of Edward IV. — His Disgraceful Treaties with Louis XI.-- 
King Edward IV. was now securely on the throne of England. He was a cruel, 
tyrannical, and profligate monarch. His brother, George, Duke of Clarence, hav- 
ing incurred the displeasure of the king, was put to death at the instigation of his 
other brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. In 1480, Edward IV, invaded 



1^4 MIDDLE AGES. 

Ir ranee with a powerful army, but was bribed to leturn to Englajid by the crafty 
Louis XL, King of France, who thinking of the days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- 
court, trembled at the very thought of an English amiy in Frarice. Edward IV. 
V. as outwitted in another treaty with the artful Louis XL; and the vexation which 
th.j circumstance caused the English king, hastened him to his grave. lie died in 
1483, leaving the crown of England to his eldest son, Edward V. 

REIGN OF EDVv^ARD V. (A. D. 148S). 

Crimes of Richard, Duke of Gloucester — Murder of Edward V. anrt 
His Brother. — Edward V. was only thirteen years old when he ascended tho 
throne of England. The young king's wicked uncle, Richard, Duke of Glouces- 
ter, who had secured for himself the appointment of Protector during the minority 
of Edward V., aspired to the English crown. After causing the young, king's 
maternal relatives. Lords Rivers and Grey, to be beheaded in prison, the Duke of 
Gloucester summoned a council, in the pi^esence of which he caused Lord Hastings, 
another of the young king's relatives, to be beheaded. The wicked Duk§ of 
Gloucester then caused himself to be proclaimed King of England, with the title of 
Richard III.; and at his instigation, Edward V. and his brother, the young Duke 
of York, were smothered to death in the Tower. 

REIGN OF RICHARD III. (A. D. 148S-14SS). 

Plot of the Duke of Buckingham — Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. 

— The usurping Richard III. was not permitted to enjoy quietly the fruits of his 
crimes ; and his reign was soon disturbed by a plot against his power, headed by 
the Duke of Buckingham, who had largely contributed to Richard's elevation to 
the throne; but the conspiracy was frustrated, and the Duke of Buckingham 
was executed. There was still remaining one heir of the House of Lancaster. 
This was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, whom Richard HI. several times 
attempted to get into his power, but failed, and who saved himself by fleeing to 
France. 

Tudor's Rise — Battle of Bosworth Field and Death of Richard IJI.^ 
In 1485, the Earl of Richmond landed on the Southern coast of England, with a 
small army, composed of English exiles and some French troops, and marched 
northward to the very centre of England, his army continually increasing in 
numerical strength." On the 14th of August, 1485, was fought the celebrated battle 
of Bosworth Field, which, through the defection of Lord Stanley, who deserted to 
the Earl of Richmond with a part of the king's army, ended in the total overthrow 
of Richard III. In the courage of despair, Richard plunged into the thickest oi 
the fight, crying "Treason! treason!" and fell covered with wounds and expired. 
The royal crown was taken from the head of the fallen Richard, and jDlaced on the 
head of the Earl of Richmond, who was crowned, by Sir William vStanley, on the 
battle-field, and hailed as King of England, with the title of Henry VII. Thus 
ended the I'lantagenet dynasty. 



GERMANIC STATES. 1 85 

ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

REIGN OF HENRY VII. (A. D. 1485-1S09). 

Marriage of King Henry VII. — His Character. — Heniy VII., the first 
English king of the House of Tudor, married the Princess EHzabeth, daughter ol 
Edward IV., and heiress of the House of York, — thus uniting the claims of the 
Houses of York and Lancaster, and putting an end to the civil wars which for 
thirty years had deluged England with the blood of her own people. Hen^ VJ I. 
was an unambitious monarch, preferring peace to wai", and consequently he did nt.l 
involve his kingdom in foreign wars ; but he was exceedingly avaricious, and 
accumulated an enormous amount of money. 

The Impostors, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. — In the early 
part of the reign of Henry VII., Lambert Simnel, -the son of a baker at O-xford, 
attempted to personate the young Earl of Warwick, nephew of Edward IV., and 
made pretensions to the English crown; but the impostor was defeated, taken pris- 
oner, and made a menial in the king's household. (A. D. 14S7.) Several years 
afterward, Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish butcher, attempted to counterfeit 
the person of the young Duke of York, one of Edward IV. 's sons, who was reported 
to be still alive, and also raised claims to the English throne; but being obliged to 
surrender himself to the king, this second impostor was imprisoned iH the Tower, 
and having afterward attempted to escape, he was hanged at Tyburn. (A. D. 1490.) 

Avarice of King Kenry VII. — King Henry VII. was noted for his unbounded 
avarice. By means of the most arbitrary and vexatious laws, for the violation of 
which heavy fines were exacted, and by taxes, confiscation of the property of those 
who had engaged in various conspiracies against the king, and benevolences, or 
voluntary contributions to the king's service, this royal miser accumulated immense 
wealth in money, plate, and jewels. 

Importance of the Reign of Henry VII. — Decay of Feudalism in Eng- 
land. — The reign of Hemy VII. was an important era in English history; although 
there arose one instrument of oppression, — namely, the arbitrary court of the Star 
Chamber, in which the king presided as judge. Feudalism, which came into Eng- 
land with the Normal Conquest, disappeared with the extinction of the Plantagenet 
dynasty. The power of the English aristocracy was rapidly waning, while the royal 
authority was fast approaching absolutism ; and the institutions of the Middle Ages 
were giving place to more enlightened forms and usages. King Henry VII. died 
in 1509, after a peaceful reign of twenty-four years, and was succeeded on the Eng- 
lish throne by his son, Henry VIII. 

THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. 

Founding of the Kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. — After 
the bold sea-expeditions of the Scandmavians, or Normans and Danes, had ceased, 
several of the Scandinavian princes founded kingdoms, — as Harold Fairhair in Nor- 
way, the Ynglians in Sweden, and Gorm the Old in Denmark ; — but some of the 
Scandinavian chiefs would not submit to the authority of their kings, and the wars 
that arose in consequence continued for several centuries, and letarded the intro- 
duction of Christianity into tlie Scandinavian kingdoms. 



1 86 MIDDLE AGES. 

Introduction of Christianity into the Scandinavian Kingdoms. — Ansgar, 
" the Apostle of the North," introduced the Gospel into Scandinavia in the ninth 
century ; and the kings, Harold Bluetooth of Denmark and Olaf Skotkonung of 
Sweden, embraced Christianity, but their subjects still held fast to the pagan wor- 
ship of Odin. In Denmark, Harold's grandson, Canute the Great, the conqueror 
of England, and in Norway, Olaf the Saint, succeeded in Christianizing their sub- 
jects in the eleventh century; and in Sweden, Eric the Pious established the religicn 
of the Cross in the twelfth century. The Benedictine monks did much toward iL e 
civilization of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. 

Denmark under Waldemar the Conqueror— Margaret and the Union 
oi Calmar. — In the first part of the thirteenth century, Denmark, with which Nor- 
way was then united, became a powerful kingdom, under Waldemar the Conqueror, 
who subdued the Germanic and Slavonic countries on the south and east sides of the 
Baltic sea, — namely, Holstein, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Cour- 
land, Livonia, and Esthonia; — but when Waldemar fell a prisoner into, the hands 
of Count Henry of Schwerin, his vassals rose in rebellion, and his vast empire fell 
to pieces, the conquered German states returning to the government of their emperor. 
In 1397, Queen Margareta of Denmark, the " Semiramis of the North," united the 
three Scandinavian kingdoms under one sceptre by the celebrated Union of Calmar, 

Christian I. and Christian II. of Denmark — Liberation of Sweden. — 
The present House of Oldenburg ascended the throne of Demark in 1448, in the 
person of Christian I. The cruel massacre of ninety-four Swedish nobles at Stock- 
holm, in 1520, by order of the hard-hearted and tyrannical King Christian II. of 
Denmark, produced a revolt of the Swedes, who, under the leadership of the valiant 
Gustavus Vasa, threw off the oppressive yoke of the Danish king. 



SLAVONIC STATES 



KINGDOM OF POLAND. 

The Poles or Slavonians of the Plain — Introdiiction of Christianity. — 

The lands of the Vistula and the Oder were inhabited by tribes of the Slavonic 
race, known as Poles, or Slavonians of the Plain. In the year 840 A. D., a simple 
peasant, named Piast, was chosen duke of the Polish territories. About the middle 
of the tenth century, the Poles embraced Christianity, after the conversion of their 
duke, Micislaus, by German missionaries. 

Establishment of the Kingdom of Poland by Boleslaus I. — The numer- 
ous Polish principalities were first united into one kingdom under Boleslaus I., who 
was crowned King of Poland, in 1025 ; but the Polish kingdom was subsequently 
subdivided amang the family of the Piasts; and Poland was claimed as a fief of 
the German Empire, until during the reign of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, 



SLAVONIC STATES. 



187 



in the first half of the thuteenth ccntuiy, when it secured its complete national 
independence. 

Poland under Vladislaus IV., Casimir the Great, and Louis the 

Great.— Poland first rose to consideration in the fourteenth century, when King 
Vladislaus IV. united Great Poland with Little Poland, and was crowned in Cra- 
cow. The son and successor of Vladislaus IV,, Casimir the Great, who obtained 
Jhe Polish crown in 1333, added Galicia and Red Russia to the Polish dominions, 
founded the University of Cracow, and showed himself to be a wise legislatoi-; 
but his efforts to diminish the power of the Polish nobility, and to establish a 
powerful citizen and burgher class, proved futile, and the Polish peasants, or serfs, 
continued to live in the most abject servitude. King Casimir the Great died in 
1370; and, as he was the last of the male line of Piast, the Polish nobles, or voi- 
wodes, bestowed the crown of Poland on King Louis the Great of Hungary, who 
proved to be a wise and able monarch. 

The Jagellos — Casimir IV. — Ascendency of the Voiwodes. — After the 
death of Louis the Great, in 13S5, the crown of Poland fell to his son-in-law, 
Jagello, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who thus became the founder of the dynasty 
of the Jagellos, which occupied the Polish throne for nearly two centuries. With 
the accession of Jagello, Lithuania was united with Poland. Casimir IV., who 
reigned from 1447 to 1492, subdued the Teutonic Knights, who had for a long 
time warred against the Poles; but he was obliged to make many concessions to 
the voiwodes, thus diminishing the royal power. It was the Polish aristocracy, 
who alone were represented in the Polish Diet, who had a voice in legislation, the 
raising of taxes, and the levying of troops. The nobles, or voiwodes, only were 
regarded as citizens in Poland. 

Height of Poland's Pov^^er and Greatness — Kings Sigismund I. and 
Sigismund II. — In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the kingdom of Poland 
was one of the most powerful and extensive monarchies in Europe, stretching from 
the Baltic to the Euxine, or Black Sea, along the whole frontier of European civili- 
zation, thus forming an effectual barrier to Germany and the states of Western 
Europe against barbarian 'invasion. Sigismund I. and Sigismund II. were great 
monarchs. Under the former, Lithuania was finally united to Poland; and the 
Dukedom of Prussia was placed under the feudal supremacy of the Polish kingdom, 
during the reign of the latter. 

Poland an Elective Monarchy — Henry of Valois — Poland's Decay. — 
The family of the Jagellos became extinct in 1572, whereupon Poland became an 
elective monarchy, the king being thenceforth chosen by the Polish Diet; and there- 
after Poland was not called a kingdom, but a republic, though the head of the state 
was still called a king. The first elective King of Poland was Heniy of Valois, 
afterward King Henry HI. of France, who voluntarily resigned his* Polish crown 
after cue year's reign. From that period Poland decli«ed. Owing to the weakness 
of the roy;d power, domestic dissensions, and frequent contests with Sweden, Rus- 
sia, and Turkey, Poland gradually decayed, until toward the close of the eighteentli 
centur}', when its national existence was extinguished. 



MIDDLE AGES. 



THE RUSSIAN OR MUSCOVITE EMPIRE. 

Ruric, the Scandinavian Prince, and the Grand-Duchy of Great Rus- 
sia. — In the latter half of the ninth century, Ruric, a Scandinavian Varangian 
chieftain, at the invitation of the people of Novgorod, became prince of the Slavonic 
tribes to the east of the Baltic sea, who thenceforth vs'ere called Russians, because 
Uieir leadei, Ruric, belonged to the Norman family of Russ. Ruric founded the 
Grand-Duchy of Great Russia, the capital of which he established at Novgorod. 

Vladimir the Great — The Greek Christian Church in Great Russia. — 
Ruric's great-grandson, Vladimir the Great, married a daughter of the -Greek 
Emperor in 988; and Vladimir and his subjects embraced Christianity, and the 
Greek Christian Church was established in the Russian dominions, which then 
extended from the Dnieper to the Dwina, and whose capital was then the flour- 
ishing city of Kiev. 

Division of the Russian Dominions — Russia Tributary to the Golden 
Horde. — The successors of Vladimir the Great divided the Russian dominions among 
different heirs; and the consequences were many desolating. wars and the gradual 
decline of the Russian empire. The Lithuanians and Poles conquered portions of 
the Russian teixitory on the West; while the Moguls, or Tartars, subdued all the 
country from the Dnieper to the Vistula; and for nearly two centuries, Russia 
groaned under the oppression of the Tartar chieftain, the Great Khan of the Golden 
Horde of Kaptscliak, who exacted a heavy tribute from the Russian princes and 
their subjects. 

Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow. — Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of 
Moscow, who reigned from 1462 to 1505, freed his country from the despotic yoke 
of the Golden Horde, and greatly enlarged his dominions by conquests in all 
directions. He abolished the ruinous system of dividing the Russian territories 
among successive heirs, and thus raised the Muscovite kingdom to the rank of one 
of the rising powers of Europe. He invited artisans from the other European 
countries to Russia, and endeavored in various ways to civilize his barbarous people. 
He also built the Kremlin, or citadel, for the protection of his capital, Moscow. 

Ivan the Terrible of Moscow. — The grandson of Ivan the Great, Ivan the 
Terrible, who occupied the grand-ducal throne of Moscow from 1533 to 1588, was 
the first Muscovite prince who styled himself Czar, or Csesar. This prince con- 
quered the two Tartar kingdoms of Kasan and Astracan, and extended his empire 
to the Caucasus. He laid the foundation of a standing army by the organization 
of a body of troops called Strelitzes. During his reign, Siberia was discovered, 
and its conquest by the Russians begun. Feodor, the son of Ivan the Terrible, was 
the last of the male line of Ruric. 



TARTARIC STATES. 



189 



TARTARIC STATES. 



KINGDOM OF HUNGARY, 

The Magyars or Hungarians — Introduction of Christianity. — The Tai- 
taric tribe of Magyars, or Hungarians, who had settled in tlie valleys of the Theii-s 
and the Danube, in the beginning of the tenth centuiy, and who made phmdcrhig 
incursions into Germany, were ruled by a number of princes, the chief of whom 
was Duke Arpad, whose descendants subsequently became the only rulers of Hun- 
gary. Duke Geisa I., who ruled Hungary in the latter half of the tenth century, 
received the doctrines of Christianity, and employed German missionaries to teach 
the gospel of a crucified Saviour to his savage people. At the same time, the Mag 
yars abandoned their nomadic habits, and applied themselves to agriculture. 

Founding of the Kingdom of Hungary by Stephen the Pious. — Geisa's 
son, Stephen the Pious, who assumed the title and dignity of King of Hungary, in the 
year looo A. D., conquered Transylvania, repressed the insolence of the Hungarian 
nobility, defended the royal power against all enchroachments, and reigned with 
vigor and wisdom. King Stephen founded monasteries and invited Benedictine 
monks into Hungary. He was the founder of the political institutions of Hungary, 
and did much to civilize his barbarous subjects, and to accustom them to the arts of 
peace; but the progress of Christianity and civilization in Hungary was retarded by 
civil wars among the Magyars after Stephen's death. 

Geisa II. and Settlement of Flemings and Saxons in Transylvania. — 

During the reign of Geisa II., in the twelfth centuiy, Flemings from Flanders and 
Saxons from Germany migrated to, and settled in, Transylvania, and their descend • 
ants still retain the manners and customs of their ancestors. The Fleming^ and 
Saxons in Transylvania built many towns, and converted a desert land into a bloom- 
ing region. 

King Andrew? II. and the " Golden Privilege." — In the year 1234 A. D., 
the Magyar nobles, or magnates, compelled their king, Andrew IL, to grant a 
charter called the "Golden Privilege," which conceded gi-eat privileges to the nobil- 
ity and the clergy, and was the foundation of the free constitution of Hungary. 
Any encroachment by the king on the rights secured to the magnates by the Golden 
Privilege, justified the Hungarian nobles in armed rebellion against their sovereign. 
The magnates in Hungary, as the voiwodes in Poland, became the actual ruling 
class, while the Hungarian peasants, or serfs, pined in a condition little better than 
abject slavery. 

Andrevir III. and Louis the Great. — Andrew HI. was the last king of the 
race of Arpad, and at his death, in 1341, Hungaiy became an elective kingdom, 
with Louis the Great, of the Anjou-Neapolitan dynasty, as the first elective king. 
Under Louis the Great, Hungary attained its highest point of power and prosperity. 
Louis received the crown of Poland in 1370, extended the Hungarian kingdom to 
the Lower Danube, and made Venice tributary. He also protected the peasant class 



IQO 



MIDDLE AGES. 



of Hungary from the tyranny of the magnates, improved the administration of justice, 
and established schools of education throughout the Hungarian kingdom. He also 
conducted many wars in Italy. 

Emperor Sigismund of Germany, King of Hungary — Victory of Hun- 
niyades at Belgrade. — After the death of Louis the Great, in 13S4, disputes and 
contests for the Hungarian crown arose, which for many years distracted the Hun- 
garian kingdom, and tranquillity was only restored when the Emperor Sigismund of 
Germany united Hungaiy with his other possessions. The valiant John Hunniyades 
of Transylvania saved Hungary from the dominion of the Ottoman Turks by his 
great victoiy at Belgrade. 

Reign of Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades. — In gratitude to the memory of 
John Hunniyades, the Hungarian Diet bestowed the crown of Hungary on his son, 
Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades, who proved to be one of the gieatest and best of 
Hungarian sovereigns. He successfully defended his kingdom against the Ottoman 
Turks, and extended its frontiers on the side of Austria and Germany. He estab- 
lished a university and a library at Buda, and invited learned men, artists, mechanics, 
and agriculturists, into Hungary, to advance the civilization of his subjects. 

Ascendency of the Magnates — Hungary under the House of Hapsburg. 
— After the death of King Matthias, in. 1490, Hungary rapidly declined. The king- 
dom was invaded by the Ottoman Turks, and the royal power was diminished by 
the nobility, who made the raising of taxes, the declaring of war, and the making 
of peace, privileges of the Hungarian Diet. Finally the nobles, or magnates, 
usurped the whole royal authority. Wlien King Louis H. of Huugary was de- 
feated and killed by the Turks in the battle of Mohacz, in 1536, a dispute for the 
Hungarian crown arose, which was finally settled by leaving Transylvania and 
East Hungary in the possession of the mighty Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Mag- 
nificent, while West Hungary reverted to the sovereignty of the Archduke Ferdi- 
nand I, of Austria. Long and bloody wars between the Austrians and the Turks 
resulted in favor of the House of Hapsbm-g; and ever since that period, the sove- 
reign prince of Austria has home the title and dignity of King of Hungary, 

THE MOGUL AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES. 

The Mogul Empire of Zingis-Khan and His Successors. — In the early 
part of the thirteenth century (A. D. 1227), Zingis-Khan, prince of a warlike no- 
madic Tartar tribe called Moguls, set out on his career of conquest; first subduing 
China, after which he marched toward the West with 700,000 warriors, conquer- 
ing Hindoostan, Persia, and the Corasmin Empire to the east of the Caspian Sea. 
The cities of Bokhara and Samarcand were reduced to ashes. After the death of 
Zingis-Khan, his successors carried out his plans of conquest, subduing Russia, 
Poland, and Plungary, and burning the cities of Kiev, Moscow, and Cracow; after 
which they crossed the Oder and invaded Silesia, laid its capital, Breslau, in ashes, 
and defeated and killed Duke Henry of Lower Silesia, in a terrible battle near 
I^iegnitz. The Occidental nations were greatly alarmed, but the conquering 
Oriental hordes soon turned to the South and overthrew the Caliphate of Bagdad, 
The last Caliph and 200,000 Mussulmen were slain, Syria was conquered, and its 



TARTARIC STATES. igi 

great cities, Aleppo and Damascus, were destroyed. This vast and unwieldy 
Mogul Empire soon fell to pieces. 

Rise of the Ottoman Empire under Othman, Amurath I., and Bajazet. 
— Near the close of the thirteenth century, the Ottoman Turks, a fierce Tartar 
tribe professing the doctrines of the Koran, left their seats east of the Caspian sea, 
and turning to the West, and led by Othman, conquered Asia Minor. The suc- 
ceeding Ottoman princes formed the Christians whom they took pr-isoners into a 
!)ody of infantiy called Janissaries. The great Sultan, Amurath I., after fully sub- 
duing Asia Minor, crossed the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, into Europe, conquered 
Thrace and Macedon, and made Adrianople the capital of the rising Ottoman Em- 
pire. In 1390, Amurath I. defeated an army of 500,000 Christians at Cassavo, in 
Servia, but the warrior Sultan was slain in the battle. Amurath's successor, Baja- 
zet, "the Lightning," as he was called on account of his successes, subdued Thes- 
saly and Epirus, and defeated a Christian anny of 100,000 men, in the bloody battle 
of Nicopolis; and he had already laid siege to Constantinople, when he was over- 
thrown by a greater conqueror than himself. 

The Mogul Empire of Timour or Tamerlane — Battle of Angora. — In 
the latter part of the fourteenth centuiy (A. D. 1370), Timour the Lame, or Tamer- 
lane, a descendant of the great Zingis-Khan, set about the reestablishment of the 
great Moguh empire ; and after leaving his capital, Samarcand, to conquer every 
nation froni Orient to Occident, he subdued India and Persia, destroyed the cities 
of Bagdad and Damascus, and desolated Asia Minor, fdling the whole land with 
corpses, and reducing many flourishing cities to ash.es. Sultan Bajazet now relin- 
quished the siege of Constantinople, and marched against Tamerlane, but the Sultan 
was defeated and taken prisoner by the Mogul conqueror, in the great battle of 
Angora, in Asia Minor, in 1402, and died of gi'ief the following year. The Mogul 
empire of Tamerlane was soon broken into fragments. 

Recovery of the Ottoman Empire under Amurath II. — The Ottoman or 
Turkish Empire soon recovered from the blow inflicte<l upon it by Tamerlane, under 
Sultan Amurath II., Bajazet's grandson, who left nothing to the Greek Emperor but 
his capital, Constantinople; but the rapid conquests of the Turks now alarmed 
Christian Europe, and a powerful Christian army marched to the assistance of the 
Eastern Emperor ; but this army was disastrously defeated by the infidels, in the 
bloody battle of Varna, in 1444. 

Conquest of Constantinople by Mohammed II. — End of the Greek Em- 
pire. — Sultan Amurath II. died in 145 1, and was succeeded on the Turkish throne 
by his hard-hearted son, Mohammed II., -who, with an army of 400,000 men, besieged 
Constantinople, and finally took that celebrated city by .storm, on the 2gth of May, 
1453- The last Byzantine or Greek Emperor, Constantine Pala^ologus, was slain 
while gallantly defending his capital. The inhabitants of the fallen city were made 
slaves, and Constantinople became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Thus ended 
the Eastern Empire of the Romans; the last remnants of Roman and Greek civili- 
zation in the East were now extinguished; the Greek Christian church of St. Sophia 
Decame a Mohammedan mosque ; the crescent supplanted the cross in the city of 
Constantine; and an infidel barbarian monarch occupied the throne of the first 
Christian Roman Emperor. 



192 



MIDDLE AGES. 



Turkish Conquest of Greece — Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim I. — 

After the fall of Constantinople and the subversion of the Byzantine Empire, the 
Ottoman Turks continued to extend their conquests in Europe. The Morea, or 
Peloponnesus, was next subdued ; but Hungary's independence was preserved by 
the great victory of the valiant Transylvanian prince, John Hunniyades, at Belgrade. 
In the year 15 17, the Turkish Empire was further enlarged by the conquest of 
Egypt, by Sultan Selim I., who caused a sanguinary massacre of the Mamelukes, 
A'ho had ruled Egypt since 1270. 

Great Power and Extent of the Ottoman Empire under Solyman the 
Magnificent. — The Ottoman Empire attained its highest pinnacle of power and 
glory during the reign of Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, who ascended the Turkish 
throne 1520; and for more than a century thereafter, the Ottoman arms maintained 
their ascendency over those of Christendom. Solyman the Magnificent wrested the 
island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John. He also invaded Hungary,' and 
made hill and dale reverberate with the bugle-blast of victory. Solyman's great 
victory in the battle of Mohacz, in 1526, gave him possession of the Eastern half 
of Hungary ; and in 1529 he appeared before Vienna, and made the Hapsbui-gs 
tremble in their own capital. The Ottoman Empire now stretched from Germany 
to Persia, and in Africa it included Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. Sc'vjrvaiv 
tlie Magnificent died in 1566, while besieging Szigeth, in Hungar}\ 

Sultan Selim II. — Battle of Lepanto — Turkey's Decay. — Sultan Selim XL, 
the successor of Solyman the Magnificent, was also a noted moriarch ; and during 
his reign the Turks ruled the ^Mediterranean sea, but their i^vy was defeated in the 
battle of Lepanto, in 1571, by the united fleets of Spain and Venice. The decay 
of military virtue among the Turks, as well as domestic rebellions and exhaustive 
struggles with Persia, Russia, Poland, Germany, and Venice, led to the rapid decline 
of the Ottoman Empire, before the end of the seventeenth centi'ry. 



DISCOVERIES. 



IMPORTANT INVENTIONS. 

Invention of the Art of Printing. — Many useful inventions, during the four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries, aided vastly in the return of European civilization, at 
the close of the fifteenth century. The most important of these inventions was 
that of the art of printing, about the year 1440 A. D., by John Guttenberg, of May- 
ence, in Germany, and his assistants, Faust and Schoeffer. The result of this use- 
ful invention was a great increase in the number of books, which now for the fin I 
time were attainable by all classes of society. 

Invention of Gunpowder and the Mariner's Compass. — The invention 0/ 
gimpowder, by the German monk, Berthold Schwartz, prepared the way for the 




The Bronze Door in the Capitol Commemorating the events in the 
Life of Christopher Columbus. 




The Bronze Door in the National Capitol Connmemorating the Events of the 
Life of George Washington. 



DISCO VERIES. 



193 



downfall of Chivaliy.by the substitution of fire-arms for the old weapons of warfare. 
The invention of the Mariner's Compass by tlie Italian, Flavio Gioja, gave a fresh 
impulse to navigation; and very soon the gallant Portuguese navigators ventured 
out farther and farther from the coast than had been hitherto attempted by any 
mariner. 

THE SEA-PASSAGE TO INDIA. 

Portuguese Discoveries. — The Portuguese now became renowned for theij 
commercial enterprise, and their zeal for navigation and discovery. The Madeira, 
the Azores, and the Cape de Verd Islands were discovered and taken possession 
of by the Portuguese. 

Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. — In i486, 
Bartholomew Diaz, a daring Portuguese navigator, discovered the southern point 
of Africa, which was named the " Cape of Storms;" but the name of this headland 
was soon changed to that of the "Cape of Good Hope," because there was now 
good hope that a sea-passage from Europe to India could easily be found. 

Vasco de Gama's Voyage to India and Founding of Calicut. — In 1497, 
during the reign of King Emmanuel the Great of Portugal, Vaseo de Gama, 
another bold Portuguese navigator, sailed I'ound the Cape of Good Hope to India, 
thus discovering the sea-passage to the East Indies. Vasco de Gama landed at 
Calicut, on the western coast of Hindoostan, where was planted a Portuguese 
colony, — the first European settlement in the East Indies. 

Cabral, Almeida, and Albuquerque — Portugal's Asiatic Empire. — In 
the year 1500 A. D., the Portuguese navigator, Cabral, while on his voyage to In- 
dia, discovered the coast of Brazil, in South America, and took possession of that 
extensive region in the name of his sovereign, the King of Portugal. The Portu- 
guese Empire in India was extended by the gallant Almeida, who was killed by 
by the savage Hottentots of Southern Africa, while on his return to Portugal. 
Albuquerque, Almeida's successor as viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in 
Southern Asia, conquered the cities of Ormuz and Goa, the latter of which he 
made the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East. The illustrious Albu 
querque finally died of grief at the ungrateful treatment which he had received 
from his master, King Emmanuel of Portugal. A few years later, the Portuguese 
established settlements on the island of Ceylon, and conquered the Molucca or 
Spice Islands. At this period, Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, was the centre of 
the world's commerce. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

SPANISH EXPEDITIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 

Christopher Columbus. — Among others who were attracted to Lisbon was 
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor. Columbus iTclieved the earth to be round, 
and that India could be reached sooner by sailing westward than by making the 
long voyage around Africa. He vainly endeavored to procure aid, first from his 
native city, Genoa, and afterwards from the Kings of Portugal and England. After 
\x 



194 



MIDDLE AGES. 



waiting for some time, Columbus finally obtained assistance from that noble- 
hearted queen, Isabella of Castile, who fitted out several vessels for him, and ap- 
pointed him admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he might discover. 

The Great Discovery of Columbus. — On the 3d of August, 1492, Christo 
pher Columbus, with three Spanish vessels, left the harbor of Palos,in south-western 
Si:>ain; and after a voyage of seventy days, he discovered, on the 12th of October 
(1492), Guanahani, or Cat Island, which he named San Salvador, or Holy Saviour, 
and of which he took possession in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, ihe joini 
sovereigns of Spain. Columbus found the inhabitants of the island to be of a cop- 
per color and of savage manners; and, supposing that he had only discovered the 
coast of India, he called the people Indians, — ^a name which has since been very 
inappropriately applied to all the aboriginal inhabitants of the Western Continent. 
When Columbus returned to Spain he was treated with great honors by the ruhng 
sovereigns of that country. 

The other Voyages of Columbus — His Death. — Columbus made three other 
voyages across the stonny Atlantic. In 1493, he discovered the large and import- 
ant island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, and founded the town of St. Domingo, — the 
first European settlement in the New World. Several other large islands were dis- 
covered, and Columbus named the whole group " West Indies." On his third 
voyage, in 1498, Columbus discovered the great continent of South America, at the 
mouth of the gi'eat river Orinoco. On his fourth and last voyage, during which he 
discovered Central America (A. D. 1501), his enemies caused him to be sent back 
to Spain in irons. Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid, in Spain, in 1506; 
and his remains were afterwards conveyed to Havana, in Cuba, where they still 
remain. 

Amerigo Vespucci — The Nev/ Continent Named in His Honor. — Colum- 
bus did not know that he discovered a new continent, but thought that he had only 
reached the Eastern shores of Asia. This seci^et was revealed to Amerigo Vespucci, 
a Florentine navigator, who explored the Eastern coast of South America and pub- 
lished a glowing description of that vast continent, claiming to be its true discoverer. 
In honor of this explorer, the New World was unjustly named "America." 

Discovery of Florida by John Ponce de Leon. — In the year 1512 A. D., 
John Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, sailed from Porto Rico, in search of a " fountain 
of youth," which was said to exist on the neighboring continent. This fountain was 
said to restore youth and to perpetuate it. On the 27th of March (1512), Ponce de 
Leon reached the North American continent at the great peninsula between the 
Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and named the domain "Florida," because 
its banks were laden with flowers, and because the discovery was made on Pasquas 
de Flores, or Easter Sunday, when the Spanish churches were decorated with flowers. 
Ponce de Leon was afterwards killed in a contest with the natives of Florida. 

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea by Balboa. — In 1513, ihe 
Spaniard Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien, or Panama, and discovered the 
Pacific Ocean, which he called "South Sea." He waded into its waters in full 
costume, and took possession of sea and land in the name of his sovereign, the 
King of Spain. Balboa was put to death by order of the Spanish governor of 
Danen, 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 




WILLIAM PENN 



DISCOVEJilES ipg 

Ferdinand Magellan's Circumnavigation of the Globe. — The name " Paci- 
fic Ocean" was giveji to the South Sea by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, 
who, in the service of the King of Spain, sailed through the straits, in the southern 
part of South America, which bear his name, in 1 520; and who, several years aftei 
wards, was killed on the Philippine Islands by the natives, and whose followers 
returned to Spain by way of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, thus com[>leting tie 
first circumnavigation of the globe. 

Discovery of the Mississippi River by Ferdinand De Soto. — In [539, 
Ferdinand De .Soto, then the Spanish governor of Cuba, landed in Florida, and, 
proceeding westward, discovered the great river Mississippi, and explored the con- 
tinent as far west as the Rocky Mountains. De Soto died on the banks of the 
Mississippi river, in 1541 ; and the remnant of his followers, having suffered terribly, 
found their way to a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 

ENGLISH AND FRENCH EXPEDITIONS AND DIS- 
COVERIES. 

Sebastian Cabot's Voyages, Discoveries, and Explorations. — In 1496, 
John Cabot, a native of Venice, but at that time a merchant of Bristol, in England, 
obtained the aid of King Henry VII. of England in fitting out an expedition for 
the discovery- of a North-west passage to India. The next year (A. D. 1497), the 
expedition under the command of John Cabot's son, Sebastian, sailed westward, 
and discovered the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Thus Sebastian Cabot 
was the discoverer of the continent of North America. In 1498, Sebastian Cabot 
again sailed westward, and explored the greater part of the Atlantic coast of the 
present United States. In 151 7, Sebastian Cabot was again sent to find a North- 
west passage to India; and in 1526, while in the service of the King of Sjxiin, 
he discovered the great river La Plata, in South America. 

Expeditions and Explorations of John Verrazzani and James Cartier. 
— In 1524, Francis I., King of France, employed John Verrazzani, a Florentine, 
to make discoveries in the New World. Verrazzani explored the Atlantic coast of 
North America, from the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and named the region "New France." In 1534, the French king sent James 
Cartier, a Frenchman, on an expedition to New France. Cartier discovered the 
mouth of the great river which he named St. Lawrence. In 1535, Cartier sailed 
up the St. Lawrence, exploring the country to Montreal. 



BOOK III. 

MODERN HISTORY. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



AGE OF HENRY VIII. AND CHARLES V. 

THE GERMAN REFORMATION. ' 

Corruption of the Church — Dr. Martin Luther. — In different ages, as we 
have seen, there had been men who protested against the assumptions of the Holy 
See, and the immoraHty and licentiousness of the clergy; but every attempt at a 
refonnation of the Church had failed. The abuses and corruptions of the Church 
increased. The majority of the clergy were ignorant and immoral. There were 
many who were dissatisfied with the existing con-upt state of the Church, and who 
only waited for an opportunity to unite themselves in a powerful opposition to the 
Roman Pontiff. The opportunity was at length given by Pope Leo X., as we shall 
presently see; and in 15 17, the assumptions of the Holy See were openly opposed 
by Dr. Martin Luther, a pious Augustinian monk, who was born at Eisleben, in 
Saxony, on the loth of November, 1483. Luther early exhibited great capacities 
for learning; and he had studied juiisprudence four years, when, in 1506, he entered 
an Augustinian monastery, where he found a neglected copy of the Bible, to the 
study of which he then diligently devoted himself. He soon became convinced of 
the errors of the existing Romish Church, and his fame for learning and piety 
procured for him the appointment of Professor in the University of Wittenberg, on 
the Elbe. 

Pope^Leo X. and the Sale of Indulgences. — In 15 13, John de Medicis, of 
the illustrious ruling family of Florence, was elected Pope with the title of Leo X. 
In order to defray the expenses of the building of the great Church of St. Peter, in 
Rome, which had been begun by his predecessor, Julius III., Leo X. offered the sale 
of indulgences, or licenses to sin, by which not only past sins, but those that might 
afterwards be committed, could be pardoned. Agents were sent into different 
European countries to sell these indulgences, and the Pope obtained a great profit 
from their sale. 

Martin Luther and His Ninety-five Theses. — In 1517, the Augustinian 
monk, Martin Luther, then a professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
on the Elbe, read in piiblic his famous ninety-five theses, in which he boldly denied 
the rif.'ht of the Pope to offer pardon to any but the penitent. This was the begin- 
ning of the great religious " Reformation," which convulsed Europe during the 
sixteenth century. Luther found many adherents. The Elector of Saxony, who 
had adopted his views, effectually protected him from all the attempts of the exas- 
perated Papists to secure him. The Reformation made rapid progress from this 

(199) 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

time. Luther separated himself more and more from the Romish Church; and 
the art of printing enabled him to make known his opinions in all Christian coun- 
tries. 

Luther's Disputation with Eckius at Leipsic. — In 15 19, Dr. Luther had a 
disputation, at Leipsic, with Dr. Eckius, the papal theologian and professor in Ingol- 
stadt. Luther there asserted that the Bishop of Rome had not been Pope by the 
orlination of Christ, and expressed doubts of the Pope's infallibility, or incapability 
lo err. In order to prove that the Papacy was a divine institution, Eckius composed 
a work in which he endeavored to show that it was derived from Christ through 
St. Peter. 

Condemnation of Luther's Writings — Burning of the Bull of Condem- 
nation. — In 1520, the Pope condemned Luther's writings as heretical and ordered 
them to be burned, and threatened the great Reformer with excommunicatioru 
unless he recanted within sixty days. Luther was still active in exposing the errors 
and corruptions of the Romish Church; and, on the loth of December, 1520, 
in the midst of a vast concourse of people, in the public square of Wittenberg, the 
great Reformer cast the volumes of the canon-law of the Romish Church, together 
with the papal bull of condemnation, into the flames. 

The Emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Worms. — In 1519, the grandson 
of the Emperor Maximilian I., Charles I. of Spam and Burgundy, was elected Em- 
peror of Germany with the title of Charles V. The new Emperor, whose first 
attention was directed to a unity of the Church, called a Diet of the German Em 
pire at Worms, in 1520, at which the Reformer of Wittenberg was to appear, to 
answer for his conduct. Provided with a safe-conduct from the Emperor, Luther 
went to Worms, and presented himself before the assembled Diet. He avowed 
himself the author of the writings that were produced ; and boldly and firmly vindi- 
cated his opinions, and rejected the invitation to recant without being convinced 
from the scriptures of the eiTors of his views. Through the honorable conduct of 
the Emperor, Dr. Luther was allowed to return unmolested to Wittenberg. Then 
the Diet pronounced the ban of the Empire against Luther and his adherents and 
defenders, and sentenced his writings to the flames. 

Luther's Confinement in the Wartburg Castle. — After his returfc to Wit- 
tenberg, Luther was placed in confinement for protection in the castle of Wartburg, 
by the Elector Frederic of Saxony. Here the great Reformer commenced his 
translation of the Bible, which appeared completed in 1534. In 1522, Luther left 
the Wartburg castle and returned to Wittenberg, for the purpose of checking the 
hasty innovations of Dr. Carlsladt and the new fanatical sect of the Anabaptists. 

Rapid Progress of the Reformation. — The Reformation soon spread beyond 
the borders of Saxony. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse was a believer in the 
doctrines of the Reformers. In 1524, the Pope entered into the "Alliance of Re- 
gensburg" with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and the Duke of Bavaria, for the 
piirjiose of preventing the establishment of the new faith in their own ten-itories. 

The Peasant War. — An insurrection, known as the " Peasant War," now broke 
out in different parts of Germany. The peasants, led by such religious fanatics as 
Thomas Munzer, Hans Miller, and George Metzler, rose in "arms against the Ger- 
man princes and nobles. Thomas Munzer was defeated by the Elector of Saxony 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 20I 

and the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and captured and executed ; and the insurrec- 
tion was soon suppressed in all parts of the German Empire. 

Marriage of Luther — Philip Melancthon. — In 1524, Luther left the cloister 
and manied Catharine of Bora, who had formerly been a nun. This aroused the 
rage of his opponents to a still greater degree. The Reformation was still making 
rapid progress in Northern Germany ; and Luther had now a co-laborer in the Re- 
formation, in the mild and peaceable, and learned Philip Melancthon. 

Diet of Spire — The Protestation. — The Emperor Charles V., determined to 
airest the progress of the Reformation, assembled a Diet of the German Empire at 
Spire, in 1 529. In this Diet it was resolved by the Catholic German princes thai 
no further innovations should be made in the Romish religion ; and that the progress 
of the new faith should be checked. The princes who favored the Reformation, 
entered a protest against this decree of tke Imperial Diet, on which account they 
were called Protestants, — a name now applied to all Christians, who do not recog- 
nize the authority of the Heads of the Romish and Greek Churches, and who differ 
in doctrine and practice from those churches. 

Diet of Augsburg — The Xugsburg Confession. — The Gennan Emperor 
called another Diet of his Empire at Augsburg, in 1530, to heal the dissensions in 
the Church and effect a reconciliation of opinions. In this Diet, Melancthon pre- 
sented the articles of faith of the"Refonners, known as the "Augsburg Confession." 
In this confession the abuses in the Romish Church were enumerated. The Cath- 
olic members of the Diet endeavored to defend the usages of their Church; and no 
reconciliation of opposing opinions took place, as neither party would make any 
concessions. After the protesting princes had withdrawn from the Diet, that assem- 
bly left Augsburg and threatened the Protestants with being put under the ban of 
the Empire, if they refused to renounce their innovations. 

Ulric Zwingle — Religious War in Swritzerland — Battle of Kappel. — 
The Protestants were already divided into two great parties. Some were the fol- 
lowers of Luther, while others were the disciples of the learned priest, Ulric 
Zwingle, who was born in Switzerland in 1484. Zwingle, who had opposed the 
sale of indulgences and the corruptions of the Church with all his might, endeavored 
to improve the morals of the people. He differed from Luther with respect to the 
Lord's Supper. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who endeavored to unite all the 
opponents of the Church of Rome into one powerful part)', induced Luther to have 
a disputation with Zwingle, at Marburg. Zwingle construed the words, " This is 
my body," to mean "This represents my body;" while Luther contended that the 
body of the Lord was present in the bread and wine. Zwingle offered Luther his 
hand with tears in his eyes, and asked to be received as a brother; but Luther de- 
clined the offer, and thrust back his own hand. Luther also refused to recognize 
those who had adopted Zwingle's doctrines as Christians. A religious war broke 
out between the Catholics and Zwinglians in Switzerland, in 1530. The Zwino-lians 
were defeated in the battle of Kappel, in 1531 ; and the noble-hearted Zwingle was 
slain, and his body was burned by the victorious Catholics. 



20 2 MODERN HISTORY. 

WARS BETWEEN CHARLES V. OF GERMANY AND. 
FRANCIS :. OF FRANCE. 

CHARLES v., FRANCIS I., AND HENRY VIII. 

The Possessions of Charles V. — The dominions over which Charles V. 
ruled were the most extensive, at that time, in Christendom. Charles V., was the 
giamison of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, and also of Ferdinar.-i 
of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. While yet a youth, Charles was lord of the 
Netherlands; and on the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, in 15 16, he obtained the 
kingdom of Spain, with Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with the Spanish 
possessions in America. Shortly afterward, the succession to the sovereignty of the 
hereditary Austrian territories devolved upon him from his grandfather, the Emperor 
Maximilian I.; and in 15 19, he was chostn Emperor of Germany, by the German 
Electoral Princes. Charles V. soon bestowed his hereditary Austrian estates on his 
brother Ferdinand, who also added the kingdom of Bohemia and a large portion 
of Hungaiy to tlie possessions of the House of Hapsburg. 

Francis I. of France. — The great rival of the Emperor Charles V. was tlie 
chivalrous Duke Francis of Angouleme, who, on the death of Louis XII., in 1515, 
ascended the throne of P'rance, with the title of Francis I. ; and who was also a 
candidate for the imperial throne of Germany, and on the election of Charles V. 
became his rival enemy. Four wars arose between these two nionarchs, caused by 
the claims of each to the other's possessions in Italy, Navarre, and the Netherlands. 

Henry VIII. of England. — Charles V. and Francis I. each wished to secure 
the favor of the vain and capiucious Henry VIII. of England. Charles visited 
Henry in England, and Francis met him at Calais, at the splendid festival, known, 
on account of its magnificence, as the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." The Empe- 
ror, however, succeeded in winning the favor of the English monarch, by bribing 
and flattering Heniy's celebrated Prime Minister, Cardinal Wolsey. 

FIRST WAR BET^A^EEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 

The Allies of Charles V. and Francis I. — Besides securing the aid of the 
King of England, the Emperor of Germany also obtained the alliance of Pope Leo 
X., while the King of France received the assistance of the Swiss, the Genoese, 
and the Venetians. 

German Invasion of Italy — Loss of Milan to the French. — Since the 
famous battle of Marignano, in 15 15, in which Francis I. had defeated the Milan- 
ese, the Duchy of Milan had remained in the possession of the French king; but 
Charles V. claimed the duchy as a fief of the German Empire, and marched a 
pcjwerful army of German peasants into Italy, against the French and the r Swiss 
allies. The French soon lost Milan, and an attempt to recover the duchy brought 
on the battle of Bicocca, in which the French M'ere completely defeated. Pope 
Leo X., died of joy caused by these events. Pope Adrian VI., Leo's successor, 
induced Florence and Genoa to enter into an alliance with Charles V. 

French Invasion of Italy — Defection of the Constable de Bourbon. — 
(!harles V. and Henry VIII. invaded France at the same time, but their forces were 
driven back. Encouraged by this partial success, Francis I. again attempted the 




CHARLES V. OF GERMANY. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 203 

recovery of Milan; and in 1523, he sent another army into Italy for that purpose, 
but his undertaking failed, in a great measure, through the conduct of his wicked 
mother, Louisa of Savoy, vv^hose injustice to the Constable de Bourbon made that 
powerful French nobleman the most bitter enemy of the French court, and caused 
aim to enter into the service of the German Emperor against his own sovereign. 

B'rench Retreat from Italy — Death of the Chevalier Bayard. — The French 
army which had been sent to attempt the recovery of Milan was also unsuccessful, 
ard was finally compelled to retreat across the Alps, pursued by the German im- 
perial army under the Constable de Bourbon. During this retreat, the Chevalier 
Bayard, "the Knight without fear and without reproach," who commanded the 
French rear, received a wound of which he shortly afterward died. 

Bourbon's Invasion of France — Reconquest of Milan by Francis I. — 
In 1524, the imperial German forces under the Constable de Bourbon invaded 
Southern Fiance, and laid siege to Marseilles; but on the approach of Francis I. 
with a powerful army, Bourbon raised the siege and beat a precipitate retreat. 
The King of France pursued Bourbon's retreating forces into Italy and recon- 
quered Milan. 

Battle of Pavia and Captivity of Francis I. — With characteristic impru- 
dence, Francis I. laid siege to the strongly fortified town of Pavia, which was de- 
fended by a numerous garrison, under the command of Antonio de Leyva, an able 
general. The imperial generals, the most energetic of whom was the Constable de 
Bourbon, made the greatest efforts to collect a numerous army for the relief of the 
gaiTison of Pavia. The inactivity and indiscretion of the French king, who weak- 
ened his army by sending detachments against Naples and Savona, operated in 
favor of the imperialists. Bourbon accordingly resolved to attack the French in 
their intrenchments; and on the 2d of Februaiy, 1525, Bourbon's army stormed 
the French camp, while at the same time the garrison of Pavia made a furious sally, 
thus placing the French between two fires. After a most sanguinary conflict, the 
French army was almost totally destroyed. Twelve thousand brave warriors were 
either killed in the encounter, or drowned in the waters of the Ticino. The chiv- 
alrous Francis himself, after a gallant defense, was compelled to surrender, and 
conveyed a prisoner to Madrid. In a single line, the captive Francis conveyed the 
intelligence of the sad event to his mother, " Madame, all is lost but honor." 

Peace of Madrid and Release of Francis I. — After a year's captivity in the 
Spanish capital, the King of France concluded with his triumphant rival the Peace 
of Madrid. (1526.) In this treaty, Francis I. renounced his claims to Milan, sur- 
♦•endered the Dukedom of Burgundy to Charles V., and delivered up his two sons 
to the Emperor as hostages for die fulfillment of the stipulations. 

SECOND -WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 

The Holy League Against Charles V. — No sooner had Francis I., after his 
release, returned to his own kingdom, upon delivering up his two sons as hostages 
for the fulfillment of the stipulations of the Peace of Madrid, than he openly denied 
the validity of a treaty that had been extorted from him while a prisoner; and the 
Pope absolved him from his obligations to the Emperor Charles V. The increasing 
power of Charles now excited the jealousy of the other princes of Europe; and the 



204 



MODERN HISTORY. 



KiAgs of France and England, the Italian princes, and the Pope entered into an 
alliance called "the Holy League," to compel the Emperor of Germany to liberate 
the sons of the French monarch and to restore the Duchy of Milan to the family 
of Sforza. 

Capture and Pillage of Rome — Captivity of the Pope. — Irritated at the 
Pope's alliance with the enemies of Charles V., the Constable de Bourbon, who 
commanded the German and Spanish forces in Italy, marched upon Rome; and or 
the 6th of May, 1527, the Eternal City was taken by storm and plundered by the 
soldiers of a Catholic prince. The Constable de Bourbon was among the slain, 
The pillage of Rome by the Germans on diis occasion, equaled that of the Goths 
and the Vandals, more than a thousand years before. Convents, churches, and 
dwelling-houses were plundered; and nearly 8,000 Romans were massacred on the 
day of the capture of the city. Pope Clement VII. was besieged in his castle of 
St. Antrelo, and soon obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Charles V. affected 
great sorrow and displeasure at the insults suffered by the Head of the Church, but 
was inwardly pleased at the Pope's humiliation; and instead of ordering the release 
of the Holy Father, the hypocritical Emperor commanded prayers for the liberation 
of the Pontiff to be offered in all the churches in his dominions. 

Successful Career of Francis I. i-n Italy — Andrea Doria. — The pillage of 
Rome and the captivity of the Pope excited the indignation of the allies of Charles 
V. to such a degree that Francis I. was enabled again to invade Italy and to advance 
to the very walls of Naples ; but the French monarch, by his impolicy and arro- 
gance, lost his most faithful allies. The Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, now 
supported the Emperor of Germany, and restored the Republic of Genoa and earned 
for himself the glorious title of " Father of his Country and the Restorer of its 
Liberties. 

The "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray. — Both the rival monarchs had now 
become anxious for peace; and the second war between Charles V. and Francis I. 
was closed in 1529, by the "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray, so called because it was 
negotiated by the aunt of Charles and the mother of Francis. By this treaty the 
King of France relinquished his pretentions to the Duchy of Milan, and paid two 
million crowns for the ransom of his two sons held as hostages by the German 
Emperor; but retained possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy. 

WARS AGAINST THE INFIDELS. 

Turkish Invasion of Hungary and Austria— -Siege of Vienna. — In the 
meantime, the mighty Sidtan of Turkey, Solyman the Magnificent, led an army of 
300,000 men into Hungaiy, and after gaining the battle of Mohacz, advanced to (he 
very walls of Vienna, and laid siege to that proud capital, but the infidels were soon 
defeated and driven back. (1529.) 

First Expedition of Charles V. to Africa — Capture of Tunis. —After 
having driven the Turks from the Austrian territories, the Emperor Charles V,, in 
1535, led an expedition of 30,000 men to Africa, attacked and captured Tunis, and 
compelled the Mohammedan prince, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the terror of all Chris- 
tians, to abandon his piracies, and to set at liberty 22,000 Christian captive.*^, whom 
the piratical Moors had reduced to slavery. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 205 

THIRD -WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 

Invasion of Italy by Francis I. — On his return to Europe, Charles V. found 
himself obliged to engage for a third time in hostilities with the King of France, 
who had formed an alliance with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, and who, during 
the Emperor's absence in Africa, had invaded Italy, and, as a preliminary step to 
the reconquest of Milan, seized Savoy and Piedmont, the Duke of which was in 
alliance with Charles V. 

Invasion of France by Charles V. — His Retreat. — In 1536, Charles V. 
after driving the French from Italy, invaded Southern France with a powerful army 
but the French commander, the Constable de Montmorenci, laid waste the country 
between the Rhone and the Alps, and the Emperor was in consequence obliged to 
make a disgraceful retreat after considerable loss. 

Ten Years' Truce of Nice. — All Christendom was shocked at the alliance of 
the King of France with the Sultan of Turkey; and in 1538, Pope Paul III. suc- 
ceeded in inducing Francis I. and Charles V. to conclude the Ten Years' Truce of 
Nice, which suspended hostilities between the rival monarchs. 

Second African Expedition of Charles V. — Its Unfortunate End. — In 
1 541, the Emperor Charles V. led another expedition to Africa, for the purpose of 
thoroughly annihilating the power of the piratical Mohammedans of Algiers. But 
this expedition was a totol failure. The fleet of Charles was destroyed by a terrible 
storm, and many of his followers died of a pestilential disease ; and the Emperor, 
who had magnanimously shared all the sufferings of the humblest of his followers, 
was obliged to reembark and return to Europe, without effecting his object. 

FOURTH 'WAR BET^A;"EEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 

Coalition against Charles V. and Henry VIII. — In 1542, a fourth war 
broke out between Francis I. and Charles V.; the Sultan of Turkey, the Kings of 
Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden, and the Protestant princes of Gennany uniting 
with the King of France; and the King of England taking sides with the Em- 
peror of Germany. 

BoTnbardment of Nice— Disgraceful Spectacle.— The allied French and 
Turkish fleets vainly bombarded the castle of Nice, in north-western Italy; and, for 
the first time, the Christian world beheld, with astonishment and shame, the dis- 
gi-aceful spectacle of Christians and Mohammedans united in hostilities against the 
leading prince of Christendom. 

Progress of the War- Battle of Cerisoles. — The war was prosecuted with 
various success in Spain, in France, in Italy, and in the Netherlands; but the only 
battle of any consequence was that fought at Cerisoles, in north-western Italy, in 
which the French gained a most brilliant victory. 

Invasion of France by Charles V. and Henry VIII.— Peace of Crepy, 
In 1544, France was invaded on the side of Lorraine, by a powerful German army 
under the Emperor Charles V., and by way of Calais by a considerable English 
force under King Henry VIII. The English king captured Boulogne, and the 
German emperor advanced so rapidly toward Paris that the French monarch became 
alarmed, and hastily concluded the Peace of Crepy wiUi his powerful rival. By this 
peace, the two rival monarchs agreed to restore all the conquests which tliey had 



2o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

made during the war, to unite against the Turks, and to suppress the Refonned 
religion in their respective dominions. From this time, for several centuries, 
Italy was under the undisputed possession of the House of Hapsburg. At 
length a treaty of peace was also concluded between the Kings of France and 
England, Both Francis I. and Henry VIII. died in 1547; and Charles V. directed 
his whole energy to the suppression of the religious Reformation in the jermap 
Rmpire. 

WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND HENRY H. OF FRANCE 

Alliance of Henry II. of France with the Protestant Princes of Ger- 
many. — King Henry II. of France, the son and successor of Francis I., engaged 
in hostilities with the Emperor Charles V., and fonned an alliance with the Protest- 
ant princes of Germany, while in his own dominions he endeavored to arrest the 
progi^ess of the Reformed doctrines by the most sanguinary persecutions. 

Siege of Metz. — Henry II. led an army into the German Dukedom of Lor- 
raine, and captured the strong fortresses of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. These con- 
quests Charles V. resolved to wrest from the young French monarch. In 1552, 
Charles laid siege to Metz, which was so gallantly and suocessfully defended by the 
French gan-ison, under the command of the valiant Francis of LoiTaine, Duke of 
Guise, that the German Emperor, after a siege of little more than two months, was 
obliged to retire and to beat a disgraceful retreat, having lost in all, during the siege, 
about 40,000 men. 

Capture and Destruction of Tourenne — Peace of Chateau-Cambresis. 
— In 1554, Charles V., after a vigorous siege, took the town of Tourenne by assault, 
destroyed it, and put the entire garrison to the sword. The war was continued 
between Henry II. and Charles's son, Philip II. of Spain, until 1559, when the 
Peace of Chateau-Cambresis put an end to the long contest between the Houses of 
Valois and Hapsburg. 

THE RELIGIOUS WAR IN GERMANY. 

The League of Schmalkald. — As the Emperor Charles V., after the Peace 
of Cambray, in 1529, seemed determined to suppress the religious Refonnalion in 
his dominions, the Protestant princes of Germany, with the Elector of Saxony and 
the Landgrave of Hesse at their head, united, in 1530, for their own protection, and 
formed an alliance, known as "the League of Schmalkald," which was joined by 
the Kings of England, France, Denmark, and Sweden. 

Effect of the Turkish Invasions of Austria on the Reformation. — The 
Emperor of Germany was obliged to avoid hostilities with his Protestant subjects at 
this time, in consequence of the formidable invasions of the Austrian territories by 
the Turks, who were then the most powerful people in Europe. Thus these con- 
stant Turkish invasions were highly favorable to the cause of the Reformation, as 
the Protestants of Germany refused to assist the Emperor in driving back the infidel j 
as long as the sword of Catholic vengeance was raised over their heads. Tlie plans 
of Charles V. for the extermination of heresy were thus frustrated, and he found 
himself obliged to conclude with the League of Schmalkald the Peace of Nuremburg, 
in 1532. 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



207 



Progress of the Reformation in Germany — The Anabaptists. — The Re- 

fonnation still continued to make rapid progress throughout Germany; and the 
Reformed religion was at length introduced into the Duchy of Wurtemberg, the 
March of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Baden, and Cologne. In Munster, a fanati- 
cal sect, known as " Anabaptists", became numerous. A few decades later, the 
Anabaptists experienced a salutary reformation of their doctrines, from Menno, in 
win ,h condition, under the name of Mennonites, they have continued to the present 
lime. 

The Council of Trent Summoned — Death of Luther.^ — Importmied 1 y 
the Emperor Charles V., Pope Paul III. summoned a Council of the Church to 
meet at Trent, in the T>to1, for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation of opposing 
opinions and restoring the unity of the Church. The Protestants, foreseeing that 
their doctrines would be condemned in a Council held tmder the allspices of the 
Pope, rejected it as partial, and demanded, in its stead, a general synod of the 
Church of Germany. The Council, however, assembled at Trent, in December, 
1545. Dr. Martin Luther died in his native city, Eisleben, in Saxony, on the l8th 
of Februaiy, 1546. ^ 

The Religious War of Schmalkald — Perfidy of Duke Maurice of Sax- 
ony. — The very first decision of the Council of Trent rendered a reconciliation 
of opposing opinions hopeless; and the Emperor, having concluded a disgraceful 
peace with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, now determined to crush the Reforma- 
tion by force of arms, and, in the year 1547, the Religious War of Schmalkald 
broke out between Charles V. and his Protestant GeiTnan subjects. The Protest- 
ant princes of Germany seemed to be well prepared for the contest, but all their 
efforts were rendered fruitless by the perfidy of one of their own number, — Duke 
Maurice of Saxony, — who deserted the League of Schmalkald, and allied himself 
with the Emperor. The Schmalkald forces were soon broken up, and the Protestant 
towns of Germany were obliged to submit to the Emperor. 

Defeat of Maurice— Battle of Muhlberg — Captivity of Protestant 
Princes. — Maurice's cousin, the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, still held out 
against the Emperor, and defeated Maurice and recovered Saxony. The Emperor 
marched to the assistance of the perfidious Maurice, and in the decisive battle of 
Muhlberg, John Frederic was defeated, wounded, and made prisoner by the Emperor, 
who bestowed the Electorate of Saxony on Maurice. Shortly after the defeat and 
capture of John Frederic, another leading Protestant prince, the Landgi-ave Philip 
of Hesse, was treacherously made a prisoner by the Duke of Alva. 

The Council of Trent. — The Council of Trent assembled on the 13th of 
December, 1545. The division in the Church was made greater than before; and 
the Pope, suspecting the Emperor of Germany of a design to limit the papal power, 
removed the Council to Bologna, in Italy; but Charles V. forbade the clergy to 
l*!ave Trent, and a small number of them remained. 

The Augsburg Interim— The Leipsic Interim. — For the purpose of bring 
ing about a restoration of the unity of the Church, the Emperor Charles V. p ib 
lished an edict, which set forth how matters should be conducted until the termin 
ation of the Council of Trent; and the "Augsburg Interim" of Charles V., which was 
strictly conformable to the tenets of the Romish Church, and the "Leipsic Interim," 
which had been framed by Melancthon, were not favorably received by the Pro- 



2oS MODERN HISTORY. 

tcstant princes and towns, and were utterly rejected in Northern Germany. The 
Council of the Church resumed its sittings at Trent. 

Maurice of Saxony Makes War on the Emperor Charles V. — When the 
Emperor Charles V. seemed to have attained the object of his desires; when every- 
Lhing seemed to insure his elevation to the position of temporal head of all Chris- 
tendom; and when the Council of the Church had reassembled at Trent, Duke 
JMaurice of Saxony, the prince to whom Chai-les V. was indebted for the overthr.w 
of the League of Schmalkald, seeing to what dangers the civil and religious liber- 
ties of Germany were exposed by the ambitious schemes of the Emperor, suddenly 
formed a secret alliance with King Henry II. of France, but concealed his designs 
until the most favorable time arrived for their exiecution. Maurice immediately 
granted freedom .of religion to the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which he had 
been for some time besieging; and then, suddenly throwing off the mask, he 
marched toward Innspruck, in the Tyrol, to make the Emperor a prisoner. The 
Council of Trent was broken up in confusion; and Charles V., who was then 
afflicted with the gout, escaped with difficulty, in the night, into Carinthia, and 
released the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, whom he had kept a prisoner since 
tlie battle of Muhlberg. At the same time, Henry II. of France invaded the 
German Dukedom of Lorraine, and seized the strong towns of Toul, Verdun, and 
Metz. 

Religious Peace of Passau. — Alarmed at the rapid advance of Maurice, the 
Emperor's brother. Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, immediately concluded with 
the Protestant princes the Religious Peace of Passau, by which the Protestants of 
Germany were allowed perfect religious freedom; the Landgi-ave Plrilip of Hesse 
was set at liberty; and a permanent peace and amnesty was decided upon. This 
was the first victory of the Reformation. 

Death of Maurice. — The triumphant Maurice next marched against the Mar- 
gi'ave Albert of Brandenburg, who refused to accept the treaty of Passau and still 
continued the war. Maurice was victorious in the battle of Sivershausen, but re- 
ceived a wound of which he died a few days afterward. 

Religious Peace of Augsburg. — In 1555, the Religious Peace of Augsburg 
was concluded between Charles V. and his Protestant German subjects, by which 
the Protestants were allowed perfect liberty of conscience and full toleration for 
their religion, as well as equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. 

Abdication and Retirement of Charles V. — Ferdinand I., Emperor. — • 
The failure of the attempts of Charles V. to restore the unit)' of the Church made 
tlie Emperor lose all interest in the affairs of the world; and in 1556, to the astonish- 
ment of the whole world, he abdicated all his thrones and retired to the monastery 
of St. Just, in the West of Spain. He bestowed Spain, Italy, the Netlierlands, and 
Spanish America on his son, Philip II. ; and the Austrian territories on his brother 
Feidinand, who was chosen by the German Electoral Princes to succeed him on 
the imperial throne of Germany, with the title of Ferdinand I. Charles spent the 
remaining two years of his life in religious devotion and mechanical inventions. 
Having failed in repeated attempts to make two watches run exactly alike, he is 
said to have exclaimed, " I cannot make two watches run alike, and yet, fool that 
I was, I thought of governing so many nations of different languages and religions. 




CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. 




HENRY Vlll. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



209 



•ind living in different climes!" Two days before his death he went through the 
coremonies of his burial. He died in 1558. 

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 

REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (A. D. 1509-1S47) 

Accession of Henry VIII. — The avaricious Henry VII., at his death, in 1 509, 
was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Henry VIII,, who proved tc 
be one of the most passionate, capricious, and tyi-annical sovereigns that ever rvccu- 
pied a throne. Henry VIII., who was only eighteen years of age when he be'iaine 
monarch, was one of the most learned princes of his time. He ascended the tlj-one 
under very happy circumstances : the kingdom was prosperous and at peace; and 
the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster were united in thb young king's 
person. 

Cardinal Wolsey. — As the Earl of Surrey encouraged the lavishness of the 
youthful monarch, Bishop Fox of Winchester introduced at Court the shrewd and 
dexterous Thomas Wolsey, who was immediately taken into the service of the 
king, who at length made him Prime-Minister. For a considerable period, Wolsey 
acted a more conspicuous part in the affairs of England than his sovereign. In 
1518, Wolsey was made a cardinal by the Pope. Cardinal Wolsey had a train of 
eight hundred servants, and he excelled all churchmen in dignity. He encouraged 
learning, and invited the learned Erasmus of Rotterdam to com« to Oxford to 
teach Greek. Wolsey's inordinate ambition finally caused his own fall. 

Invasion of France by Henry VIII. — " Battle of the Spurs" — Battle 
of Flodden Field. — In 1513, King Henry VIII. invaded France and defeated 
the French at Tournay, in an action known as "the Battle of the Spurs," so called 
because the French army fled at the first onset. After his victory, Henry VIII. 
immediately returned to England. On the very day of the Battle of the Spurs 
(September 10, 15 13), an English army under Lord Surrey defeated and killed 
King James IV. of Scotland, in the celebrated " Battle of Flodden Field," in the 
north-eastern corner of England. 

Visit of the Emperor Charles V. to Henry VIII. — " Field of the Cloth 
of Gold." — The favor of Henry VIII., as we have already seen, was courted by 
each of the two rival monarchs, Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. 
Charles flattered the vanity of Henry by paying him a visit in England, in 1520 ; 
afler which the English monarch went to Calais to meet the French king. The 
nr.;>eting of Henry and Francis, which took place in June, 1520, in a plain near 
Calais, lasted a fortnight, and because of the magnificence there displayed, the 
meeting is known as " the Field of the Cloth of Gold." 

Henry VIII. writes a Volume against Luther. — In 1521, King Hemy 
VIII. wrote a Latin volume against Dr. Luther and the Reformation, for which he 
was loudly praised by Pope Leo X., who conferred upon the royal author tlie title 
of "Defender of the Faith," and sent the king a letter, praising his learning, zeal, 
ability, and wisdom. 

Henry VIII. Divorced from Catharine of Aragon and Married to Anne 
Boleyn. — Henry VIII. had been married to Catharine of Aragon, daughtei of 
14 

I 



2IO MODERN HISTORY. 

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, in 1502. He now applied to Pope Clement VII. 
for a divorce from Catharine, that he might marry the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one 
of the ladies of his court. The Pope, fearing the displeasure of the Emperor 
Charles V., who was Catharine's nephew, refused to grant the request of the Eng- 
lish king; but Henry, supported by the opinions of learned men, such as the young 
and virtuous Thomas Cranmer, whom the king made Archbishop of Canterbury, in 
I 533, obtained a divorce from Catharine, and then mamed Anne Boleyn. 

Disgrace and Death of Cardinal Wolsey. — Cardinal Wolsey, who was be 
lieved to be opposed to the divorce of Henry VIII. from Catharine, soon began to 
lose the king's favor; and at lengh the ambitious cardinal was banished from courf, 
and all his estates were seized by the king. A charge of treason was also preferred 
against Wolsey. At York, Wolsey was attacked with a violent fever, occasioned 
by anxiety and grief at his fall. In this dangerous condition, the fallen Minister 
set out for London, but died on his way, at Leicester Abbey, on the 29th of Novem- 
ber, 1530. On his death-bed, he uttered these affecting -words, "Had I served my 
God with half the diligence that I served my king, he would not have given me 
over in my gray hairs." 

Henry VIII. and the Pope — Henry VIII. created Head of the Church 
in England. — The Pope was greatly exasperated at Henry VIII. , because of his 
divorce from his first wife; and in consequence, the English monarch separated 
himself from the Romish Church, and caused an act to be passed by his Parlia- 
ment, in 1534, transferring the supremacy of the Church in England from the Pope 
of Rome to the King of England. The English monasteries and nunneries were 
dissolved, and their possessions were bestowed on the crown. The learned Sir 
Thomas More, the author of "Utopia," and Bishop Fisher of Rochester, declined 
to approve of the act which made the king Head of the English Church, and both 
were consequently beheaded. The king violently persecuted both Lutherans and 
Roman Catholics. The Pope at length excommunicated Heniy VIII., who re- 
sented the anger of the Holy Father by causing those who had prepared the excom- 
munication to be put to death. 

Execution of Anne Boleyn — The King's Marriage with Jane Seymour. 
— Henry VIII. soon became displeased with Anne Boleyn; and in 1536, he caused 
her to be beheaded on a false accusation. The very next day after the execu- 
tion of Anne Boleyn, the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. 
(I537-) 

Henry's Last Three Wives, Anne of Cleves, Catharine Hovi^ard, and 
Catharine Parr. — By the advice of his minister. Sir Thomas Cromwell, who had 
been one of Wolsey's favorite servants, Henry VIII., in 1540, married Anne of 
Cleves, a German princess, of whom he had seen a portrait which had been taken 
by Hans Holbein, the great Swiss painter; but the king soon obtained a divorce 
fn^m Anne, and beheaded Cromwell, who had advised the mai'riage. Henry VIII. 
next married Cath?rine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk; but in 1542, 
le caused ner to be beheaded^ and then married Catharine Parr, who outlived 
nini. 

The King's Zeal Against Lutherans and Roman Catholics. — As we 
have already said, Henry VIII. vehemently persecuted both Lutherans and Roman 
Catholics in his own dominions, — the former as heretics, and the latter for refusing 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 211 

to recognize him as Head of the Church in England; and many were burned at the 
stake. The king was fond of theological discussions, but woe to such as had the 
hardihood to differ from him. On one occasion, his last wife, Catharine Parr, who 
was a Protestant, narrowly escaped being sacrificed to his anger, for expressing her 
leligious opinions rather too freely. 

Cranmer's Translation of the Bible. — The pious Cranmer, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, who was a zealous friend of the Reformation, was greatly respected by 
King Henry VIII., whose permission the Archbishop at length obtained to have 
the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer translated into English ; and finally, 
with the consent of the king, Cranmer prepared a new translation of the Bible, 
Wickliffe's translation being too faulty in many particulars. 

War Between England and Scotland— Battle of Solway Moss. — In 1541, 
Henry VIII. commenced a war against Scotland. The English arnjy defeated the 
Scots in the battle of Solway Moss, which so disheartened the Scotch king, James 
v., that he died a few months afterward (December, 1542), and the crown of Scot- 
land fell to his daughter Mary, then a mere child. Peace was made between Eng- 
land and Scotland in 1546. In 1544, Henry VIII., while at war with France, as 
an ally of the Emperor Charles V., invaded France and captured Boulogne. 

Execution of the Earl of Surrey — Death of Henry VIII.— The tyranny 
of Henry VIII. increased as he advanced in years; and in 1547, he caused the 
Duke of Norfolk, and his son, the Earl of Surrey, the leading English noblemen, 
to be arrested. Surrey was executed on a false charge of treason. Henry VIII. 
died soon afterward. Just before his death, the king signed a warrant for the exe- 
cution of the Duke of Norfolk, but happily the warrant was not carried into exe- 
cution. 

REIGN OF EDWARD VI. (A. D. 1S47-1SS3). 

Accession of Edvi^ard VI. — The Duke of Somerset Protector. — The 

son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded Henry VIII. on the throne of 
England, with the title of Edward VI. As the new king, at the time of his acces- 
sion, was only nine years old, the government of the kingdom was entrusted to his 
uncle, the Duke of Somerset, with the title of Protector. Edward VI. was edu- 
cated a Protestant by his uncle, who appointed the virtuous Latimer the young 
king's preacher. Edward's greatest delight was in studying theology and in listen- 
ing to sermons ; and he gave great promise of becoming a good monarch. 

Establishment of the Church of England. — The Protector soon set about 
establishing the Protestant religion in England; and Archbishop Cranmer and 
Bishop Ridley of London were appointed to prep.ire a book of prayer. The Psalms 
were translated into English; and the Thirty-Nine Articles were drawn up by 
Cranmer. These articles are the confession of faith of the Church of England. 
In order to insure a religious conformity of faith, many of the Catholic prayers 
were retained. This was the establishment of the Anglican Church. 

The Protector's Invasion of Scotland — Battle of Pinkie. — The Protector 
sought to carry out the wish of Henry VIII. for a marriage of Edward VI. with 
the young Mary, Queen of Scots. As the Protector did not succeed in accomplish- 
ing that object by treaty, he led an army into Scotland and defeated the Scottish 
army in the batde of Pinkie, on the loth of September, 1 547. This event exasper- 



212 MODERN HISTORY. 

ated the Scots to such a degree that they sent Mary to France, where she was 
married to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. 

Execution of Seymour and the Protector — Death of Edward VI. — The 
wicked Dudley, Earl of Warwick, caused Seymour, the brother of the Duke of 
Somerset, to attempt to raise himself to the Protectorship, and then induced the 
Protector to have him executed for high treason. Warwick's next act was the over- 
throw and execution of the Protector for high treason. Warwick, who was cteated 
Earl of Northimiberland, now ruled the kingdom. The pious King Edward VI. 
died in 1553, at the early age of fifteen years. 

REIGN OF MARY (A. D. 1SS3-1SS8). 

Lady Jane Grey — Accession of Mary — Restoration of Catholicism. — 

The unscrupulous and usurping Earl of Northumberland had procured the appoint- 
ment of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, as the successor of Edward VI. to 
the English throne; but Lady Jane was obliged to yield the throne to Edward's 
half-sister, Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon. Mary, 
who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, soon forgot her promises of toleration to her 
Protestant subjects, and restored the popish religion in her kingdom. 

Mary's Marriage with Philip II. of Spain — Insurrections. — In 1554, 
Queen Mary of England married Philip, son of the Emperor Charles V., and after- 
wards King Philip II. of Spain, who was also an unrelenting Catholic. The con- 
sequence of this marriage was an insurrection in England, against the authority of 
Queen Mary, whom the insurgents intended to depose. The revolt was suppressed, 
and many of the leading insurgents were executed. Lady Jane Grey, whom the 
malcontents intended to elevate to the English throne, and who was falsely accused 
of countenancing their design, also died on the scaffold. 

Religious Persecution — Martyrdom of Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and 
Cranmer. — We have already said that Queen Maiy restored the Roman Catholic 
religion in England. She also proceeded to a vigorous persecution of her Protest- 
ant subjects; and many pious bishops and ministers were burned alive for adhering 
to the Protestant faith. Among those who thus perished at the stake were Bishop 
Ridley of London, Bishop Hooper of Gloucester, the pious Latimer, and the good 
ArchbLshop Cranmer. The bigoted queen had allowed Cranmer an opportunity to 
recant ; and the Archbishop, in a moment of weakness, signed a paper avowing his 
belief in popery ; but when his strength returned, he again avowed his full belief in 
Protestant doctrines ; and when he was brought to the stake, he first put the hand 
with which he signed the paper avowing his belief in Roman Catholicism, into the 
fire, and held it there until it was burnt off, saying, " This is the arm that has 
offended." 

War with France— Battle of St. Quentin— Loss of Calais— Death of 

Mary. — In 1556, Queen Mary's husband became King of Spain, with the title of 
Philip II. ; and at the same time, he induced her to join him in a war against 
France. In 1557, the combined English and Spanish forces defeated the French 
in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France; but in 1558, the important town 
of Calais, which had belonged to England for two centuries, was taken by the 
French army under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of 
iuise. Queen Mary was so ovenvhelmed at this loss that she died a few months 




GUSTAVUS I. OF SWEDEN. 



Aml^^ 




MARY I. THE BLOODY. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 21^ 

afterward (November, 1558), saying a short time before her death that the word 
'< Calais" would be engraven on her heart. Mary was succeeded as Queen of 
England by her half-sister, Elizabeth. 

THE REFORMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KING- 
DOMS. 

Sweden's Liberation from Denmark by Gustavus Vasa.— The tyranny 
and cruelty of King Christian II., of Denmark, who caused ninety-four Swedisli 
nobies to be foully massacred in Stockholm, in 1520. induced the valiant and patu- 
otic Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of these massacred nobles, to attempt the liber- 
ation of Sweden from the yoke of the King of Denmark. In the disguise of a 
peasant, Gustavus Vasa found refuge m. tlie mountainous region of Dalecarlia, 
whose brave inhabitants flocked to his standard. Gustavus repulsed the Danish 
troops that had been sent against him, took Upsala, drove the Danish invaders 
from Swedish soil, and secured his country's independence. In gratitude, the 
Swedes chose the heroic Gustavus Vasa as their Icing, and made the Swedish crown 
hereditary in his family. 

Establishment of the Lutheran Religion in Sweden.-Under Gustavus Vasa, 
who died in 1560, the Lutheran .-"^ligion was established in Sweden. Eric XIV., 
the son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, became insane, and was imprisoned by 
his brothers. Eric's successors, John III. and Sigismund, the latter of whom was 
Sigismund III. of Poland, vainly attempted to restore the popish religion in Sweden; 
and Sigismund was deposed from his Swedish throne by his uncle, the Duke of 
Sudermania, who assunaed the crown of Sweden, with the title of Charles IX. 
(1600.) The latter king, and his son and successor, Gustavus Adolphus, warred 
against Poland. 

Adoption of Lutheranism in Denmark and Norway.— The tyrannical 
Christian II. irritated his Danish subjects to such a degree that they dethroned him, 
and bestowed the crown of Denmark on Frederic II., who established the Lutheran 
faith in Denmark. The deposed Christian II., who became a Catholic to obtain the 
aid of the Pope and the Emperor of Germany in his efforts to recover his lost crown, 
was seized and kept a prisoner for sixteen years. The final and perfect establish- 
ment of Lutheranism in Denmark was accomplished during the reign of Frederic's 
son, Christian III. (1534-1559.) The Lutheran religion was also adopted in 
Norway. 

THE SOCIETY OF JESUITS. 

Ignatius Loyola and Establishment of the Society of Jesus.- The 
efforts of the Popes to suppress the Reformation, or to arrest its progress, found 
tlicir chief support in the Order of Jesuits, which was founded in the year 1540, 
by the excitable and enthusiastic Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman. Aftei 
renouncing the military profession, Ignatius made a pilgrimage to the Holy Se])ul- 
chrc at Jerusalem; and, after his return to Spain, he acquired in Salamanca and Paris 
the education which he needed, and then he and six associates took upon themselves 
the three monastic vows of poverity, chastity, and obedience, and swore upon the 
host to allow the objects of their aspirations and desires to be decided upon by the 



i 14 



MODE J? AT HI ST OR V. 



Pope, and then to yield an unconditional submission to his decision. Shortly 
afterward, Ignatius and his companions prostrated themselves at the feet of the 
Holy Father, who confinnned the new Order, which was named "the Society of 
Jesus." Ignatius Loyola became the chief of the Order, and his successoi, the Span- 
iard I.ainez, framed a constitution for the government of this Society, the members 
of wliich were endowed by the Pope with great privileges. 

Objects of the Society of Jesuits. — -The Jesuits were obliged to disconnect 
ihe.oiselvcs with the rest of the world. Their chief object was to oppose Protes- 
ia:.cism and to suppress the spirit of inquiry awakened by the Reformation. They 
endeavored, by persecution and seducement, to win Protestants over to Catholicism; 
and, by getting the education of youth into their hands, they endeavored to bring 
up the young in the doctrines of the Romish Church. 

Spread and Influence of the Order of Jesuits. — The Society of Jesus ac- 
quired immense wealth by presents and legacies, and was thus enabled to establish 
schools of education, which attracted the necessitous by imparting instruction gra- 
tuitously. The Order of Jesuits soon spread over Catholic Europe, and many of 
its members were engaged, in remote quarters of the globe, in proclaiming the 
Gospel to heathen. Jesuit missionaries converted many of the American Indians 
to Christianity, while Jesuitical missions were established in China and Japan, 

SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA. 

Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez. — In 1517, the Spaniard Cordova 
discovered Mexico, the seat of the flourishing empire of the Aztecs, a partially 
civilized race of American Indians, who had built large cities and established a 
regular government. In 15 19, Fernando Cortez, a Spanish soldier and adventurer, 
invaded Mexico with 1,500 men ; and being joined by some of the natives, he was 
enabled to take possession of the city of Mexico, and succeeded by treachery in 
making the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, a prisoner. The Aztecs rose against the 
invaders, and killed many of them. The ill-fated Montezuma, having tried to in- 
duce his people to submit to the strangers, was also put to death by them. Cortez 
and his followers finally succeeded in conquering the country in 1521; and for 
three hundred years, Mexico, under the name of New Spain, was a Spanish prov- 
ince. Cortez, notwithstanding all his services to the Spanish monarch, was treated 
with ingratitude by his master. 

Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro. — In 1529, the brave but cruel 
Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, with little more than 300 men, invaded the beautiful 
country oi Peru, which was inhabited by a highly civilized American Indian race, 
whose monarchs were called "Incas." Like the Aztecs of Mexico, the Peruvians 
had large cities and a regular government. By treachery, Pizarro made the reign- 
ing Inca a prisoner; and notwithstanding his promise to give the Inca his liberty, 
in return for an enormous amount of gold, Pizarro caused his unfortunate caytive 
t'j be ] ui to death. Pizarro completed the conquest of the country in 1532; anc' 
f'li nearly thfee centuries, Peru was a province of Spain. About this time. Alma- 
gru, Pizarro's comrade, discovered Chili. Pizarro and Almagro soon quaneled, 
and the latter was put to death ; but Almagro's son, in revenge, caused Pizarro to 
be murdered. Nearly the whole of the South American coast came into the pos- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



215 



session of Spain, during the sixteenth century. The precious metals M-hich Spain 
obtained irom her American possessions made her for a time the leading powei of 
Europe, but finally led to her rapid decline. 

PERSIA AND INDIA. 

Rise of the Persian Empire under Ismael — Shah Abbas the Great. — 

A powerful Mohammedan dynasty arose in Persia, at the beginning of the sixteei.Tn 
cjen'.ury, in the person of the warlike Ismael. The dynasty founded by Ismael 
was called the Suffeean dynasty, from the holy shiek Suft'ee. Ismael was a gi cat 
conijueror, but he was once defeated by Sultan Selim I. of Turkey. Ismael was 
succeeded on the Persian throne by his son Tamasp, under whom Persia prospered. 
In 1582, Shah Abbas the Great, the grandson of Tamasp, ascended^the throne of 
Persia. This celebrated monarch gained many victories over the Turks; and in 
1622, he deprived the Portuguese of the city of Ormuz, on the Persian Gulf. The 
arts of peace and internal improvements received great encouragement from Shah 
Abbas ; and the city of Ispahan, which was at that time the capital of Persia, was 
one of the most splendid and important cities in Asia. The treatment of Shah 
Abbas toward his children and his relatives was most cruel and inhuman. He 
caused his oldest son to be put to death, and the eyes of the others to be put out. 
The Persian Empire rapidly declined under the successors of Shah Abbas. 

Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber — Aurungzebe. 
— In 1525, Baber, a descendant of the great Mogul conqueror, Tamerlane, invaded 
Hindoostan, overthrew the Afghan dynasty that had ruled in that countiy for three 
centuries, and became the founder of a dynasty of Mogul princes which ruled Hin- 
doostan for more than two centuries. The religion of the Moguls was Mohamme- 
dan, and their capital was the city of Delhi, in Northern Hindoostan. The most 
noted of the Mogul princes who occupied the throne of Delhi were Humayan, 
Jehanghir, Akbar, and Aurungzebe; the last of whom mounted the throne in 1659, 
by murdering his father and other relatives. Aurungzebe, however, governed with 
wisdom and mildness; and the Mogul Empire was very prosperous during his 
long reign. After the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the Mogul Empire in India 
rapidly declined, and soon fell to pieces. 



AGE OF PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH. 

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

Philip II. of Spain — The Inquisition — Expulsion of the Moors. — Under 
Ihe bigoted, tyrannical, and cruel Philip II., the horrible Inquisition, with all its 
frightful work, was in full operation in Spain and Naples. Philip's own son, Don 
Carlos, died in its dungeons. His half-brother, Don Juan, the victor over the 
Tnrks in the great sea-fight of Lepanto, in 1571, died of grief at the treatment wnich 
he received from Philip. The Duke of Alva was a cruel instrument for the execu ■ 
tion of Philip's tyrannical orders. Philip's tyranny in the Netherlands finally resulted 
in the loss of those fair provinces to Spain. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, 
Spain rapidly declined in power and importrnce. Under his son and successor, 



2i6 MODERN HISTORY. 

Philip III., the Moors of Spain, who for more than a centur)' had suffered the most 
cruel persecutions, formed a conspiracy for the overthrow of the Spanish power; 
but the plot was discovered, and the Moors were banished from Spain in i6lo. 
Thus 600,000 Mohammedans were cruelly driven from their homes. 

The Sixty Years' Union of Spain and Portugal. — On the death of King 
Henry of Portugal, in 1580, Philip II. of Spain claimed the Portuguese crown, and 
s-ant an army under the Duke of Alva to enforce his pretensions. The Portuguese 
w^i obliged to submit, the rival claimant, Antonio, being defeated; and Poitugal 
was united with Spain for sixty years. Finally, in 1640, Spanish tyranny produced 
a rebellion of the Portuguese, who, after a brief struggle, regained their independ- 
ence, and elected the Duke of Braganza for tlieir king, with the title of John IV. 

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS. 

Attempted Introduction of the Inquisition into the Netherlands by 
Philip II. — King Philip II. of Spain bestowed the vice-regeacy of the Netherlands 
on his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, and caused the laws against heresy to be 
made very severe. At the same time, the Spanish king endoavored to establish the 
Inquisition, with all its horrible tortures and dungeons, in the Netherlands ; and 
Cardinal Granvella was made Grand Inquisitor. Spanish ti'oops were also sent into 
the Netherlands to uphold Philip's tyranny. 

Vain Efforts of Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont for 
Toleration. — Vain endeavors were made by Prince William of Orange and Count 
Egmont, to induce the bigoted King of Spain to grant toleration for the Protestant 
religion in the Netherlands. The Inquisition was opposed by Catholics, as well as 
by Protestants ; and four hundred Roman Catholic nobles petitioned Philip II. for 
a discontmuance of the hoiTible institution in the Netherlands ; but the bigoted 
sovereign obstinately refused their request. 

Violence of Mobs — The Duke of Alva Governor — Death of Count 
Egmont. — Spanish tyranny at length led to the collection of mobs in Brussels, Ant- 
werp, and other towns of the Netherlands. These mobs perpetrated many outrages, 
such as the destruction of crucifixes and images of the saints. In 1567, the infam- 
ous and bloodthirsty Duke of Alva was sent into the Netherlands with an army by 
Philip II. Upon Alva's arrival, many of the Netherlanders, among whom was 
Prince William of Orange, fled to Holland. Count Egmont remained, and was 
treacherously put to death by order of the Duke of Alva. 

The Bloody Council — Tyranny of the Duke of Alva — Margaret's Re- 
signation. — Soon after his arrival in Brussels, with unlimited power, the Duke of 
Alva established a council, called by the Netherlands, " The Bloody Council," which 
inflicted the most severe and cruel punishments upon the Protestants, and also upon 
the Roman Catholics who opposed his tyranny and that of his master, the King of 
Spain. Disgusted with the condition of affairs, Margaret of Parma resigned the 
vice-regency of the Netherlands, and retired to Italy, followed by the respect of the 
Netherlanders. 

Prince William of Orange Stadtholder — Adoption of Calvinism. — ^The 
Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, in 1572, recognized Prince William of 
Orange as their ruler, with the title of Stadtholder; and the Synod of Dort, in 1573, 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 217 

recognized Calvinism as the established religion of the Netherlands, and erected a 
Protestant university at Leyden, as a reward for the gallant defense of the inhabi- 
tants of that town against a besieging Spanish army. 

The Duke of Alva's Successors, Louis of Zuniga and Don Juan. — 
After exercising the most cruel and unmitigated despotism in the Netherlands for 
six years, the Duke of Alva was finally recalled by the Spanish Court, in 1573, and 
wai succeeded by Louis of Zuniga, who abolished the Bloody Council and adopled 
moderate measures; but the Netherlanders, however, continued to resist Spanish 
authority. Louis of Zuniga died in 1576, and was succeeded by Don Juan, the 
victor of Lejjanto, and the half-brodier of the Spanish monarch. 

The Pacification of Ghent — Alexander Farnese of Parma — Union of 
Utrecht. — In 1576, Prince William of Orange succeeded in uniting all the prov- 
inces of the Netherlands in a confederacy, known as "the Pacification of 
Ghent," for the purpose of expelling the Spanish troops, and securing the inde- 
pendence of the Netherlands. In 1578, Don Juan was recalled by the Court of 
Madrid, and Alexander Farnese of Parma, the son of Margaret, was appointed his 
successor. As Alexander endeavored to create a hatred between the Northern and 
Southern Provinces, for the purpose of preserving the latter to the Spanish crown, 
Prince William of Orange induced the Northern Provinces to unite, in 1579, in a 
close league, known as "the Union of Utrecht." 

Assassination of Prince William of Orange. — King Philip II. had long 
offered a reward and a title of nobility, to any one who would hand over to him 
Prince William of Orange, dead or alive. This promise led to some attempts to 
seize or kill the prince, which, however, failed; but in 1581, William was assas- 
sinated in the royal banqueting-hall at Delft, by the fanatical Gerhard of Franche- 
Comte. The assassin was, however, seized, and put to a most cruel death. 

Prince Maurice of Orange Stadtholder — English Aid to the Nether- 
landers. — Upon the assassination of Prince William of Orange, the Netherlanders 
chose his son, Prince Maurice of Orange, for their Stadtholder. Queen Elizabeth 
of England, the enemy of Philip II. of Spain, sent an army under the Earl of 
Leicester to the Netherlands, to prevent the Spaniards from suppres-sing the rebel- 
lion. This conduct of the English Queen, together with the execution of the 
Queen of Scots, induced the Spanish monarch to send a gigantic fleet, known as 
"the Invincible Armada," for the conquest of England. The destruction of the 
Armada, by storms and English war-vessels, gave great moral support to the strug- 
gling Netherlanders. 

Achievement and Acknowledgment of the Independenceof Holland. — 
The war between the Spanish government and the rebellious Netherlanders con- 
tinued until 1609, when, through the mediation of the good King Henry IV. of 
France, the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, or "the "United States of Hol- 
land," secured their independence. The Southern Provinces, or Belgium, under 
the name of "the Spanish Netherlands," continued to belong to the Spanish crown 
until 1 7 14, when, by the Treaty of Rastadt, they were ceded to the House of 
Austria, under the name of " the Austrian Netherlands." The independence of 
Holland was formally acknowledged by Spain in 1648, by the Treaty of Westpha- 
lia, which closed the great Thirty Years' War jn Germany. 



2i8 MODERN HISTORY. 

Government of Holland — Religious Dissensions — Synod of Doit. — ■ 

The legislative power of the Republic of the Uniled States of Holland was vested 
in an assembly called the States-General; and the executive povv'er was exercised 
by a High Council, at the head of which was a Stadtholder. No sooner was the 
independence of Holland secured, in 1609, than a religious dispute about the Cal- 
viiiistic doctrine of predestination divided tlie Dutch people into two parties, — the 
G junaiists, with Prince Maurice of Orange at their head, and the Airninians, at 
the head of whom was Van Olden Barnvcldt, the anthor of the constitution of the 
l)utch Republic. The Synod of Dort, in i6iS, decided in favor of the Gormaiists, 
luid Van Olden Barnveldt was executed. 

Commerce, Colonies, and Maritime Power of Holland. — Holland emerged 
from her long struggle for independence strong and prosperous. The Dutch East 
India Company was formed in 1602, and many of the Portuguese possessions in the 
East Indies were taken possession of by the Dutch. The Dutch colony of Batavia, 
in the island of Java, was founded in i6ig. The Dutch navy was the largest in 
Europe; and for almost two centuries, Holland was the most powerful commercial 
and maritime rival of England. 

CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 

HEIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1S47-15S0). 

Accession of Henry H. — Persecution of the Calvinists or Huguenots. 

— The warlike Francis I., known as "the Father and Restorer of Letters," died in 
1547, and was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Henry II., who, like 
his father, was a zealous persecutor of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants 
were called. The Protestants of France, as well as those of Holland, Scotland, 
and many in England, were believers in the doctrines of John Calvin, the French 
Reformer, who had adopted the doctrines of Ulric Zwinglc. The Calvinists of 
France were called Huguenots; those of Scotland, Presbyterians; and those of 
England, Puritans. 

War with Spain and England — Battle of St. Quentin — Recovery of 
Calais. — Henry II. of France, as an ally of the Pope, engaged in a war against 
Philip II. of Spain and his wife, Queen Mary of England. The French were de- 
feated by the united English and Spanish forces in the battle of St. Quentin, in 
Northern France, in 1557; but in the following year (1558), Francis of Lorraine, 
Duke of Guise, with a Frcncli army, wrested Calais from the English, who had 
possessed that key of France for two centuries. In 1559, the Peace of Chateau- 
Cambresis was made between the Kings of France and Spain. Queen Mary of 
England, the wife of Philip II., having died, the Spanish king married the daughter 
of Henry II. ; while the French monarch married Catharine de Medicis, of the 
illustrious family of Florence. 

REIGN OF FRANCIS II. (A. D. 1BS9-1860). 

Accession of Francis II. — The Guises — The Prince of Condb and Ad- 
miral Coligni. — On the death of King Hemy II., in 1559, from the effects of a 
wound which he received at a tournament, his son, Francis II., who had married 
tile beautiful young Queen Maiy of Scotland, ascended the throne of France. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



219 



Mary's uncles, the GuLses, who wore zealous Roman Catholics, gained great infla- 
ence at the French court; and endeavored to crush the Prosteslant party in France, 
headed by the Prince of Cond6 and Admiral Coligni. King F"rancis II. died in 
1560, when the Guises retired from court, and Queen Mary sailed for her kingdom 
of Scotland. 

REIGN OF CHARLES IX. (A. D. 1360-1S74). 

Charles IX. and Catharine de Medicis — Toleration to the Huguenots 
- Religious \A^ar. — Francis H. was succeeded on the throne of France by his 
youlhf.il half-brother, Charles IX., during whose minority the Government of France 
was conducted by his mother, Catharine de Medicis, as queen-regent. Catharine 
granted toleration to the Huguenots in 1562. The Guises were indignant at this; 
and as Duke Francis of Guise and his followers were passing the town of Vassy, 
they fell upon and slaughtered a number of Huguenots engaged in prayer. This 
outrage was the signal for a bloody religious war, in which the most shocking cruel- 
ties were perpetrated by both parties. The Catholics were assisted by Philip II. of 
Spain and by the Pope, while the Huguenots received aid from Queen Elizabeth 
of England. 

Battle of Dreux — Assassination of Duke Francis of Guise — Peace of 
Amboise. — The Prince of C<jnde took the chief command of the Huguenots, while 
the Duke of Guise placed himself at the head of the Catholics. After the indeci- 
sive battle of Dreux, the Duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. The assassination 
of Duke Francis of Guise by a Protestant saved Orleans to the Huguenots; and 
during the same year (1564), the Peace of Amboise was made, by which the Cal- 
vinists were assured of toleration for their religion. 

Renewal of the War — Assassination of the Prince of Condfe — Peace 
of St. Germain. — The promises of toleration to the Huguenots vvere soon forgot- 
ten; and in 1567,1110 religioQs war was renewed with all its horro-j. The Catholics 
were victorious in the battle of .St. Denis, but their leader, the Constable Montmo- 
renci, was among the slain. After a few more sanguinary engagements, in which 
the Huguenots were defeated, and after their leader, the Prince of Conde, had been 
assassinated by a Catholic, the Peace of St. Germain wa''. concluded, by which the 
Protestants were again promisefl religious toleration. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — The Icc-rLers of the Protestants now 
were Admiral Coligni and Prince Henry of Beam. th_ Prince of Condd's nephew. 
On the death of his mother, Henry of Beam became King of Navarre. For the 
purpose of reconciling the two parties, the young King of France, Charles IX., 
proposed that his sister Margaret should be married to King Henry of Navarre. 
The F"rench Catholics, with the Guises and the queen-mother, Catharine de Medi- 
cis, at their head, had planned secretly to massacre all the Huguenots who should 
come to Paris for the celebration of the nuptials. Accordingly, at two o'clock in 
the morning of St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, when the alarum bcil of Si- 
Germain 1' Auxerrois gave a signal, bands of armed assassins rushed upon the de 
fenseless and unsuspecting Huguenots, and slaughtered them without mercy. The 
massacre continued for three days; and about 5,000 Protestants were killed in Paiis, 
among whom was the aged Admiral Coligni. The king himself shot at the poor 
victims, from the windows of his palace. The young Prinje of Cond6 and Kmg 



220 MODERN HISTORY. 

Henry of Navarre were spared only on the condition of becuuiing Roman Catho- 
lics; but no sooner were they secure from the power of the papists than they again 
avowed their old faith. The orders of King Charles IX., for the extension of the 
massacre to other parts of France, were so well obeyed that 50,000 Protestants were 
sacrificed to the cruelty and fanaticism of their Catholic enemies. Some of the 
Catholic commanders, however, refused to obey the orders of the kin^ ; and one of 
them wrote to the court that he commanded soldiers, not assassins. The French 
Cjurt was congratulated by Philip II. of Spain; and Pope Gregory XIII. offered 
thanks to Heaven for "this signal mercy." This horrible atrocity is known as "The 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew." 

Consequences of the Massacre. — The consequences of the Massacre of St. 
Bai-tholomew were quite different from what the French Court had expected. 
Many of the Roman Catholics renounced their religion and became Huguenots, 
from a feeling of horror and shame; and the civil and religious war again burst 
forth with all its former fury. 

Remorse and Sufferings of King Charles IX. — His Death. — Charles IX. 
at one time endeavored to put the whole responsibility for the great crime on the 
Guises ; and the next moment he confessed the part he had taken, and expressed 
joy at what he considered a blow at heresy; but, from the time of the massacre, he 
was troubled with remorse and grief, at his participation in the horrible crime. He 
frequently imagined that he; saw the bloody forms of the massacred Protestants 
before his eyes ; he had no rest night or day ; and he was often known to sigh and 
to bemoan himself with tears. His health rapidly declined, and his miserabH life 
was terminated on the 30th of May, 1574. 

REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1S74-1S89). 

Accession of Henry III. — Duke Henry of Guise and the Catholic 
League. — Charles IX. was succeeded as King of France by his brother, Henry 
III., who had been, but a year previous, elected King of Poland, which countr)' he 
now abandoned, to go to Paris, to take possession of a more delightful kingdom. 
Henry III. was an imbecile and a dissolute monarch. Pie made peace with the 
Huguenots, by granting them religious toleration and the same privileges enjoyed 
by the Catholics. This exasperated the Catholic party, at the head of which was 
Duke Henry of Guise, who, with other French Catholic nobles, concluded " The 
Catholic League," for the purpose of upholding the popish religion in France. 

King Henry III. and the Catholic League — Exclusion of Henry of 
Navarre.— King Henry HI. soon declared himself the head of the Catholic League, 
and renounced his peace with the Huguenots. In 15S4, the king's brother, the 
Duke ot Anjou, the heir to the French throne, died, and the Protestant King 
Henry of Navarre became the nearest heir; but the Catholic party in France 
attempted to exclude him from the throne, on account of his religion ; md Henry 
ni. found himself obliged to revoke all his concessions to the Calvinisms. 

Plot of Henry of Guise — Conflict in Paris — Assassination of the 
Guises. — Duke Henry of Guise at first only aimed at the suppression of the R<^- 
forraed religion in France, but he at length entertainetl the design of dethroning 
H'inry III. and placing himself on the throne of France. The king now became 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 22 J 

alarmed, and ordered some Swiss troops into Paris, in May, 1588,(0 prevent the 
Guises from entering the city. The Parisians, however, adhered to the Guises, and 
began a terriljle conflict with the king's troops. The king fled to Chartres, but soon 
returned to Paris, and procured the assassination of Duke Henry of Guise and his 
brother. Cardinal Louis of Guise. 

Another Civil War— Siege of Paris by Henry III. — Assassination of 
Henry HI. — Tlie assassination of the Guises roused tlie indignation of the French 
Reman Catholics against King Henry IH., and the Pope excommunicated him. 
T.V king found liimself obliged to leave Paris ; whereupon he tlirew himself into 
the arms of the Huguenots, and recei\-ed assistance from King Henrj' of Navarre. 
A terrible civil war again broke out, and the two King Henrys appeared before 
Paris with their annies, and laid siege to the city. The capital was only saved from 
destruction by the assassination of Henry III., in August, 1589, by James Clement, 
a fanatical monk. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON.— REIGN OF HENRY IV. (1589-1610). 

Accession of Henry IV. — Siege of Paris by Henry IV. — Spanish 
Relief. — Henry HI. was the last French king of the House of Valois; and just 
before his death he appointed as his successor King Henry of Navarre, who was 
the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. The Duke of Maine, a brother 
of the murdered Guises, became the head of the Catholic League; and supported 
by Philip II. of Spain, he resisted King Henry IV. In 1590, Henry IV. laid 
siege to Paris; and the Parisians were almost reduced by starvation, when a 
.Spanish army under Alexander of Parma marched to their relief from the Nether. 
lands. 

Conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism and Its Happy Consequences. 
— On the approach of the Spanish army of relief. King Heniy IV. relinquished 
the siege of Paris; but he continued the war against the Catholic League until 
1593, when, for the sake of bringing peace to his subjects, he renounced Calvinism, 
and made a public profession of Roman Catholicism, in the Church of St. Denis, in 
Paris. The Parisians now hailed him with joy, the French nobles tendered him 
their submission, the Pope recalled the excommunication against him, and Philip 
II. of Spain made peace with him. 

Edict of Nantes — The Duke of Sully^Character of Henry — In 1598 
King Henry IV. issued, at Nantes, an edict which secured to the Pluguenots free- 
dom of conscience, and equal rights and privileges with the Catholics. Henry 
IV. encouraged agriculture and commerce; and his faithful friend, the Duke of 
Sully, whom he appointed as his Prime-Minister, arranged the economy of the state. 
Henry IV. was greatly beloved by his subjects. His mild and forgiving spirit made 
his worst enemies his best friends, and he proved to be one of the best kin^s that 
ever occupied a throne. 

Henry's Project for a Christian Union — Assassination of Henry IV, 

— Henry IV. was desirous of having all Christian nations united in a sort of union, 
with equal freedom for all Christian confessions. On the 14th of May, 1610, this 
good king was assassinated in his carriage, in the streets of Paris, by the fanatical 
Ravaillac, a Jesuit. The consternation and the public gi'ief were universal through- 



22 2 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

out France, and never was the death of a king so lamented by his subjects. Henry's 
son, Louis XIII., became his successor. 

ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND AND MARY OF SCOTLAND. 

Queen Elizabeth of England — Restoration of the Anglican Church. — 
On the death of the bigoted Catholic queen Maiy, in 1555, the crown of Eiigian.l 
fell to her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Eliz- 
abeth was a Protestant ; and upon her accession to the throne, she restored the 
Anglican Church, which had been overthrown by her Catholic predecessor. Eliz- 
abeth was regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europe, while Philip II. 
of Spain was considered the champion of Roman Catholicism. Queen Elizabeth 
had an exalted idea of the royal prerogative, and she allowed the Parliament but 
very few privileges. She was vain and capricious, but these faults were overlooked 
by her gayety and cheerfulness. The English kingdom was very prosperous during 
her long reign; agriculture, commerce, and navigation were encouraged; and Eng- 
land never had a sovereign who swayed the sceptre with more ability than did 
this mighty queen. 

Mary, Queen of Scots. — Queen Elizabeth's vanity, and her jealousy of the 
superior qualities of others, led her to commit an act which has left an ineffaceable 
stain upon her character, — the execution of Maiy, Queen of Scots. Mary, as we 
have already seen, had been sent to France, at quite an early age, aad married 
to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. On the death of her hus- 
band, in 1560, Mary, although harshly treated by her mother-in-law, the wicked 
Catharine de Medicis, still for a time remained in France, which land she most 
dearly loved. 

Mary's Return to Scotland — Calvinism in Scotland — ^John Knox. — 
Finally the clamors of her Scotch subjects induced Mary to leave the delightful 
France, and to return, with great reluctance, to the wild country of the Scots, which 
she was then to govern. When Mary returned to Scotland, she found the Roman 
Catholic religion overthown in that country, and Calvinism adopted in its stead. 
Maiy was a strict Roman Catholic, and this was very distasteful to the Scotch 
Reformers, at the head of whom was the celebrated John Knox. 

Mary's Marriage with Lord Darnley — Murder of David Rizzio. — In 
1565, Queen Mary, contrary to the advice of the Queen of England, married Henry 
Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was a rigid Roman Catholic. This marriage was very 
displeasing to John Knox and the other Scotch Reformers. As Mary was soon 
treated with neglect by her fickle husband, she bestowed her favor on her private 
secretary, David Rizzio, an Italian singer. This offended Darnley to such a degree 
that he formed a plot with some of the Scotch nobles; and the conspirators mur- 
dered Rizzio in the queen's presence. (1566.) 

Murder of Lord Darnley — Mary's Marriage with the Earl of BothweU. 
—The Scotch queen now burned with hatred against her husband, but she paid 
him a visit when he was taken sick. One night after this visit (February ic, 
1567), the people of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. Darnley'? 
house had been blown up by gunpowder, and his lifeless body was found at a di<t 
tance. The Scotch people fixed upon the Earl of Botliwell as the perpetrator o^ 




MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 




^^^-> /,/ fi^yy 



ELIZABETH. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 223 

the horrible murder; and as Queen Maiy married Bothwell three months after- 
ward, she was believed to have been an accomplice in the crime. 

Rebellion of the Scotch People against Queen Mary — Bothwell's Fate. 
— Queen Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell roused the indignation of the 
Scotch people, who in consequence rose in rebellion against her. Bothwell fled 
from Scotland, and lived by piracy, until he was thrown into prison in Denmark, 
where he became msane, in which wretched condition he remained the last ten 
years of his life. 

Imprisonment and Dethronement of Mary — Regency of the Earl of 
Murray. — Queen Maiy was seized and imprisoned in a lonely castle in the island 
of Lochlevin, by her rebellious subjects, who compelled her to resign her crown to 
her infant son, James VI., while her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, was ap- 
pointed regent during the minority of her son. 

Mary's Escape from Prison — Her Defeat and Flight to England. — In 
1568, Mary escaped from her prison, and raised an army to recover her lost author- 
ity; but after being defeated by the Earl of Murray, in a battle at Langside, she fled 
to England to seek the protection of Queen Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth's Refusal to receive Mary— Retention of Mary in England. 
— Elizabeth, who was envious of the superior beauty and gracefulness of the Scotch 
queen, and who feared that she would make pretensions to the English crown, de- 
clined to receive Mary until she should have cleared herself of the accusation of 
having been an accomplice in the murder of her second husband. Lord Darnley. 
As Mary, as an independent sovereign, would not submit to a trial by an English 
tribunal, she was retained as a prisoner in England by order of Elizabeth. 

Plots in Favor of Mary — Execution of the Duke of Norfolk. — The reten- 
tion of Mary in England soon endangered the safety of Elizabeth's throne and life. 
Conspiracies for dethroning Elizabeth and placing Maiy on the throne of England, 
were undertaken by the English Roman Catholics, of whom there were yet many 
in the northern part of the kingdom. The Duke of Norfolk, the leading Catholic 
nobleman in England, was detected in such a plot, and was beheaded in conse- 
quence, a few years afterward. (1572.) 

Unsuccessful Rebellion of the English Roman Catholics. — In 1569, a 
rebellion of the English Roman Catholics, headed by the Earls of Northumberland 
and Westmoreland, broke out against Elizabeth. The objects of the insurgents were 
the liberation of the Queen of Scots, and the restoration of the popish religion in 
England. The efforts of the rebels were unsuccessful, and their leaders were tried, 
condemned, and punished with death. 

Trial and Execution of Mary by Order of Elizabeth.— In 1586, a conspir- 
acy was formed, by English Roman Catholics, to assassinate Elizabeth, and place 
Maiy on the English throne. The leading conspirators were tried and executed. 
Mary was tried for being an accomplice in the plot, and was found guilty. Eliza- 
beth appeared reluctant to consent to the execution of the unfortunate M-iiy al- 
though she had long wished for her death. After waiting several in mths, Jie 
English queen signed the death-warrant, and her Prime-Minister, Lord Burleigh, 
having obtained it from her private secretary, had it hastily executed; and the un- 
fortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded on the 7th of Februaiy, 1587, after 



224 



MODERN HISTORY. 



having been kept a prisoner in England for nineteen years. She died with firm- 
ness. In order to put the responsibility for Mary's execution on her servants, Queen 
Elizabeth affected great dissatisfaction at the haste with which the death-warrant 
had been carried into effect; and imprisoned her private secretary, Davison, for 
having handed the warrant to her Prime-Minister. 

Philip II. of Spain and his " Invincible Armada." — The execution of the 
Queen of Scots aroused the indignation of the Roman Catholics throughout Europe; 
and Philip 11. of Spain fitted out a fleet of 130 vessels, for the subjugation of Eng 
land, France, and the Netherlands, at one blow, and for the establishment of a power- 
ful Roman Catholic empire in Western Europe. This gigantic Spanish fleet was 
named " the Invincible Armada" by the Catholics, who were confident of its success. 

Queen Elizabeth's Preparations for Defense. — Elizabeth, undismayed by 
the coming storm, made extensive preparations for defense. She called out an 
anny of 40,000 men, and placed it under the command of the Earl of Leicester, 
her favorite general; and the English fleets were placed under the command of 
Lord Howard of Efiingham. Elizabeth, who displayed gi^eat firmness, appeared 
on horseback before her troops, and made them a short speech, which greatly raised 
their courage and zeal. Among other things she said, " I know I have the body of 
a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of Eng- 
land too, and think proud scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe, 
should dare to invade the borders of my realms, for which, rather than any dis- 
honor come upon me, I will take up arms myself." 

Destruction of the Spanish Armada. — The Invincible Armada, under the 
command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, sailed from Lisbon for the English 
Channel, in May, 15S8. The English fleet under Effingham had just got out of 
port, when it beheld the Armada approach, in the fomi of a crescent, extending a 
distance of seven miles. The English sent a number of fire-ships into the midst of 
the Armada, destroying many vessels and disabling the whole fleet. The Spanish 
admiral then resolved to return home; and as the wind blew from the south, he 
was obliged to sail northward along the Eastern shores of England, around Scot- 
land, and down along the Western coast of Ireland. But most of the Spanish 
vessels which escaped the destructive effects of the English fire-ships, were wrecked 
off the coasts of Scotland, by a succession of the most furious storms, and very few 
of them returned to the shores of Spain. 

Consequences of the Destruction of the Armada. — The moral conse- 
quences of the destruction of the Invincible Annada were very great: it virtually 
secured the independence of Holland; it inspired the Huguenots in France with 
hope; and it raised the courage of the Pratestants throughout Europe. From this 
time Spain rapidly declined in jx)wer and national greatness, and her naval superi- 
ority was broken ; while England took her place as a great maritime power. 

Elizabeth's Favorites. — The wise Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was Elizabeth's 
Prime-Minister during the first forty years of her reign. Queen Elizabeth was 
never married. Her first chief favorite was Robert Dudley, whom she created 
Earl of Leicester, At a later period, the accomplished Sir Walter Ralegh was 
received into the queen's favor. The Earl of Essex, Leicester's son-in-law, was 
Elizabeth's last favorite. 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



225 



Catholic Rebellion in Ireland. — When Elizabeth attempted to firmiy establish 
the religious laws of England in Ireland, a fonnidable rebellion of the Irish peo- 
ple, who were mostly papists, broke out, under the leadership of the Earl of 
Tyrone. The rebels were aided by the Pope and by Philip II. of Spain. The 
English queen appointed her favorite, the Earl of Essex, Lord Lieutenant of Ire- 
land; but instead of quelling the revolt, Esse.x made a treaiy with the Earl of 
Tyrone. 

Plot and Rebellion of the Earl of Essex — His Execution — Death of 
Queen Elizabeth. — Displeased with the conduct of her favorite, Elizabeth recalled 
him. Provoked at this, the Earl of Essex formed a plot with James VI. of Scot- 
land to dethrone Elizabeth, and raised an insurrection against the queen. When 
the insurrection was suppressed, Essex was tried and executed. Elizabeth's grief 
for the death of her favorite', and the conviction that she had lost thfe affections of 
her subjects, caused her to bewail herself with tears, during the last moments of her 
life. She died in 1603, after appointing James VI. of Scotland, son of the ill- 
fated Mary, her successor. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1618-1648) 

CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 

Violation of the Rights of the German Protestants. — During the mild 
and equitable reigns of the Emperors Ferdinand I. (i 556-1 564) and Maximilian 
II, (1564-1576), the articles of the religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were 
observed, and the German Protestants enjoyed perfect religious toleration; but 
when the careless and incompetent Rodolph II. occupied the imperial throne (1576 
— 1612), the Catholic princes of Gemiany, such as the Archduke Ferdinand of Styria 
and the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, violated the religious rights and privileges 
of their Protestant subjects in various ways; while the complaints of the Protestants 
vi^ere unheeded by the weak and negligent Emperor. 

The Protestant Union and the Catholic League. — In order to secure their 
religious privileges against the encroachriient of the Catholic power, the Protestant 
princes of Germany concluded an alliance known as "the Protestant Union." To 
oppose this Union, the Catholic German princes entered into a compact called " the 
Catholic League." Thus Germany was divided into two hostile religious parties. 
The Protestant Union secured the aid of Henry IV. of France, and the Dutch Re- 
public, while the Catholic League obtained the assistance of Philip III. of Spain. 
The first occasion for hostilities between the two parties, was a dispute between the 
Elector of Brandenburg and the Count Palatine of Neuburg, for the hereditary pos- 
15 



2 26 MODERN HISTORY. 

sessions of the deeeased Duke of Cleves and Berg. After a bloody war of several 
years, it was agreed that the Elector of Brandenburg should have Cleves, while the 
('ount of Neuburg should receive Berg and Dusseldorf. 

The Emperor Rodolph II. Deprived of His Hereditary Dominions.— 
In consequence of the weakness and negligence of the Emperor Rodolph II., his 
relatives compelled him to relinquish Austria and Hungary to his brother Mat- 
thias. For a while Rodolph secured to himself the respect and support of the 
Bohemians, by granting them letters-patent which accorded great religious priviliges 
to the Protestants; but at length he was also compelled to surrender the crown ol 
Bohemia to Matthias, so that the only crown which he still possessed was that of 
the German Empire. The miserable existence and imbecile reign of Rodolph were 
ended by his death, in l6l2; and his brother Matthias succeeded him on the imperial 
throne of Germany. 

Ferdinand, King of Bohemia — Closing of Protestant Churches — Bohe- 
mian Revolt. — No sooner had Matthias become Emperor of Germany, than he 
showed himself as incapable of governing as Rodolph, and he soon convinced the 
German Protestants that they could not expect much favor from him. The Protest- 
ants of Bohemia were greatly alarmed for the security o'f their religious liberties 
when the Emperor Matthias caused his cousin, Duke Ferdinand of Carinthia, to be 
invested with the crown of Bohemia. At length, in accordance with an imperial 
decree, a Protestant church which had been erected in the small town of Closter- 
grab was destroyed, and another which had been built in the territory of the Abbot 
of Brannau was closed. The Protestant states of Germany, regarding this as an 
infraction of the letters-patent, held a meeting in Prague, and presented a remon- 
strance to the Emperor, who, in his reply, sharply reproved those who had made 
the complaint, and confirmed the decree prohibiting the building of Protestant 
churches on ecclesiastical territory. Enraged at this, the Protestant deputies armed 
themselves, and, with Count Thurn at their head, proceeded to the council-house 
of Prague with the design of attacking the imperial council, whom they blamed for 
issuing the harsh decree. After a short dispute, the two Catholic councilors, Mar- 
tinitz and Slawata, were seized* and thrown out of the castle window, more than fifty- 
six feet, by the enraged Protestant deputies. Notwithstanding the height of their 
fall, and the shots that were fired after them, both councilors escaped with their 
lives. The Bohemians established a council of thirty noblemen to govern them, 
and raised an army, at the head of which they placed Count Thurn. With the aid 
of the heroic Ernest von Mansfeld, Count Thurn defeated the imperial troops in 
Bohemia, after which he appeared with his army before Vienna, and made Matthias 
tremble in his capital. 

Death of Matthias — Ferdinand II. Emperor — Frederic V. of the Pala- 
tinate. — In i6ig, the Emperor Matthias died, and his bigoted cousin, Ferdinand 
of Carinthia, was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the Electoral Princes at Frankfort: 
but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as Emperor, and chose as King 
of Bohemia in his .stead the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate, the head of the 
Protestant Union, and son-in-law of King James I. of England. Frederic, weak 
and incompetent, proved himself unfitted for so momentous a crisis. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 227 

PALATINE PERIOD Of THE WAR. 

Alliance of Ferdinand II. with Maximilian of Bavaria — Battle of 
Weissenberg. — The energetic Emperor Ferdinand II. concluded an alliance vifh 
the powerful Elector Maximilian of Bavaria^the head of the Catholic League- 
Maximilian's great general, Tilly the Netherlander, marched into Bohemia and 
defeated Frederic of the Palatinate in the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague. 
Frederic, after his defeat, fled in the utmost consternation into the Netherlands, 
being outlawed and deprived of his hereditary dominions; and Bohemia and 
Moravia soon submitted to the power of Austria. 

Dreadful Punishment of the Bohemians. — The unfortunate Bohemians 
were now cruelly punished for their rebellion. Twenty-seven of the Bohemian 
nobles were executed; the property of the others was confiscated and bestowed on 
the Jesuits and other Catholic orders ; the Protestant clergymen were gradually 
banished from Bohemia; and finally it was declared that no subject who would not 
conform to the Catholic creed would be tolerated, in consequence of which harsh 
measure, 30,000 Protestant families left their homes in Bohemia, and took up their 
abode in the Protestant states of Saxony, Hanover, and Brandenburg. 

The War on the Rhine — Battles of Wiesloch and Wimpfen. — Ernest 
von Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick, and the Margrave George Frederic of 
Baden-Durlach, took the field in the cause of the outlawed Frederic of the Palati- 
nate, and of the Protestant religion. Mansfeld plundered Alsace and desolated the 
Catholic bishoprics and monasteries on the Rliine, and, in conjunction with George 
Frederic of Baden-Durlach, gained the battle of Wiesloch, in April, 1622, over the 
Bavarian general, Tilly, who had been sent into the Palatinate of the Rhine, for 
the purpose of subduing the chief of the Protestant Union; but George Frederic 
was soon afterward defeated by Tilly, in the battle of Wimpfen (May 8, 1622); 
and, on the 20th of June of the same year, Christian of Brunswick was also de- 
feated by Tilly. Mansfeld and Christian then marched into the Netherlands, to 
procure assistance from England, while Tilly took Manheim and Heidelberg by 
storm, and committed the most frightful ravages. 

Duke Maximilian of Bavaria crowned Elector-Palatinate. — In 1623, 
the Electorship of the Palatinate was bestowed on Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, 
through the influence of his ally, the Emperor Ferdinand II. This proceeding, 
and the evident intention of Ferdinand to attempt the suppression of Protestantism, 
blasted the hopes for a speedy termination of the destructive civil and religious war. 

DANISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 

Foreign Aid to the German Protestants — Rise of Lower Saxony.- -Eng 
Und, Holland, and Denmark now lent their assistance to the Protestant cause in 
Germany; and the Protestant towns of Lower Saxony took up arms in defense ot 
their religion, and formed an alliance with King Christian IV. of Denmark, whom 
they invested vvith the chief command of their armies. Those valiant Protestant 
leaders, Ernest von Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick^ and George Frederic of 
Baden-Durlach, again appeared in the field. 

Albert of Wallenstein. — Thus far the war against the Germr -a Protestants had 



228 MODERN HISTORY. 

been earned on almost entirely by the Catholic League; but as the struggle had 
assumed gi-eater proportions, the League demanded supplies of troops from the Em- 
peror. Ferdinand himself, who was jealous of the power and influence of Maxi- 
milian of Bavaria, resolved to raise an anny of his own. Albert of Wallensteir, a 
Bohemian nobleman, offered to furi;igh and support an army of 50,000 men, at his 
own expense, for the Emperor, on condition of being allowed the unlimited com- 
mand of them. Ferdinand accepted the offer of the daring adventurer, made 
him governor of Friedland, elevated him to the dignity of an Elector of tl e 
German Empire, and afterward created him Duke of Friedland. 

Defeats of the Protestants in Northern Germany. — Northern Germany 
now became the chief theatre of the war, and the army of the Catholic League 
under Tilly, and that of the Emperor under Wallenstein, soon broke the power of 
the Protestants in that quarter. Mansfeld, after being defeated by Wallenstein at 
the bridge of Dessau, marched into Hungary, and died in Bosnia, while attempt- 
ing to make his way to the Netherlands. (1626.) Christian of Brunswick died 
the same year; and King Christian IV., of Denmark, having been defeated by 
Tilly, at the castle of Lutter, near Barenberg, in Hanover, on the 27th of August, 
1626, was compelled to retreat into his own dominions; and the Duke of Meck- 
lenburg was driven from his territories, which were immediately seized by Wallen- 
stein. 

Subjugation of Denmark and Northern Germany. — In 1627, Schleswig, 
Holstein, and the peninsula of Jutland were conquered and frightfully ravaged, by 
the Catholic armies of Germany under Tilly and Wallenstein; and the King of 
Denmark was obliged to seek refuge in his islands. The Protestant German States 
of Pomerania and Brandenburg also submitted to the Catholic power; and the 
whole North of Germany lay prostrate before the power of the Emperor and the 
Catholic League. 

Defense of Stralsund. — The heroic inhabitants of the city of Stralsund, in 
Pomerania, however, refused to submit, and resolved to resist the imperial army to 
the last extremity. Wallenstein marched against the city, and swore that he would 
take it if it were bound to heaven with chains ; but all his assaults were gallantly 
repulsed by the inhabitants; and after a siege of ten weeks, during which he lost 
12,000 men, Wallenstein was obliged to relinquish the siege and to retire. 

Peace of Lubec. — The failure of Wallenstein to take Stralsund induced the 
Emperor of Germany to conclude a treaty of peace with the King of Denmark. 
By the Peace of Lubec, concluded in 1629, Christian IV. recovered the territories 
which had been conquered from him; but he was required to abandon the cause of 
Jie German Protestants. 

Edict of Restitution. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. and the Catholic paity, 
encouraged by their recent triumph, now resolved upon the suppression of the 
Protestant religion, and the full reestablishment of Roman Catholicism throughout 
Germany; and, instigated by the Society of the Jesuits, the Emperor issued an " Ed.d 
of Restitution," which required the Protestants to restore all ecclesiastical pmpcity 
which had been taken from the Catholics since the Peace of Passau. The execu 
tion of this edict v/ould depVive many of the Protestant German princes of their 
wealth and was therefore violently resisted; and the Emperor found himself 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



229 



obliged to employ military force to carry out his designs, but his army was no 
longer commanded by Wallenstein. 

Removal of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein's barbarous conduct in spreading rum 
and desolation wherever he appeared, aroused the indignation of both Catholics and 
Protectants, and the whole body of the German princes, with Duke Maximilian of 
Bavaria at their head, demanded the removal of Wallenstein from the chief com- 
mand of the imperial army. The Emperor yielded to the unanimous voice of the 
princes and people of Germany, and removed Wallenstein and appointed Tilly to 
the chief command of his army. Wallensteio retired to his Duchy of Friedland, 
where he lived in the enjoyment of immense wealth, until he should again be called 
upon to assume the chief command of the imperial army. 

King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.— The unfortunate , Protestants of 
Germany were now compelled to yield before the superior power of Austria and 
Bavaria; but they soon found a deliverer in the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, King 
of Sweden, whom the intriguing and unprincipled French Prime-Minister, Cardinal 
Richelieu, the enemy of the House of Hapsburg, had induced to assist the German 
Protestants in their war against their Emperor. 

SWEDISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 

Appearance of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. — On the 24th of June, 
1630, Gustavus Adolphus, with only 6,000 men, landed on the coast of Pomerania. 
The Swedish soldiers, who assembled around their chaplains twice a day, were not 
permitted by their pious king to devastate any of the territory through which they 
marched. Many of the Protestant princes of Germany, fearing the vengeance of 
their Emperor, and jealous of the foreign monarch who had espoused their cause, 
at first refused to cooperate with the King of Sweden; but their fear and jealousy 
were soon overcome, and in their distress they concluded alliances with Gustavus. 

Destruction of Magdeburg. — On the i6th of May, 1631, the Protestant city 
of Magdeburg, which had opposed the Edict of Restitution, fell into the hands of 
the imperial army under Tilly, after a siege of six weeks, during which many fierce 
assaults had been gallantly repulsed. The devoted city was fearfully punished. 
The greater part of it was burned to the ground; and 30,000 of its inhabitants 
were brutally massacred to gi-atify the victorious Tilly's thirst for revenge. 

Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic. — After the barbarous destruction of 
Magdeburg, Tilly, with the imperial army, marched against the Elector of Saxony, 
who, in his distress, concluded an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. The King 
of Sweden marched to meet Tilly; and on the 7th of September, 1631, at the vil- 
lage of Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, was fought a sanguinary battle, in which the 
united forces of the Swedes and the wSaxons gained a most brilliant victory. 

Victorious March of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany — Death of Tilly. 
— After his great victory at Breitenfeld, Gustavus Adolphus marched victoriously 
to the Rhine ; and the whole North and West of Germany were soon in the pos- 
session of the Swedes and their Protestant German allies. In the spring of 1632, 
the King of Sweden turned eastward, for the purpose of invading Bavaria, and chas 
tising the powerful Elector Maximilian. Tilly, who was at the head of a powerful 



!30 



MODERN HISTORY. 



imperial army, had strongly intrenched himself on the river Lech, for the purpose 
of disputing the passage of that stream by the Swedes. The Swedes stormed the 
intrenchments of the imperialists, and forced a passage across the river. Tilly was 
so severely wounded by a cannon ball that he died at Ingolstadt, several weeks 
afterwartl. This old war-worn hero directed militaiy affairs until the moment of 
las death. 

Restoration of Wallenstein. — After occupying Augsburg, where the Protest- 
uit form of worship was again established, Gustavus Adolphus advanced into 
IJr.varia and entered Munich, which had been abandoned by Maximilian, ai the 
approach of the Swedish monarch. In this moment of peril, ,the Emperor Ferdi- 
nand II. agam nad recourse to the services of Wallenstein, who agreed to raise s. 
new army, on condition of being allowed the unlimited command of it. 

Blockade of Nuremburg. — Wallenstein was soon at the head of 40,000 men; 
and after driving the Saxons out of Bohemia, he marched against the victorious 
Gustavus Adolphus, who had strongly intrenched himself near Nuremburg. Wal- 
lenstein, at the head of 60,000 imperialists, fortified himself opposite the position 
of the Swedes, and for several months the two armies were watching each other. 
During this blockade of Nuremburg, both armies suffered dreadfully from hunger. 
At length Gustavus Adolphus stormed the camp of Wallenstein, but was repulsed 
with heavy loss. 

Battle of L.utzen, and Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — From Nuremburg, 
the German imperial army under Wallenstein marched into Saxony, whither it was 
followed by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus. The two armies met at Lutzen, 
where, on the i6th of November, 1632, a memorabl& battle was fought. The 
Swedes gained a glorious victory, but this was dearly purchased with the death of 
the heroic and valiant Gustavus Adolphus. Pappenheim, the leader of the imperial 
German cavalry, was also mortally wouAded, and Wallenstein fled in dismay into 
Bohemia, with his defeated and shattered army. The Swedes sent the body of 
their illustrious king, which was frightfully disfigured by the ];ioofs of horses, to his 
native land for intennent. 

Alliance of Heilborn — Destructive Character of the War. — After the 
death of Gustavus Ado,lphus, the Swedish Ghancellor, Axel Oxenstiern, resolved to 
continue the war in Germany with vigor, and concluded the alliance of Heilborn 
with the Protestant princes of Germany. After the death of their valiant king, the 
Swedes committed the most savage devastations, while Wallenstein was frightfully 
ravaging Bohemia. 

Assassination of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein was now accused by his enemies 
of treason to the Emperor and the Catholic religion. He was charged with the 
design of forming an alliance with the Swedes and the German Protestants, and of 
makinir himself king of Bohemia. When the Emperor had secured the persons jf 
'.he adiierents of the powerful general, and declared his deposition, Wallenstein 
immediately took up his march to join the Swedes; but before he could un'te his 
forces with the Swedish army, he was murdered by a band of assassins, with '.he 
Irishman Butler at their head, sent for that purpose by the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
Wallenstsin's faithful adherents and confederates, Illo, Terska, and Kinsky, were 
also assassinated. The assassins were rewarded with honors, dignities, and wealth. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 231 

Battle of Nordlingen — Peace of Prague — French Interference. — Soon 
after the assassination of Wallenstein, the Gennan imperial army advanced ' into 
Bavaria, and defeated Bernhard of Weimar in the battle of Nordlingen. (Septem- 
ber, 1634.) In May, the following year (1635), several of the Protestant fierman 
princes concluded the Peace of Prague with the Emperor Ferdinand II.; lout still 
tlie bloody war continued, and Cardinal Richelieu, who at that time wielded the 
destinies of France, thinking the opportunity favorable for humbling the proua 
Ilcuse of Austria, and extending the Eastern frontier of France to the Rhine, nn\v 
'.icgan to take an active part in the struggle, and sent French armies into Germai.)', 
to aid Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedes. 

FRENCH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 

Death of Ferdinand II. — Accession of Ferdinand III. — feaner, fors- 

tenson, and Wrangel. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, without seemg 
the end of the civil and religious war in which he had been engaged rrom the 
commencement of his reign; and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Ger- 
many by his son, Ferdinand III. Bernhard of Weimar, after making important 
conquests on the Rhine, and the Swedish general Baner, after ravaging Bohemia, 
did not long survive Ferdinand II. On the death of Baner, the command of the 
Swedish army in Germany was assigned to Torstenson, who gained brilliant vic- 
tories over the imperial forces at Leipsic and the hill Tabor, and even threatened 
Vienna with a siege; but, on account of illness from the gout, Torstenson was 
finally obliged to relinquish his command to Wrangel, an able general. Wrangel 
and the French general Tuj-enne marched into Bavaria, and compelled the Elector 
Maximilian to flee from his dominions; but while they were preparing to invade 
Bohemia, they received intelligence of the Peace of Westphalia; and hostilities 
were suspended. 

Peace of Westphalia. — After five years of negotiation at Munster and Osna- 
burg, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in October, 1648, to the great joy ol 
tlie German people, who had long clamored for the termination of the war. By 
this treaty a part of the German territory on the Rhine was ceded to France; the 
island of Rugen and a portion of Pomerania were surrendered to Sweden ; another 
portion of Pomerania was given up to the Great Elector Frederick William of 
Brandenburg; Lusatia was allotted to the Elector of Saxony; the Upj^>er Palatin 
ate was bestowed on the Elector of Bavaria; and Switzerland and Holland were 
acknowledged as independent republics, the former by Germany, and the latter by 
Spain. The religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were confirmed ; and the 
privileges of free religious worship, and equal civil rights with the Catholics, weie 
secured to the Protestants of Germany. 

Condition of Germany at the Close of the Thirty Years' War. — During 
the continuance of the Thirty Years' War, two-thirds of the German population 
perished by the sword, famine, pestilence, and other causes. The resources r / 
Cern.any were exhausted, and her territory at the close of the war appeared almor 1 
like a desert waste. Cities, towns, and villages had b&en laid in ashes; agriculture, 
manufactures, and commerce had been neglected ; and much of the former pros- 
perity of Germany had passed away. Peace therefore came none too soon f(;r the 
unfortunate land. 



232 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Sweden After the Thirty Years' War. — Gustavus Adolphus was succeedeJ 

on the tlirone of Sweden by his daughter Christina, during whose minority the 
government was conducted by a senate. Christina, who assumed the government 
in 1644, surrounded herself with tlie society of literary men; and her taste for art 
and her love for science induced her to abdicate her throne ten years after attaining 
her majority. She then embraced Roman Catholicism, and passed the remaindei 
of her life in Rome. Christina's successor on the Swedish throne, Charles X. 
[1O54-1660), was a great warrior, and famous for his victories over the Poles and 
I'ac Danes. Charles XI. (1660-1697) broke the power of the Swedish .aristocracy. 



THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION. 

ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF STUART. 

REIGN OF JAMES I. (A. D. 1603-162S). 

Accession of James I. — Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland. 
— On the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, James Stuart, King of Scotland, son 
of the unfortunate Mary, ascended the throne of England. From the time of his 
mother's fall, he had reigned over Scotland, with the title of James VI., but now he 
became James I. of England. Thenceforth the crowns of England and Scotland 
were united, but each kingdom had its own parliament until 1707, when a legisla- 
tive union took place. During the reign of James I. the English colonies of James- 
town and Plymouth, in North America, were planted. 

Vanity and Bigotry of James I. — His Theological Learning. — James I. 
was a vain, bigoted, and pedantic prince. He was in the possession of much theo- 
logical learning, and delighted to engage in controversies on religious subjects. He 
loved to make a display of his wisdom and knowledge in lengthy harangues. James 
was also ambitious of the reputation of being a great author; and he wrote many 
Dooks. I 

Peaceful Disposition of James I.— His Lavishness to His Favorites. 
— James I. lacked the shrewdness and decision essential in a sovereign. He was 
so extreme a lover of peace as to sacrifice the honor and dignity of his kingdom, for 
the sake of living on friendly terms with foreign governments. One of the faults 
of James was his lavishness of favors to unworthy persons. Of these, George Vil- 
liers, Duke of Buckingham, had the greatest influence. 

James's Idea of " the Divine Right of Kings." — James I. was a firm be- 
liever in " the divine right of kings." He believed that his authority was directly 
derived from God, and that his power was unlimited. For this reason he hated 
the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which made the king only a common member 
of the congregation ; but he was zealously attached to the Episcopal Church of 
England, in which the monarch was considered the head and origin of all spiritual 
power; and the great object of James was the suppression of Puritanism in England 
and Presbyterianism in Scotland, and the full establishment of Episcopacy, as the 
only form of religion throughout his dominions. 

Conspiracy in Favor of Lady Arabella Stuart — Execution of Sir W. 
Raleigh. — The quiet of King James' reign was soon disturbed by a conspiracy to 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



233 



place Lady Arabella Stuart, his first cousin, on the throne of England; but the de- 
sign of the conspirators was easily frustrated. Sir Walter Raleigh, who w;is accused 
of complicity in the plot in favor of Lady Arabella, was held in imprisonment fcr 
thirteen years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." After his re- 
lease, Raleigh conducted an English gold-searching expedition to South America. 
Raleigh attacked and captured a small Spanish town, although a state of peace 
existed between England and Spain. In order to appease the clamors of tlie 
Spanish Government, King James resolved to sacrifice Raleigh; and on the 29th 
of October, 1618, that distinguished personage was beheaded. This cruel act is 
an indelible stain upon the character of James L; and at the time made tiim 
exceedingly unpopular. 

The Gunpowder Plot. — No sooner was James I. seated on the English throne, 
than he forgot his promises of toleration to the English Roman Catholics, and fol 
lowed the example of Queen Elizabeth in making them pay an oppressive capita- 
tion tax, that he might enrich his favorites, and defray the expenses of his court 
festivals. This aroused the indignation of the Catholics, some of whom resolved 
upon a conspiracy to blow up the Parliament House with gunjjowder, at a time 
when the King, the Lords, and the Commons would be assembled there, and thus 
destroy the whole government of England. At length the plot was discovered, and 
the leading conspirator, Guy Fawkes, was detected in a cellar in which thirty-six 
barrels of gunpowder were concealed. Guy Fawkes was seized and executed, and 
his fellow-conspirators perished in an insurrection which they had excited. This 
conspiracy took place in 1605, and is known as " The Gunpowder Plot." Li conse- 
quence of it, the English Catholics were heavily fined, and compelled to take an 
oath of fidelity to the monarch. 

Nuptial Expedition of Prince Charles into Spain. — James I. was anxious 
that his son Charles, heir to the throne, should marry a daughter of the King of 
Spain. The English people were opposed to such a marriage; but the Duke of 
Buckingham warmly advocated it. Buckingham and Prince Charles undertook a 
romantic journey into Spain to see the princess. When Wiey arrived at Madrid, 
they were treated with respect by the Spanish king, Philip HL; but Buckingham's 
insolent conduct offended the haughty Spaniards, and thus prevented the marriage. 
Prince Charles afterwards married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the murdered 
Henry IV. of France. 

Disputes between King James I. and his Parliament. — James I., as we 
have already said, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. He was ex- 
tremely jealous of any encroachments on the royal prerogative. During the reigns 
of the sovereigns of the House of Tudor, the English Parliament possessed but 
little liberty, and the monarch wielded almost absolute power. This unlimited 
power, James I. was resolved to preserve and extend; and he was consequently 
involved in a continual contest with the Parliament, which was determined to 'cJ^- 
sert its own rights, and to uphold the liberties of the English people. Parliaments 
were repeatedly dissolved, but the next were always sure to be more obstinate than 
their predecessors. At length, when the king declared that what the Parliament 
regarded as its rights were but privileges for the enjoyment of which they were in- 
debted to his majesty's favor, the Commons registered a protest, in which they as- 
serted that the enactment of laws, the assent to taxes, and the rights and privileges 



234- 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



jf Pariiament, were inherent rights of every Englishman. Exasperated at this bold 
declaration, the king tore with his own hand from the record the leaf on wliich was 
written the protest, dissolved the Parliament, and ordered the imprisonment of sev- 
eral of the members; but the Parliament displayed a bolder attitude under his suc- 
cessor. 

REIGN OF CHARLES I. (A. D. 16S;3-16A9). 

Difficulties between King Charles I. and the Parliament. — Jamus 1. died 
in 1625, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Charles I. No 
sooner was Charles I. seated on the throne, than a vehement dispute arose between 
him and the Parliament, and that body was consequently dissolved during the first 
and second years of his reign. The assistance given to the Elector Frederic V. of 
the Palatinate and the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, and a useless 
war with France, brought about by the Duke of Buckingham, still Prime-Minister 
of England, produced heavy expenses ; and the king was irritated that the Pariia- 
ment refused to vote supplies as he freely as he desired. 

Petition of Right. — When the war with France resulted unfavorably for the 
English, the third Parliament summoned by Charles I. was disposed to impeach 
the Duke of Buckingham. In order to save his favorite minister, Charles found 
himself obUged to acknowledge the validity of " the Petition of Right," presented 
to tis majesty by both Houses of Parliament, and consequently to restore to the 
Parliament its former privileges, and freedom of speech and inviolability of person 
and property of its members. 

Thomas Wentv/orth, Earl of Strafford, Prime-Minister. — Soon after the 
presentation of the Petition of Right, the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, 
whereupon the king appointed Thomas Wentworth, one of the leaders of the popular 
party, to the head of the Ministry, and created him Earl of Strafford and governor 
of Ireland. From this time forward, Wentworth was an avowed opponent of the 
principles of liberty which he had formerly advocated; and, with the view of in- 
creasing the royal power, he advised the king to govern for some time \\ithout a 
Parliament. 

Illegal Measures of the King to Obtain Money — Ship-money. — For the 
purpose of obtaining money to defray the expenses of the Government, the king 
now had recourse to the most arbitrary and unjust expedients. Heavy fines were 
imposed for the most trifling offenses, and heavy duties were levied upon various 
articles. Charles I. also imposed a tax called "ship-money," because it was used 
for the support of the navy. These illegal measures of the king aroused the indig- 
nation of the English people. 

Arbitrary Measures of Archbishop Laud. — Charles I. also attempted to 
establish the Episcopal Church on a firmer basis, and to suppress Puritanism in 
England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, with the view of checking the rapid 
growth of republican principles among the English people. For the purpose ot 
accomplishing this end, the king appointed the zealous Bishop Laud, of I-ondon, 
Ar:-hbishop of Canterbury. Laud caused the Cathedral of St. Paul's, in London, 
to be consecrated anew, and the churches to be supplied with numerous images and 
ornaments, and imposed upon the Puritans ceremonies and observances hitherto 
uupracticed by the Church of England. The new Archbishop also removed the 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 235 

Puritan preachers from their ofiices, and invested arbitrary tribunals, such as the 
Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission, with the autliorily of pronoun- 
cing severe punishments against those who manifested any opposition to established 
mstitutions. Thus Prynne, a Puritan, was sentenced to lose both his ears, and to be 
imprisoned for life, for writing a volume against dancing, masks, theatrical plays, 
and other amusements in which the court delighted. 

Trial of John Hampden. — The proceedings just mentioned endangered civil 
md religious liberty in England, and threw the whole kingdom into a ferment. 
The resolute John Hampden refused to pay any ship-money, and was consequently 
tried in the Exchequer-Chamber, in the presence of all the Judges of England. The 
Judges decided in favor of the crown, but Hampden was more than compensated 
for the loss of his cause by the applause of his countrymen. 

The Puritan Preachers. — The Puritan preachers who had lost' their oflices 
traveled' through the country, denouncing the arbitrary measures of Laud as pre- 
liminary steps to the reestablishment of popery in England ; and by their passionate 
appeals, they excited the people against the king, the archbishop, and the clergy. 

The Scotch Covenant — Scotch Rebellion. — While the royal assumptions 
were thus violently opposed in England, the attempts of the king to establish the 
Episcopal form of worship in Scotland produced a formidable rebellion in that 
country, in 1637. The first attempt to worship according to the Episcopal form in 
the Cathedral of Edinburgh caused a violent tumult. The Episcopal priest was 
driven from the cathedral, amid the cries of " Pope !" " Antichrist !'" " Stone him !" 
The Scotch people immediately entered into a solemn league, or " Covenant," for 
the protection of their Presbyterian form of worship, drove away die Episcopal 
bishops, and took up anns. The king, resolving to crush all opposition by force, 
sent an army against the Scotch insurgents ; but his troops were overcome by the 
zealous Scots, who went forth to battle with prayer. The victorious Scots marched 
into England, and the king found himself obliged to summon another Parliament, 
after an interval of eleven years, to solicit aid against the Scotch rebels. 

The Long Parliament. — The Parliament just summoned, instead of voting 
supplies against the rebellious Scots, began to attack the unlawful assumptions of 
the king, and to discuss the grievances of the English people. In a fit of exaspera- 
tion, Charles I. dissolved this Parliament; but his necessities obliged him to call 
another. The Parliament which now assembled is known as "The Long Parlia- 
ment," on account of the extraordinary length of its existence. Its leading mem- 
bers were Sir Arthur Hasleri^, John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, 
who were opposed to absolute monarchical power and Episcopal church government, 
and who were strong advocates of republican principles. 

Trial and Execution '^f Strafford — Fate of Archbishop Laud. — Instead 
of affording the king 'iny assistance against the .Scotch insurgents, the Long Parlia- 
ictnt formed a secret Haguf with them. The Parliament next impeached theEarl of 
S.raffoi d for high ti^.a^oo. The king vainly endeavored to save his favorite minister. 
The C( mmons we-,e rerolved upon his destruction. After a trial of seventy days, 
and a digmt'ied and oloonent defense, Strafford was declared guilty and condemned 
to death. In a momert of weakness, the king signed the death-warrant, and the 
unfortunate Strafford sras beheaded. He died with firmness and resoluticn. 



236 MODERN HISTORY. 

Archbishop Laad was also impeached and tried, for endeavoring to destroy the 
liberities of the people of England. He was declared guilty, imprisoned, and 
three years afterwards beheaded. The Courts of High Commission and the Star 
Chamber were now dissolved, and the Episcopal bishops were excluded from 
their seats in the House of Lords. 

Iiish Rebellion. — A dangerous rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1641. and the 
Proti'Stant settlers in that country were massacred by the Catholic Irish. The Par- 
liani'int accused the court, and particularly the queen, of instigating the rebellion 
and the massacre, and declared that the Catholic and Episcopal bishops and the 
couit had entered into a plot for the destruction of religion and liberty in England. 

Rash Act of the King. — At length, Charles I., exasperated at the increasing 
demands of the Parliament, ordered five of its boldest speakers, — Haslerig, Hollis, 
Hampden, Pym, and Strode, — to be arrested, and went in person to the hall of 
the House of Commons to seize them. For this rash act, the king afterwards 
found himself obliged to apologize in a humiliating message to the Parliament. 

Parliamentary Encroachments on the Royal Prerogative. — From this 
time the Parliament encroached more and more on the royal prerogative, until 
scarcely a vestige of monarchical power remained- The Commons now demanded 
that the appointment of ministers of state, and of military and naval commanders, 
should depend upon their approval. The Commons also required that the Tower 
of London, several of the sea-ports, and the management of the navy, should also 
be given into their possession. When the Parliament demanded that the king should 
relinquish the command of the army for a certain period, his majesty angrily re- 
plied, " No, not for one hour !" This refusal dispelled all hopes for a peaceful settle- 
ment of difficulties, and both parties resolved upon an appeal to arms. 

Presbyterians and Independents.— The opponents of the king were divided 
into several parties. The Independents, who were Puritans in religious belief and 
republicans in political faith, aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy ; while the 
Presbyterians, or moderate party, merely wished to put an end to the abuses of the 
royal power, but not to deprive the king of his crown. 

CIVIL ^TVAR (1642-1649). 

The King's Withdrawal from London — Commencement of th** Civil 

War.— The breach between King Charles I. and the Parliament continually wJdened ; 
and in 1642, the king withdrew from London and retired to York, wl ere he 
declared war against the Parliament. On the 25th of August, 1642, Charles f-rected 
the royal standard at Nottingham, but it was soon blown down by the violfc*ice of 
the wind- A civil war of six years now commenced, in which England was 
drenched <vith the blood of her own people. 

" Cavaliers " and " Roundheads." — On the side of the king were the noWIitv, 
the Roman Catholic and Episcopal clergy, and all the advocates of the established 
'."luirch, and of absolute monarchy. The whole of the king's party were called 
"Cavaliers." On the side of the Parliament were the Puritans, all who advocated 
k reform in Church and State, and all believers in republican principles. AH the 
adherents of the Parliament received from their enemies the nickname of "Round- 
heads," because their hair was cropped close to their heads. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 237 

Battle of Edge Hill. — During the first and second years of the war, the king's 
forces, commanded by his nephew, Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, and the Mar- 
quis of Newcastle, were victorious in almost every encounter with the undiscip- 
lined forces of the Parliament, commanded by Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Essex, 
the lat'er of whom was the son of Queen Elizabeth's favorite. The first great bat- 
tle of the civil war was fought at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, on the 3d of 
October, 1642. The king's army was commanded by Prince Rupert, and the 
Parliamentary forces by the Earl of Essex. Both sides lost about 5,000 mev 
killed, and neither gained the victory. 

Royalist Victories in 1643 — Death of John Hampden. — The campaign 
of 1643 was favorable to the royal cause. The Parliamentary forces were defeated 
at Stratton Hill, in Cornwall; at Roundway Down; and at Chalgrave Field. 
Bristol was besieged and taken by the Royalists, who also gained a, victory in the 
battle of Newbury. During the year 1643, the Parliamentary party experienced a 
severe loss in the death of the brave, illustrious, and upright John Hamjxlen, who 
wa5 killed in a skirmish with Prince Rupert. The Royalists now secured the aid 
of some Irish Roman Catholics, while the Parliament entered into a solemn league, 
or " Covenant," with the Scotch Presbyterians, who sent an army of 14,000 men 
into the field against King Charles I. 

Appearance of Oliver Cromwell. — The tide of success was now turning in 
favor of the Parliamentaiy side, whose troops had been greatly benefited by the 
experience of the first two years of the war. The resolute and enthusiastic Puritan, 
Oliver Cromwell, now began to take a conspicuous part in the contest. At the 
head of a hardy and pi3us squadron of cavaliy which he had organized, he took 
the field in the cause of God and liberty. 

Battle of Marston Moor. — The first great Parliamentary victory was gained 
at Marston Moor, about nine miles from York, on the 3d of July, 1644, by Crom- 
well and his " Ironsides," as the sturdy squadron of cavalry which he commanded 
was called. The defeat of the royal army v/as partly due to the impetuosity of 
Prince Rupert. The whole of Rupert's artillery fell into the hands of Cromwell's 
victorious troops. The consequence of the battle of Marston Moor was that the 
whole North of England fell into the possession of the Parliamentarians. Soon after- 
ward occurred the second battle of Newbury, in which neither party was victorious. 

Presbyterians and Independents. — The Puritans now banished the Book of 
Common Prayer from religious worship, and substituted the Calvinistic fonn of 
worship and church government for the Episcopal. They also caused images and or- 
naments to be taken from the churches, and forbade festivities. But the Puritans were 
divided into two great parties, — the Presbyterians and the Independents, — betweet 
whom the greatest animosity already prevailed. The Presbyterians, or moderate 
Puritans, inclined toward the support of monarchical and aristocratic institutions, 
and longed, for the establishment of their Church, to the exclusion of all others, and 
opposed toleration. The Independents, or radical Puritans, held democratic 01 
republican views in regard to civil government, and desired toleration foi ill 
Christian faiths. 

The Self-denying Ordinance. — Oliver Cromwell belonged to the Independ- 
ents; while the Earl of Essex, who held the chief command of the Parliamentarv 



238 MODERN HISTORY. 

forces, belonged to the Presbyterians. The Independents caused the enactment, by 
Parliament, of the Self-denying Ordinance, which allowed no member of Parliament 
to hold r. command in the army. The Earl of Essex was therefore compelled to 
resign; and Lord Fairfax, an able general, was appointed to the chief command of 
the army of the Parliament. Cromwell, who had been one of the naost enthusiastic 
supporters of the Self-denying Ordinance, hastened to resign his command; but 
through the influence of Fairfax, who felt that Cromwell's services in the army were 
necessary to insure the overthrow of the Royal party, the Parliament dispensed with 
the Self-denying Ordinance in Cromwell's case, and he was permitted to retain liii 
p(>sition. 

Renewal of the Civil War — Battle of Naseby. — Some efforts at fcace 
having failed, the civil war again burst forth with all its fury. The army of King 
Charles I. was completely overthrown, and his cause was utterly ruined, in the 
desperate battle of Naseby, in Northamptonshire, on the 14th of June, 1645. The 
Parliamentary forces were commanded by Fairfax, Skippon, Cromwell, and Ireton; 
and the Royalists by the king, Prince Rupert, Lord Astley, and Sir Marmaduke 
Langdale. The defeat of the Royal army was caused, in a great measure, by the 
rashness and impatience of Prince Rupert, who overruled the more prudent judg- 
ment of the king. Rupert, with the right wing of the Royal cavalry, dashed with 
the most fiery impetuosity upon the Parliamentary left wing, commanded by Gen- 
eral Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law. At the same time Cromwell, with the Parlia- 
mentaiy right wing, assailed the Royal left wing; while the centres of the two 
armies, led respectively by Fairfax and the king, were struggling desperately. The 
Parliamentary left was thoroughly annihilated, and Ireton was made a prisoner; 
but Rupert lost precious time in an unnecesary pursuit of Ireton's broken forces, 
when he should have gone to the aid of the king. In the meantime Cromwell with 
his "Ironsides" defeated the Royal cavalry, after which he flew to the aid of the 
Parliamentary centre, which was beginning to give way before the Royalists. Crom- 
well and his Ironsides, who insured victory wherever they appeared, soon put the 
king's infantry to a total rout ; and Chaides I., seeing that the day was lost to his 
cause, retired with his forces, leaving the field, all his baggage and cannon, and 
50,000 prisoners, in the hands of the victorious Parliamentarians. 

The King in the Hands of the Scots. — By their victory at Naseby, the Par- 
liamentarians obtamed possession of all the strong cities in the kingdom, such as 
Bristol, Bridgewater, Bath, and Chester. Exeter was besieged and taken by Fair- 
fax, whereupon the king and his broken hosts retreated to Oxford, which Fairfax 
and Cromwell were preparing to besiege. Rather than be taken prisoner by his 
enemies, Charles I. fled into Scotland, hoping to find respect and kind treatment 
among his Scotch subjects. He went into the camp of an army of Scots that was 
engaged in the service of the Parliament; but instead of treating him as their king, 
the Scots placed a guard around him and kept him as a prisoner. The fanatical 
Scotch preachers, unable to restrain their zeal, insulted him to his face, and, in 
sermons preached in his presence, bitterly reproached him as a wicked ty;ant. 

The King in the Power of the Parliament. — When the Parliament ^tos in- 
formed that the king was in the hands of the Scots, it began to negotiate with them 
for the possession of his person. The Scots surrendered Charles I. into the hands 
of commissioners appointed by the Parliament, upon receiving 400,000 pounds 




CROMWELL. 




CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



239 



sterling. The Scots were ever afteinvards ashamed of tlie reproach of having sold 
their sovereign to his inveterate foes. 

Presbyterians and Independents. — As we have already seen, the king's 
enemies were divided into the Presbyterian and Independent parties. The most 
inveterate animosity now existed between these two factions. The Presbyterians 
had a majority in the Parliament, whife the Independents had a majority in the 
army. 

The King in the Power of Cromwell. — The Presbyterians, in conjunction 
with the Royalists, now endeavored to restore to the king his authority; but in this 
they we:e opposed by the Independents, the most rigid of Puritans, and republicans 
m principle. The leader of the Independent party was Oliver Cromwell, who 
took King Charles I. from the commissioners of the Parliament, and placed him in the 
charge of the army. The Parliament now proposed to disband the army; but the 
officers and troops, instigated by Cromwell, resolved to remain together. 

Aribitrary Proceedings of Cromwell. — Cromwell now marched to London, 
and subjected the city and the Parliament to his authority. The king in the mean; 
time escaped to the Isle of Wight. The Parliament now desired an accommodation 
with the king ; but Charles relied upon foreign aid. Cromwell having discovered 
the insincerity of the king, resolved upon his destruction. The Parliament was 
thrown into the greatest consternation upon the reception of intelligence that the 
king had again been seized and placed in the power of the amiy, by the secret 
orders of Cromwell. 

Colonel Pride's Purge. — The Parliament now endeavored to desh'oy Crom- 
well; but, anticipating their design, he resolved to annihilate their power by^ 
decisive blow. He therefore sent to London a body of troops under Colonel Pridi- 
who surrounded the Parliament-house and excluded all the Presbyterian member 
from their seats. (December, 1648.) This violent proceeding is known as " Col 
onel Pride's Purge." 

Trial and Execution of Charles I. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtual dicta 
tor of England, and the Parliament, which now consisted of Independents, and 
which was called " The Rump Parliament," was entirely under his control. Ci-om- 
well now caused articles of impeachment to be preferred against the king, or Charles 
Stuart, as he was now called, charging him with high treason, in levying war against 
his Parliament. A High Court of Justice was organized, and held in Westminster 
Hall, for the purpose of trying the king; but Charles persistently denied the juris- 
diction of the court. The trial commenced on the 20th of January, 1 649. As the 
king was on his way to the court-room, he was insulted by the soldieiy and the 
mob, who uttered all sorts of unfeeling cries. After a trial of seven days, Charles 
J. was declared guilty, and was condemned to death as a traitor and a murderer. 
On his way from the court-room, he was again insulted by the soldiers sn 1 the rab- 
ble, who cried out, "Justice!" "Execution!" and some even went so far as to spit 
in his face. Charles bore all their insolence with patience, saying, " Poor eouls, 
they would treat their generals the same way for a six-pence." On the 30th of 
Januar)', 1649, the king was led to the place of execution, in front of the palace :f 
Whitehall. He ascended the scaffold with a firm step. Addressing those around 
him, he declared himself innocent toward his people, and forgave his enemies. 



240 MODERN HISTORY. 

Turning to Bishop Juxon, he said, " I go from a corruptiljle to an incorruptible 
crown, where no disturbance can take place." "You exchange," said the bishop, 
"ateniporal for an eternal crown; a good exchange." The king then laid his head 
upon the block, saying to Bishop Juxon, " Remember." One of the executionrrs 
then struck off the king's head; and another, holding it aloft, exclaimed, "This, is 
the head of a traitor!" Many of the spectators wept at the horrid spectacle. 

THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 

(FEBRUARY 1, 1649— MAY 20, 1660.) 

Abolition of Monarchy — England a Commonwealth. — A few days after 
the execution of Charles I., the House of Lords and the monarchical form of gov- 
ernment were abolished by the Commons; and the "Rump Parliament," as it was 
called, upheld by Oliver Cromwell and the army, governed the countty. The so- 
called republic was styled "The Commonwealth of England." 

Reduction of the Irish Royalists. — The Royalists were still active in Ireland. 
After arranging affairs in England, Cromwell and his army passed over into Ireland, 
where the Royalists, headed by the Duke of Ormond, were still in arms against the 
republican Parliament. After defeating the Royalists in many encounters, and 
taking numerous towns, Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection, treating the van- 
quished with the greatest severity. Those garrisons which obstinately resisted his 
assaults were put to the sword, after falling into his hands. After returning to 
England, Cromwell received the thanks of the Parliament for reducing Ireland to 
submission. 

Rise of the Scotch Covenanters in Favor of Prince Charles. — In the 
meantime, the Scotch Covenanters, who bitterly repented of their conduct toward 
their late unfortunate king, took up arms in favor of his son, Prince Charles, whom 
they acknowledged as king, by the title of Charles II. The terms upon which the 
Scots agreed to recognize Prince Charles as king, were that he should sign "the 
Covenant," enter the Presbyterian Church, and accept a limited royal prerogative. 
After some hesitation, the prince agreed to these conditions, left Holland, and made 
his appearance in Scotland. 

Battle of Dunbar. — At the head of i6,ooo troops, Cromwell marched against 
the Scotch Covenanters, but many of his troops died from hunger and sickness on 
the way. At Dunbar, Cromwell, with only 12,000 men, was opposed by 27,000 
Scotch Covenanters, who considered victory certain. The Scotch preachers endeav- 
ored to prove from the Old Testament that the Covenanters would conquer, and 
urged an attack upon Cromwell's army. When Cromwell saw the Scots advancing^ 
he exclaimed, "The Lord has delivered them into our hands!" A furious battle 
ensued, on the 3d of September, 1650, and Cromwell gained a glorious victory. 
The Scotch troops threw down their arms and fled in every direction, after losing 
4,000 Ifilled and wounded, and 10,000 prisoners. 

Battle of Worcester. — While Cromwell was still in Scotland, Prince ChaWes, 
with a body of Scotch troops, marched into England, and was joined by a consider- 
able number of English Royalists. Cromwell at length advanced against the prince; 
and, on the 3d of September, 1 65 1, exactly one year after the battle of Dunbar, 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



241 



was fought the battle of Worcester, in which Cromwell gained another brilliant 
victory. The Royal army was hopelessly annihilated. Prince Charles fled from 
the field, and, after a series of narrow escapes, arrived safely in France. Scotland 
was soon subdued by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left in command in (hat 
coun" ry. 

Success of the English in a Naval War with Holland. — In October, 
1651, the English Parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, which prohibited 
foreigners from bringing into England in their own ships anything but their ow a 
productions. This measure operated injuriously against Holland, then the leading 
commercial nation of the world; and in May, 1652, a furious naval war broke out 
between England and Holland. The English navy, under the command of the 
gallant Admiral Blake and General Monk, the latter of whom proved to be as able 
a conmiander on sea as on land, gained splendid victories t)ver the Dutch fleets, 
commanded by Van Tromp and De Ruyter. Peace was made in April, 1654, on 
terms humiliating to the Dutch. 

Cromwell's Dissolution of the Long Parliament. — In the meantime, while 
the war with Holland was raging, a quarrel had arisen between Oliver Cromwell 
and the Long Parliament, as to which should have the supreme power. Secure in 
the attachment of his army, Cromwell resolved upon a decisive blow. He per- 
suaded the officers of the army to present a petition to the Parliament for the pay- 
ment of arrears and for a redress of grievances, which he knew would be rejected 
with scorn. In this petition, the officers, after demanding Ihe payment of arrears, 
asked the Parliament to consider how long it had sat, and what professions it had 
once made of establishing liberty on the widest basis. The Parliament was so ex- 
asperated at this haughty presumption of the army, that it appointed a committee 
to report an act declaring that all persons presenting such petitions in future should 
be considered guilty of high treason. This action was followed by a remonstrance 
of the army officers, to which an angiy reply was returned by the Parliament. The 
quarrel became wanner and wai^mer; and when Cromwell was informed of the 
subject upon which the Parliament was deliberating, he left the council of officers, 
and, appearing very angry, hastened to the Parliament House with 300 soldiers. 
Leaving the soldiers outside at the door, Cromwell entered the house and sat down. 
After sitting for some time, he suddenly started up, exclaiming, " This is the time, 
• — I must do it." and stamping his foot upon the floor as a signal, the house was 
immediately 811 ii with soldiers. Then addressing the members, he said, "F"or 
shame, get you gone. Give place to honester men, — to men who will more faith- 
fully discharge their duties. You are no longer a Parliament: I tell you, you are 
1.0 longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with you." Sir Henry Vane crying 
out against this conduct, Cromwell exclaimed, "Sir Henry Vane! O Sir Ilenrv 
Vane! the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane !" Cromwell then repjoached 
the members for their vices, and said, " It is you who have forced me to do ihis. 
I have sought the Lord, night and day, that he would slay me rather than put mr 
upon this work." Colonel Harrison then led the speaker from the chair, and the 
other members rushed out of the door. After the hall had been cleared, Cromwell 
ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys into his pocket, he returned 
to Whitehall. Cromwell's dissolution of the Long Parliament occurred on tha 
20th of April, 1653. 
7^ 



2 42 MODERN HISTORY. 

" Praise-God" Barebone's Parliament. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtu- 
ally sole ruler of England, with more real power than any of the ancient kings. 
To keep up the appearance of a Commonwealth, he summoned another Parlia- 
ment, which was composed of the most ignorant religious fanatics. One of the 
principal orators of this Parliament was the leather-seller, Barebone, and the Par- 
liament was known as "Barebone's Parliament." The members of this Parlia- 
ment, to show their religious zeal, adopted new names, consisting of several words, 
\nd scnictimes of whole sentences. Barebone himself was named "Praise-God." 
Other ridiculous names adopted were, "Stand-fast-on-high" Stringer, "Fight the- 
good -fight-of- faith " White, "More-fruit" Fowler, "Good-reward" Smart. Bare- 
bone had a brother who was named, " If-Christ-had-not-died-for-you-you-had-been- 
damned" Barebone. This being too lengthy to say every time his name was 
mentioned, he was generally called "Damned" Barebone. The whole conduct 
of Barebone's Parliament was most absurd; and at length, in December, 1653, the 
members agreeing that they had sat long enough, went, with Rouse, their speaker, 
at their head, to Cromwell, and voluntarily resigned their power into his hands. 
Cromwell, who was ashamed of their ridiculous proceedings, gladly accepted their 
resignations ; and being told that some of the members had determined to remain, 
he sent Colonel White with a body of troops to drive them from the house. The 
colonel, entering the hall, asked the refractory members what they were doing 
there. One Moyer, whom they had placed in the chair, replied, " We are seeking 
the Lord." "Then," said White, "you may go elsewhere; for, to my certain 
knowledge, the Lord has not been here these many years." The members then 
withdrew from the hall, and Cromwell's authority was undisputed. 

Cromwell " Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of England." — A 
new constitution, called " The Instrument of Government," projected by General 
Lambert, was now adopted, by which Oliver Cromwell was entrusted with the 
supreme power, with the title of " Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
land, Scotland, and Ireland." Cromwell shared the government with a Council 
and a Parliament ; but he was in all but in name a monarch. As Lord-Protector, 
Cromwell governed vigorously and successfully, and made himself respected at 
home and abroad; and England was never more prosperous than under his firm rule. 

Royalist Conspiracy — War with Spain — Conquest of Jamaica. — Several 
subsequent Parliaments were successively dissolved by Cromwell. The Parlia- 
ment of 1656 offered Cromwell a crown, but he declined the offer. In 1655, a 
dangerous conspiracy of the Royalists was discovered, and many of the conspira- 
tors were punished. During the same year, the shrewd Cardinal Mazarin, who 
then wielded the destinies of France, by flattering Cromwell, induced England to 
take part with France in a war against Spain. Admiral Blake defeated the Span- 
ish fleets in the Mediterranean sea, and Admirals Penn and Venables conquered 
the island of Jamaica, in the West Indies, from the Spaniards. Jamaica has evei 
ince remained in the possession of England. An English force of 6,000 men 
T.nned the French in the Netherlands ; and the fortress of Dunkirk, which the 
French took from the Spaniards, was given to England, as a reward for her assiii- 
ance to France in the war. 

Conspiracies against Cromwell — His Fear of Assassination — His 
Death. — Cromwell's situation was not an enviable one. He was now equally 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



243 



hated by the Royalists and the Republicans; and many plots were formed against 
his power and his life. His eldest daughter, Mrs. Fleetwood, was so violent a 
Republican that she dreaded to see her father invested with supreme power. His 
favorite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, was a staunch Royalist; and on her death-bed, 
she reproached her father for overturning the monarchy. His other daughters. 
Lady Franconberg and Lady Rich, were also zealous Royalists. Conspiracy after 
conspiracy embittered the last days of Cromwell's life. The Lord-Protector was 
in constant fear of assassination. He wore armor under his clothes, and alwayj 
carried pistols in his pockets. His countenance was gloomy, and he trusted no one. 
When he traveled out, he was attended by a numerous guard. He never re- 
turned by the same road which he went; and he did not sleep more than three 
nights in the same room. Cromwell was delivered from his miserable existence 
by a Slow fevei, of v»hich he died on the 3d of September, 1658, — the anniversary 
of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester, and a day which he had always 
regarded as the most fortunate of his life. Thus died the gi-eatest man that Eng- 
land ever produced, — a great general, statesman, and ruler. 

Richard Cromwell Lord-Protector — His Resignation. — Richard Crom- 
well, Oliver's son, was proclaimed Lord-Protectpr of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
land, upon his father's death ; but Richard, who had no executive abilities or firm- 
ness whatever, and who was of a quiet and unambitious nature, quietly resigned 
the Lord-Protectorship, after holding it a few months, and retired to private life. 

Restoration of Monarchy. — After the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Eng- 
land was virtually without any government, and each party endeavored to obtain 
the supremacy. The Rump Parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so violently 
dissolved in April, 1653, reassembled, and assumed the direction of national af- 
fairs. But this Parliament did not possess the confidence of any party, and it was 
dissolved by the army commanded by General Lambert, who then undertook the 
control of public afifaias. It was now the settled conviction of many that nothing 
but the restoration of monarchy would free England from a state of anarchy. Gen- 
eral Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and who had long hated Gen- 
eral Lambert, secretly formed the design of restoring the monarchy, in the person 
of Prince Charles, the eldest son of the late unfortunate monarch; and at once 
entered into a correspondence with the prince, who was then living in Holland. 
So well did General Monk conceal his design, that no one knew with which party 
he was acting, and he was enabled to march unopposed from Scotland to London. 
Lambert had in the meantime been imprisoned in the Tower, by his own troops, 
who now joined Monk. On the ist of May, 1660, Monk threw off the mask, by 
proposing to a new Parliament, which had just been assembled, the restoration of 
the monarchy. This proposal was hailed with joy by the English people, who 
were tired of the condition of anarchy which had prevailed since the death of 
Oliver Cromwell. The House of Lords hastened to reinstate itself in its former 
dignity. On the 8th of May (1660), Prince Charles was proclaimed King of Fng- 
.and, Scotland, and Ireland, with the title of Charles II. ; and on the 29th of tlie 
same month, — which was his birthday, — he made his triumphal entry into I^ndon, 
aad everything was restored to its ancient footing. 



244 MODERN HISTORY. 

THE RESTORED HOUSE OF STUART. 

REIGN OF CHARLES II. (A. D. 1660-168S). 

Character of Charles II. — Charles II. was thirty years old when he found 
himself so unexpectedly seated on the throne of England. He had an agreeable 
pcrsoii, a polished address, and a cheerful and engaging demeanor. His whole 
di;portment tended to secure favor and popularity. His excessive indolence and 
love of pleasure made him hate business, and leave the affairs of government -.o 
others. All that the new sovereign cared for was to live idly and jovially. 

First Measures and Actions of Charles II. — The first measures of the new 
monarch gave general satisfaction to the English nation. The Earl of Clarendon, 
who was highly esteemed for his virtues, was placed at the head of the Ministry ; 
and by his uprightness and prudence, the government was conducted for some time 
with justice and moderation. A general amnesty was granted to all who had taken 
sides against the king during the civil wars, excepting those who had been chiefly 
concerned in procuring the death of Charles I. Of the sixty persons who had been 
concerned in that act, many were dead, and others had left the country. Of those 
brought to trial, ten were executed as regicides. Among the number was Sir Henry 
Vane. They all died with firmness. Oliver Cromwell, though dead, was regarded 
as a proper object of revenge. His body was torn from the grave and hung on a 
gibbet. The Protestant Episcopal Church was reestablished, and the Presbyterian 
clergy were again deprived of their offices. 

Marriage of Charles II. — War with Holland — Peace of Breda. — The 

English people were dissatisfied with the marriage of Charles II., in 1662, with 
Catharine of Braganza, a daughter of the King of Portugal, and with the sale of 
Dunkirk to France; but still a greater degree of discontent was manifested when 
the king, in 1663, involved England in a naval war with Holland. The chief naval 
commanders of the English in this war were Prince Rupert and General Monk, 
the latter of whom had been created Duke of Albemarle, as a reward for his services 
in the restoration of the monarchy. The discontent of the English people and Par- 
liament, who were opposed to the war, obliged the king to conclude with Holland 
the Peace of Breda, in August, 1667, by which the Dutch colony of New Nether- 
land, in North America, was ceded to England, under the name of New York, 

Great Plague and Fire in London. — In the fall of 1665, a violent plague 
broke out in London, and about 90,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. In Sep- 
tember, 1666, a great fire, which raged for thi-ee days and three nights, reduced 
two-thirds of the city to ashes. Eighty-nine churches, and over 13,000 houses were 
destroyed. These awful calamities had no influence on King Charles II., who had 
already given himself up to all sorts of luxury, extravagance, and vice. His favor- 
ites and courtiers were the most profligate and unworthy characters. 

Disgrace and Banishment of Clarendon — " The Cabal" Ministry. — In 
1667, the Earl of Clarendon, whose virtues and integrity had made him hated by 
the king's licentious favorites, fell into disgrace ; and, after a trial on various fr'vo- 
lous pretenses, he vras declared guilty of neglect of duty, and sentenced to bunish- 
ment. He retired to France, where he spent the remainder of his life in writing 
his "History of the Rebellion." After the disgrace of Clarendon, Chailes II., 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 24^' 

whose profligacy and debauchery increased daily, commiUed a series of tvrannical 
and violent acts. In 1667, the king entrusted the government to five of the most 
unprincipled men in the kingdom. These were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, and Lauderdale, who wert together called "The Cabal," from the initial 
let' ers of their names. "The Cabal" Ministry earned on the government entirely 
in accordance with the wishes of the king, regardless of the rights and hberlies of 
'ho peo;)le of England. 

Another War with Holland — Charles II. a Pensioner of Louis XIV. 

—In 1672, Charles II,, in utter disregard of the wishes of his subjects, began a fresh 
war against Holland, as an ally of Louis XIV. of France. The English king, whose 
pleasures were very expensive, was bribed by the French monarch to take part in 
the war. A secret treaty was concluded between the two sovereigns, by which 
Charles was to receive a secret pension from Louis. The war was carried on on the 
sea. The English naval commanders were Prince Rupert, Lord Sandwich, and 
the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II. After the Cabal Ministiy had 
been broken up, in 1674, by the death of Clifford and the disgrace of Ashley, men 
more worthy were placed at the head of affairs in. England; and the great opposi- 
tion of the English people and Parliament forced Charles II. to renounce his alliance 
with the King of France and to make peace with Holland. 

Character of the English People During the Reign of Charles II. — 

Venality and corruption were now honorable among the higher classes in England. 
The example of the king had a most pernicious influence upon the nation. The 
people emulated the vices of their sovereign ; and the literature of that period which 
obtained any popularity was contaminated with the same vicious spirit by which 
English society was corrupted. Under the rigid rule of the Puritans and Cromwell, 
during the period of the Commonwealth, vice and immorality were checked; 'but 
during the reign of Charles II., England was sunk in the lowest depths of dissipation 
and licentiousness. 

Contests Between King Charles II. and the Parliament. — King Charles 
II., unwarned by the fate of his father, strove for absolute power; and from the 
beginning to the end of his reign, there was a continual contest between the king 
and the Parliament. The efforts of Charles II. for the establishment of absolute 
royal power were firmly resisted by the Parliament, which was resolved upon up- 
holding its own privileges, and the rights and liberties of the people of England. 
Although Charles II. outwardly conformed to the Episcopal Church, he was believed 
to be a Roman Catholic at heart ; and his brother, James, Duke of York, was an 
avowed Catholic. The more the Stuarts favored Roman Catholicism, the more 
firmly did the English people and Parliament adhere to Protestantism. 

The Test Act. — After a long struggle, the Parliament finally passed "the Test 
(\.ct," which required that none but members of the Church of England and con- 
fessors of the Protestant faith should be admitted to seats in Parliament, or to hold 
ttiiJitary or civil offices. The Parliament, which had assembled in 1660, was dis- 
solved by the king in 1668, and a new one summoned; but the new Parliament 
was no more subservient to the wishes of the king than its predecessor. A new 
Ministiy, headed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, who had joined the popular party, now 
came into power. 



246 MODERN HISTORY. 

Habeas Corpus Act. — In 1769, the Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas 
Corpus Act, which protected freedoiii of person against arbitrary arrests. According 
to the provisions of this act, no person could be lawfully detained in prison, unless 
he were accused of some specified offense for- which he was legally subject to pun- 
ishment; and within three days the prisoner was to be brought before the judge, 
And reasons were to be shown why he was not set at liberty. 

• The Whigs and the Tories. — During the contests between Charles II. ar 1 
li.e Parliamt-nt originated two parties, which, with some change of princ.'ples, havj 
continued to exist to the present day. These parties were called respective!) 
" \Miig" and " Tory," names which have ever since -been borne by the two great 
]X)litical parties in England. The Tories denied the right of resistance to royal 
authority, under any circumstances whatever ; while the Whigs recognized the right 
to resist any infringement of the liberties of the people on the part of the king. 

Titus Oates. — Titus Gates, an infamous impostor, pretended to have discovered 
a plot, formed by the Catholics, to assassinate Charles II., burn London, massacre 
the Protestants, and place the Duke of York on the throne. Upon the testimony 
of Oates, and another miscreant named Bedloe, many innocent Catholics were 
punished with death (1678). 

"The Rye-House Plot." — In 1683, a conspiracy called "The Rye-House 
Plot," because the conspirators planned their schemes in a rye-house, contrived by 
some worthless characters, for the assassination of the king and the Duke of York, was 
taken advantage of by the court for the destruction of the leaders of the Whig party. 
Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the most worthy and respecta- 
ble men of the age, were falsely charged with being concerned in the plot, and 
were arrested, tried, and executed. The Earl of Shaftesbury fled to Holland, the 
Parliament was dissolved, and from that time until his death, two years later (1685), 
Charles II. was as absolute a monarch as any in Europe. 

REIGN OF JAMES II. (A. D. 1683-1688). 

Accession of James II. — Monmouth's Rebellion. — On the death of King 
Charles II., in 1685, his brother, the Duke of York, ascended the throne of Eng- 
land, with the title of James II. The new sovereign was a bigoted Roman Catho- 
lic; and, from the moment of his coronation, he thought of little but the restoration 
of popery and the establishment of absolute royal power in England. Soon after 
the accession of James II., the Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., 
headed a rebellion against his uncle, with the view of obtaining the crown of Eng- 
land for himself. The rebellion was speedily quelled, and the unfortunate Mon- 
mouth was beheaded. The Duke of Argyle, who had attempted an insurrection 
in Scotland in favor of Monmouth, was executed in Edinburgh. The adherents of 
Monmouth were also punished with death. The chief judge, Jeffries, passed through 
(lie country with a band of executioners, practicing the greatest cruelties. 

Attempts of James II. for the Restoration of Popery in England. — 
I laving struck terror into the hearts of the English people by the prompt and bloody 
suppression of Monmouth's rebellion, King James II. fancied the way open for the 
reestablishment of popery in England. The cruel Judge Jeffries was made Chan- 
cellor, and many of the offices were filled with Roman Catholics, in defiance of the 
Test A.ct. On one occasion, the tyrannical monarch sent six bishops to the Tower, 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



247 



foi mildly protesting against his measures. Taxes were levied without the consent 
of Parliament ; and the king, having failed by corrupt means to induce the Parlia- 
mei.L to give its approval to an edict of toleration, declared that the crown possessed 
the Hght of granting a suspension of the Test Act. By so arbitrary an exercise of 
power, the king could have set all laws at naught. So blindly and recklessly did 
James II. pursue his foolish attempts to bring England under the Pope, that his 
Catholic friends became alarmed. Even the Pope warned the bigoted monarch not 
lo do anything rashly. 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1688. 

Prince William of Orange — Flight of James II. to France. — The Eng- 
lish people for some time bore the conduct of James II. patiently, as he was old, 
md his two daughters, Anne and Mary, had been educated in the Church of Eng 
land and were married to Protestant princes, the former to a Danish prince, and 
the latter to Prince William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic; 
but when the hopes of the people for a release from the yoke of popery were dis- 
pelled by the birth of a Prince of Wales, in June, 1688, the people resolved upon 
the dethronement of James II., and many of the most prominent men in England 
entered into a negotiation'with his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. James, re- 
ceiving intimation of an intended invasion from Holland, became alamied for the 
safety of his throne, when too late ; and granted many concessions. The people 
of England had already resolved that James II. should no longer reign; and a 
declaration from the Prince of Orange, that he was coming to England, to defend 
liberty and Protestantism, was received with joy throughout the kingdom. On the 
5th of November, 1688, William of Orange landed in England, at the head of 14,000 
Dutch troops, and was everywhere welcomed by the people. The English army 
soon joined the invaders ; the English nobility and the whole nation abandoned 
James II. and turned their eyes toward the Prince of Orange ; and even the courtiers 
abandoned the king in his distress. When James was informed that the Princess 
Anne, his own daughter, had declared against him, he burst into tears and exclaimed, 
"God help me, my own children have forsaken me!" The unhappy monarch now 
hearkened to the advice of the queen and the priests, and resolved upon leaving the 
kingdom. After sending his wife and infant son to France, James left London, on 
the 1 2th of December, 16SS; but he was stopped at Feversham and brought back 
by the people, much to the dissatisfaction of the Prince of Orange, who had prom- 
ised his wife that her father should receive no personal injury; and James, by the 
assistance of William of Orange, was enabled to escape to France. The fugitive 
king landed in France on the 25th of December, 168S, and proceeded to St. Ger- 
main, near Paris, where he was honorably received by Louis XIV., King of France, 
from whom, thenceforth until his death, the exiled monarch received a pensicn. 

Enthronement of William and Mary — "The Bill of Rights." — The Par 
liament which now assembled declared that the king's flight fi'as abdication, and 
decreed that the Cathohc line of the House of Stuart should be forever excluded 
Ixom. the thi one of England. The Prince of Orange and his wife were then pi o- 
claimed joint-sovereigns, with the title of William and Mary. Thi; new sovereigns 
received the English crown upon certain conditions, which were set forth in a " Bill 
of Rights," in which the rights and liberties of the English people and the powers 



248 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the monarch were defined. The following were the most important j^rovisions 
of the Bill of Rights: the king can not suspend a law or withhold its execution; 
he can not levy money without the consent of Parliament; the subjects have a right 
to petition the king; no standing army can be kept in time of peace without the 
consent of Parliament; elections and Parliamentary debates must be free; dud 
Parliament must be frequently assembled. The flight and deposition of James I] , 
and the election of William and Mary to the throne of England, is lesignated " the 
irlorious Revolution of 1688." The long struggle for freedom against the en- 
croachments of the king, was now terminated in the triumph of the cause of tl.e 
people, and ever since that time England has been essentially a free government. 

REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY (A. D. 1689-1702)- 

Rise of the Scotch Highlanders in favor of James II. — Massacre of 
Glencoe. — The English people were almost unanimous in support of William and 
Mary; but some of the Highland clans of Scotland refused to acknowledge the 
new sovereigns, and took up arms for the dethroned James II. The Viscount 
Dundee (Graham of Claverhouse), the leader of the rebellious Highlanders, de- 
feated the forces of William and Mary in the battle of Killicrankie, in 1689, but he 
was killed in the moment of victory. The Highlanders, on account of the loss of 
their chieftain, were soon reduced to submission, and were required to take an oath 
of allegiance to the new sovereigns. The clan of Macdonald, having failed to 
take the oath within the specified time, were cruelly massacred at Glencoe, by the 
clan of the Campbells, headed by the Earl of Breadalbane. 

Rise of the Irish in favor of James II. — Battle of the Boyne. — The 
Catholic Irish also arose against me new King and Queen of England, and 
drew their swords for the fallen James II. The French monarch, Louis XIV., 
who had espoused the cause of the deposed James II., sent troops to Ireland to as- 
sist the Irish insurgents. James was conveyed to the Irish coast by a French fleet. 
James unsuccessfully besieged the Protestant town of Londonderry, in the north of 
Ireland, and was opposed by King William, who came over into Ireland at the 
head of a large English army. On the nth of July, 1690, James was completely 
defeateiS by William in the decisive battle of the Boyne. After this misfortune, 
James fled to France, without making another effort to recover his lost crown. 
The war in Ireland was terminated in 169 1, by the defeat and death of the Irish 
general St. Ruth, in the battle of Aughrim, and the submission of the Irish to the 
government of William and Mary. 

War with France — Peace of Ryswick. — The conduct of Louis XIV., in 
affording assistance to the dethroned James II., led to a war between England and 
Prance in 1689. The Peace of Ryswick ended this war in 1697; and since tliat 
time England has been the leading commercial and maritime power of the world. 

Death of Mar^ and William — Queen Anne — Attempts of the Stuarts. 
— -Queen Mary died in 1693; and King William HI., in 1702, from the effects of 
ft fall ficti his horse, and was succeeded on the throne of England by Anne, the 
younger daughter of James II. In 1707, a legislative union took place between 
England and .Scotland, since which time the Parliaments of the two nations have 
been united. When Queen Anne died, in 17 14, the Elector of Hanover ascended 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



249 



the throne of England, with the title of George I. During the reigns of George I. 
(1714-1727) and George II. (1727-1760), two futile attempts were made to re- 
store the Stuarts to the throne. 



WARS OF LOUIS XIV. 

FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. 

RICHELIEU'S ADMINISTRATION (1624-1642). 

Louis XIII. — Mary de Medicis. — The murdered Henry IV. was succeeded 
on the throne of France by his son, Louis XIII., during whose minority the queen- 
mother, Mary de Medicis, conducted the government as regent. As Maiy reposed 
her confidence in her Italian favorites, who enriched themselves at the expense of 
the French nation, the French nobility rose in rebellion, and filled the kingdom 
with confusion and anarchy. 

Cardinal Richelieu — Civil and Religious Wars — Capture of Rochelle. 
— When Louis XIII. arrived at majority, he indeed agreed to have the favorites 
of his mother put to death, and to have his mother removed from court ; but he 
bestowed his favor upon others, who were as unpopular as their predecessors had 
been, and the French nobles again took up arms. These disturbances were only 
quelled when the talented, energetic, and ambitious Cardinal Richelieu was placed 
It the head of the state as Prime-Minister. This great statesman governed France 
tor eighteen years with the most absolute power. (1624-1642.) For the purpose 
of extending the French territory to the Rhine, and humbling the proud House of 
Auscria, Richelieu leagued with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War. 
He defeated the Huguenots in three wars, and destroyed their fortresses. The. 
most celebrated event of these wars was the siege and capture of Rochelle, the 
pi mcipal stronghold of the Huguenots. The place was obstinately defended until 
compelled by famine to surrender, when the Huguenots received toleration for 
their worship, by the Edict of Nismes. 

Humbling of the French Nobles — Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. 
— After the defeat of the Huguenots, the rebellious French nobles were subdued, 
and forced to lay down their arms. The boldest of them were banished or exe- 
cuted; and the queen-mother, and her son, the Duke of Orleans, who had attempted 
to overthrow Richelieu, were obliged to leave the kingdom, and Duke Henry of 
Montmorenci was executed at Toulouse. The Cinq Mars and De Thou were also 
put to death for conspiring against Richelieu's power. The mighty cardinal died 
in December, 1642; and King Louis XIII., who was not possessed of any great 
abilities, survived only a few months longer. 

MAZARIN'S ADMINISTRATION (1643-1661). 

Accession of Louis XIV. — Anne of Austria — Cardinal Mazarin.— Icuis 
XIII. was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Louis XIV., under whom 
France become the most powerful nation in the world. During the minority of 
Louis XIV., who reigned seventy-two years, the government was conducted by the 
queen-mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. As Anne reposed her favor on the 



250 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Italian Cardinal Mazarin, whose principles and aims were the same as those of 
Richelieu, and appointed him Prime-Minister, the French nobility violently opposed 
her, and endeavored to regain their lost power and influence. 

" The Wars of the Fronde." — At the head of the discontented party was 
Cardinal de Retz, who gained the French people to the side of the nobility, and 
gave occasion to a four-years' civil war, known as "The Wars of the Fronde." In 
16+8, the citizens of Paris resisted the execution of the oppressive measures of 
Mazarin, which was the commencement of this civil strife. Mazarin was obliged 
to leave the country for awhile ; but he governed the French kingdom almost as 
absolutely from Cologne as he had before done from Paris. After the insurgents, 
under the great Conde, had been overthrown by the royal army under Marshal 
Turenne, in the suburb of St. Antoine, in Paris, Mazarin was enabled to return to 
Paris and to govern with as despotic power as before. Cardinal de Retz, after being 
liberated from prison, was compelled to leave the country ; and Conde lived among 
the Spaniards for six years, after which be .was pardoned by the king, and again 
received into the royal favor. 

War with Spain — Treaty of the Pyrenees— -Death of Mazarin. — During 
the period of Mazarin's administration, France was engaged in a war with Spain. 
The seat of this war was the Spanish Netherlands. The banished Conde, who led 
the Spanish armies, gained brilliant victories ; but he found an able rival in Marshal 
Turenne, who 'commanded the French forces. Mazarin induced England, then 
under the iron rule of Oliver Cromwell, to take part in the war as an ally of France; 
and Dunkirk, which the French had taken from the Spaniards, was given to Eng- 
land, as a reward for an English army of 6,000 men which had reinforced the 
French in the Spanish Netherlands. At length both Spain and F"rance grew tired 
of the war; and in November, 1659, was concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees, by 
which the infanta, Maria Theresa, daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain, was given 
in marriage to Louis XIV., who on his part renounced all claims T;o the Spanish 
throne for himself and his children, and pardoned Conde and again received him 
into favor. The despotic rule of Mazarin ended with the death of that great states- 
man, on the 9th of March, 1661. 

GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF LOUIS XIV. 

LOUIS XIV. AND HIS ^A/■AR "WITH SPAIN. 

Louis XIV. and His Generals and Ministers. — Upon Mazarin's death, 
Louis XIV. appointed no prime-minister, but took the government into his own 
hands. For fifty-four years this celebrated monarch reigned with the most absolute 
power, which he wielded in a very despotic manner. His Ministers were but passive 
instruments for the execution of his will. Louis XIV. was the greatest monarch of 
his age. His great generals, Conde, Turenne, and Luxembourg, and the enginetr 
Vauban, surpassed in skill the generals of all other countries. His Minister of 
Finance, Colbert, managed the finances of the kingdom with the greatest skill, and 
encouraged all kinds of manufactures. It was owing to the economy of Colbert 
that the building of the Louvre, the Palace of Versailles, the Hotel des Invalides, 
and the construction r* the Canal of Languedoc, were commenced. Louvois, Mini- 
ster of War, also possessed abilities necessary for the direction of great exploits. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 251 

War with Spain — Triple Alliance— Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — Louis 
XIV. was ambitious of military glory, and desirous for the extension of his kingdom. 
We have seen that, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis renounced all 
claims to any portion of the Spanish dominions. This solemn renunciation he set 
aside; and on the death of Philp IV. of Spain, he laid claim to the whole of the 
Si^anish Netherlands, as the husband of Philip's daughter. In 1667, a French army 
was sent into the Spanish Netherlands, which were subdued in two campaigns. 
The othir powers of Europe became alarmed; and England, Holland, and Sweden, 
entered into a " Triple Alliance," for the purpose of defending the Spanish mon- 
archy. Threatened by this formidable coalition, the French monarch found himself 
obliged to conclude the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he was requirt-l to 
restore much of the territory which he had conquered. 

WAR Vv^ITH HOLLAND (1672-1679). 

French Invasion of Holland.- — Burning with revenge toward Holland, the 
originator of the Triple Alliance, Louis resolved upon the subjugation of that coun- 
try. After purchasing the alliance of Charles II. of England and the neutrality of 
Sweden, Louis XIV. took the field against Holland, at the head of an army of 
100,000 men, and advanced triumjihantly almost to the gates of Amsterdam. 

Desperate Situation of Holland. — The situation of Holland was now most 
desperate, and it appeared that the unfortunate republic must lose her independence. 
Many of the inhabitants prepared to embark on their fleet, and sail to their East 
India possessions. The republic implored peace, but the haughty French monarch 
absolutely refused. When the Grand-Pensionary of Holland, Cornelius DeWitt, 
proposed to surrender his country to the conquering French, he was assassinated in 
the streets of Amsterdam, by his enraged countrymen, and Prince William of 
Orange (afterwards King William III. of England) was placed at the head of the 
Dutch Republic, with the title of Stadtholder. Amsterdam had been secured 
against the French by opening the dykes, thus laying the surrounding country 
under water. 

Alliance of Spain and Germany with Holland. — Frederic William, the 
Great Elector of Brandenburg, came to the rescue of Holland in her critical situa- 
tion; and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany and King Charles II. of Spain 
joined in the war against France, and sent troops to the aid of the imperiled repub- 
lic; while Charles II. of England was forced by the clamors of his subjects and 
his Parliament to make peace with the Dutch. (1674.) 

The War in the Spanish Netherlands and on the Rhine. — Louis XIV. 
was now obliged to abandon Holland; but in the Spanish Netherlands, his great 
generals, Condd and Turenne, fought successively against the allied Dutch, Span- 
ish, and German annies, under Prince William of Orange and the imperial general 
Montecuculi. Yox the purpose of punishing the Elector Palatine, who had joined 
the enemies of France, the French ravaged the beautiful country of the Palatinate 
of the Rhine with fire and sword. The Elector Palatine beheld, at one time, froifl 
his castle windows at Manheim, two cities and twenty-five villages on fire. 

Swedish Invasion of Brandenburg — Battle of Fehrbellin. — For the pur- 
pose of separating the Great Elector, Frederic William, from the German imperial 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

army on the Rhine, the French monarch induced the Swedes, his allies, to invade 
the March of Brandenburg. Frederic William marched against the Swedish inva- 
ders of hij dominions; and on the 28lh of June, 1675, he severely defeated them 
in the battle of Fehrbellin, which laid the foundation of the future kingdom of 
Prussia. Soon afterward. Marshal Turenne was killed by a cannon ball in the 
battle of Salzbach. 

Peace of Nimeguen. — At length all the belligerents, mutually exhausted, 
irecame anxious for peace; and in 1678, a treaty of peace was concluded at Nime- 
guen, m Holland, by which Holland remained in possession of everything she had 
before the war, but Spain surrendered Franche-Comte and French Flanders to the 
King of France. 

Encroachments of Louis XIV. — Bombardment of Algiers and Genoa. 
—Having dictated the Peace of Nimeguen, and encouraged by his triumph, Louis 
XIV. committed many acts of violence and aggression, and so aroused the hostility 
of the greater part of Europe. He seized on many of the neighboring dependen- 
cies of the German Empire, and even took possession of the free city of Strasburg, 
in September, 1681. Spain, Austria, and the German Empire, instead of attempt- 
ing to defend their possessions, concluded the treaty of Regensburg with the inso- 
lent Louis, by which he was allowed to retain what he had already taken. In 
1 683, a French fleet bombarded Algiers and compelled the pirates to beg for mercy; 
and in 1684, Genoa suffered a similar punishment, for refusing to permit the French 
monarch to establish a depot within its territory. 

TURKISH INVASION OF AUSTRIA. 

Efforts of Louis XIV. to weaken the House of Austria — Hungarian 
Rebellion. — Louis XIV. tried in every possible manner to weaken the power of the 
House of Austria. He induced the Turks to renew their invasions of the Austrian 
territories, and encouraged and aided the Hungarians in their insurrections against 
tJie Austrian power. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. over the Protestants 
of Hungary produced a formidable rebellion against his authority on the part of 
the Hungarian people, who were led by Emmerik Tokeli, a patriotic magnate. 
The Austrian armies were soon driven out of Hungary by the insurgents, who 'e- 
ceived effective assistance from the French and the Turks. 

Turkish Invasion of Austria — Siege of Vienna — ^John Sobieski. — En- 
couraged by the Hungarian rebellion, a Turkish army of 300,000 men under Kara 
Mustapha invaded the Austrian territories, and devastated the country to the walls 
of Vienna, in 1683. The Emperor Leopold I. fled in consternation to Lintz, and 
the Ottoman forces laid siege to the Austrian capital. It appeared that Vienna 
must soon fall, but the inhabitants of the city, assisted by a small force under Rudi- 
gei von Stahremberg, defended the city for two months, when the heroic John 
Sobieski, King of Poland, who had become famous for his victories over the Turks, 
hastened with his army, at the earnest solicitations of the Emperor of Gennany, tc 
exjel the besieging infidels. The German imperial army, under Prince Charles if 
Lorraine, joined the forces of John Sobieski. The united Polish and German 
troops numbered only 70,000, while the Turks numbered almost 300,000. 

Terrible Defeat and Rout of the Turks at Vienna by John Sobieski. — 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



253 



At five o'clock in the evening of Sunday, the 12th of September, 1683, under the 
direction of the Polish king, a furious attack was made on the Ottoman lines be- 
fore Vienna; and in the space of an hour, the whole Turkish host was compelled 
to riee in the wildest dismay. An eclipse of the moon added to the coiLsternation 
of the superstitious Turks. The Grand Vizier, observing the eclipse, exclaimed, 
"Look at the sky! See if God is not against us!" The Moslems in their flight 
abandoned all their camels, artillery, baggage, and camp equipage to the victorious 
Poles and Germans. 'Tin? memorable and decisive victory of civilization and 
(Christianity over barbarism and Mohammedanism marks the era of the decline of 
the Ottoman Empire. The intelligence of this great victory produced unbounded 
joy throughout Christendom, but to Louis XIV., who had been the cause of this 
Turkish invasion, it was unwelcome news. The Emperor of Germany, who was 
envious of the favor and applause with which his subjects everywhere, greeted the 
King of Poland, treated him with the meanest ingratitude. The valiant John 
Sobiesld died in 1696, and with his death ended the glory of Poland. 

Hungary Made an Hereditary Kingdom. — After the defeat of the Turks at 
Vienna, the Austrians reconquered Hungary, and compelled Emmerik Tokeli, the 
insurgent Hungarian chieftain, to flee ^rom the country. The Emperor Leopold I. 
then caused the Hungarian elective constitution to be abolished, and made Hun- 
gaiy one of the hereditary possessions of the Plouse of Hapsburg. 

Coalition Against the Ottoman Porte — German Victories. — After the 
siege of Vienna had been raised, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice formed an 
alliance against the Ottoman Porte. Bloody battles were fought between the Ger- 
man and Ottoman forces, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Belgrade; and the 
German imperial forces, under those famous generals. Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
Prince Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, gained brilliant victories over 
the Turks. The Austrians gained a great victory at Mohacz, on the 12th of August, 
1687; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Salankemen, on the 19th of August, 
1691; and Prince Eugene, on the nth of September, 1697, gained the battle of 
Zenta, in which the Turks lost 30,000 men. 

Peace of Karlowitz. — Finally, in 1699, the Peace of Karlowitz terminated this 
war gloriously for Germany and her allies. Hungary and Transylvania were left 
to Austria ; Podolift and the Ul-craine were ceded to Poland ; Azov was surrendered 
to Russia ; and the Morea, or Southern Greece, was given up to Venice. 

PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. 

Marriage of Louis XIV. with Madame de Maintenon — " The Dragon- 

nade." — The first wife of Louis XIV. having died in 1683, that monarch privately 
married the widow of the poet Scarron, in 1685, and conferred upon her the title 
of Madame de Maintenon. Colbert, who had protected the Huguenots from persecu- 
tion, was now dead; and Louis XIV., who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, listenal 
to the counsels of such men as Louvois, and his father, LeTellier, and commenced 
a rigorous persecution of the Huguenots. Troops were sent into the districts in 
habited by Protestants; and Louvois declared that " it was the desire of the king 
that all who did not conform to the religion of his majesty should be treated with 
the greatest severity." The troops who were sent to enforce this decree being princi- 



254 MODERN HISTORY. 

pally cavalry, the persecution was called a " Dragonnade." The unfortunate Pro- 
testants were treated in the most cruel manner by the troops quartered aiiiongst 
them. Many were atrociously massacred; and at length the ports and frontiers of 
France were closed against the Huguenots, and such :is attempted to escape weie 
sent to the galleys. 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — Migration of the Huguenots. — ■ 
Fnially, in 16S5, Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes, by which the good 
Henry IV. had secured toleratrion to the Calvinists. The Huguenot churches were 
destroyed ; and orders were given to take Protestant children from their parents, 
that they might be instructed in the Catholic faith. There was now no safety for 
the unfortunate victims of persecution, but in flight from their native land. Not- 
withstanding all the precautions taken to prevent their escape, about half a million 
Huguenots succeeded in reaching Protestant countries, carrying with them, not only 
their wealth, but also their skill in manufactures and their habits of industry. The 
fugitives were welcomed in England, Holland, and Germany, which countries were 
benefitted by their knowledge of the manufactures which had hitherto been con- 
fined to France. This cruel measure of Louis XIV. gave a severer blow to the 
prosperity of France than all his long and expensive wars against the combined 
powers of Europe. 

WAR OF THE LEAOUE OF AUGSBURG (1689-1697). 

The League of Augsburg. — Through the efforts of Prince William of Orange, 
the deadly enemy of Lous XIV., an alliance, known as "The League of Augsburg," 
was formed by the German Empire, Spain, and Holland, in 1686, to check the ag- 
gressions of the King of France. Savoy, Denmark, and Sweden, joined the league ; 
and the Revolution in England, in 1688, by which William of Orange ascended 
the English throne, placed England at the head of the coalition against France. 

Desolation of the Palatinate. — The French king did not wait to be attacked; 
but resolving to anticipate the purposes of his enemies, he sent an army of 100,000 
men, under his son, the Dauphin, to invade Germany, in 1688. The beautiful dis- 
trict of the Palatinate of the Rhine suffered a desolation far more terrible than in 
the Dutch war. More than forty cities, and hundreds of flourishing villages were 
reduced to ashes; and the unfortunate inhabitants were driven out into the fields 
in the middle of winter. The important cities of Manheim, Heidelberg, Spire, 
Worms, and Mayence were partly burned. 

French Invasions — Battle of the Boyne.— French armies were sent into Spain, 
Italy, and the Spanish Netherlands. A French force of 6,000 men was also sent 
into Ireland, to assist the deposed James II. in his attempts to recover the throne of 
England; but this force was utterly defeated by King William III., in the decisive 
cattle of the Boyne, on the nth of July, 1690. 

Success of the French Arms — Battle of LaHogue. — The French arms 
triumphed everywhere on the continent of Europe. In 1692, King Williarr III , 
jit the head of the English and Dutch forces, was defeated in the Spanish Nether- 
lands, by the French army under Marshal Luxembourg. In consequence of this 
event, the strongly fortified town of Namur fell into the hands of the French ; and 
in 1693, King William was defeated in the battle of Neerwindcn, with the loss of 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 255 

30,000 men. In Italy, the French amiy under Marshal Catinat defeated ihe Ger- 
man imperial forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Spain and Germany also, 
the French had the advantage; but the French fleet under Admiral Tourville was 
annihilated by the English navy, off Cape LaHogue, on the 9th of May, 1692. 
This battle blasted the hopes of James II. being restored to the English throne, 
and gave to England the future supremacy of the seas. 

Peace of Ryswick. — At length all parties grew tired of the war; and in 1697, 
a treaty of Peace was signed at Ryswick, in Holland. Notwithstanding aU the 
victories of the French arms, the terms of this peace were humiliating to Lo lis 
XIV., who was required to restore all his conquests from Spain and Germany 
except Strasburg, and to acknowledge the title of William III. to the throne of 
England. The possession of Strasburg extended the French dominions to the 
Rhine. The reason why Louis consented to so unfavorable a peace^ was because 
he saw the necessity of peace to.carrj- out his designs at the approaching vacancy 
of the Spanish throne. 

ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 

VIRGINIA (A. D. 1607-1776). 

VIRGINIA UNDER THE LONDON COMPANY (I607-1624) 

Sir Walter Raleigh's Unsuccessful Colonization Efforts — Virginia 
Named. — In 1584, the distinguished Sir Walter Raleigh, one of Queen Eliza- 
beth's favorites, sent two vessels under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to make 
discoveries in America. They landed on the coast of the present State of North 
Carolina, but soon returned to England, where they gave a very glowing descrip- 
tion of the country which they had discovered; and Queen Elizabeth, in considera- 
tion of her unmarried state, named the territory "Virginia." In 1585 and 1586, 
Raleigh made unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Virginia. 

The London and Plymouth Companies — South and North Virginia. — 
In 1606, King James I. of England granted thie territory between the Potomac and 
Cape Fear rivers, under the name of South Virginia, to an association in London, 
known as the London Company. At the same time, the king granted the territory 
now known as New England, under the name of North Virginia, to a company in 
the West of England, called the Plymouth Company. 

Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607, one-hundred and five English emigrants, 
under Captain Christopher Newport, sailed up the beaufiful river which they named 
"James," in honor of their king; and on the bank of that stream they began a settle- 
ment which they named "Jamestown." This was the first permanent English 
settlement in America. The settlers suffered greatly from cold, hunger, and the 
hostilities of the natives, until the famous Captain John Smith assumed the direc- 
tion of affairs, and, by his skillful management, restored confidence. 

The Legend of Smith and Pocahontas. — Captain Smith explored flie 
country northward to the interior of the present Pennsylvania. According to a 
well-knjvvn story now generally discredited, Smith was taken prisoner by the 
Indians, whose emperor, Powhatan, determined to put him to death.; but Poca- 



256 MODERN HISTORY. 

hontas, the daughter of Powhatan, interceded for the prisoner, and saved his life, 
whereupon Smith was released, and permitted to return to Jamestown. 

The *' Starving Time " — Lord Delaware's Arrival — Marriage of Poca- 
hontas. — When Captain Smith returned to England, in 1609, the colony at 
Jamestown ceased to prosper, and was soon reduced by famine from five hundred 
persons to sixty. The winter and spring of 1610 was long known as " The Star^-ing 
Tinii"." The remaining settlers were about to leave Virginia, when, in 161 1, Loi.l 
1 lelawaie, who had been appointed governor of the colony, arrived from England 
with emigrants and provisions, and the colonists resolved to remain. In 1613, Ih'; 
Indian maiden, Pocahontas, was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfc. 
She was then taken to England and presented at Court. 

First Legislative Assembly in America — Introduction of Negro-Sla- 
very. — In 1 61 9, representative government was established in Virginia; and, on 
the 2Sth of June of that year, the first legislative assembly in America convened 
at Jamestown. In 1620, one-hundred and fifty white women were brought to 
Jamestown, and sold to the planters for wives, at the cost of their passage. During 
the same year (1620), a Dutch vessel loaded with negroes, ascended the James 
river, and sold twenty of them for slaves to the planters at Jamestown. This was 
the beginning of negro-slavery within the domain of the present United States. 

Virginia Constitution — House of Burgesses— Indian War of 1622. — 
Sir Francis Wyatt, who became governor of the colony in 1621, gave the Virgin- 
ians a written constitution which allowed them a popular legislative assembly. 
This was the beginning of the celebrated Virginia "House of Burgesses." The 
constitution vested the appointment of governor and council in the London Com- 
pany. In 1622, the Indians, under the leadership of Opechancanough, Powhatan's 
brother and successor, massacred 350 of the Virginia colonists, and reduced eighty 
plantations to eight. The whites began a terrible war of revenge against the sav- 
ages, slaughtered many of them most unmercifully, and drove the remainder into 
the wilderness. 

VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE (1624-1776). 

Dissolution of the London Company — Sir William Berkeley — Indian 
War of 1644. — In 1624, King James I., by an act of high-handed usurpation, dis- 
solved the London Company, and, taking away its charter, made Virginia a royal 
province, but he wisely abstained from interference with the House of Burgesses. 
In 1641, the staunch royalist. Sir William Berkeley, was appointed governor of 
Virginia, by King Charles I;, and during his administration of nearly forty years, 
the colony rapidly advanced in prosperity. In 1644, another war broke out with 
the Indians, still governed by Opechancanough; and, after a struggle of two years, 
♦he power of the savages was broken, and they ceded large tracts of land to the 
Virginians. 

Governor Berkeley's Tyranny — Bacon's Rebellion — Destruction of 
Jamestown. — The Virginians, although democratic, sympathized with the khig 
during the civil war in England. When monarchy was restored in England, in 
1660, full power was given to Governor Berkeley to restrict the liberties of the 
Virginians. Berkeley's tyranny produced a popular rebellion, in 1676, headed by 




CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 




POCAHONTAS RRSCUING CAPTAIN SMITH. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



257 



the staunch republican, Nathaniel Bacon, who assumed command of 500 men 
withotit the permission of Berkeley, who proclaimed the popular leader a traitor. 
•Bacon drove Berkeley from Jamestown, and set the place on fire, and the first town 
founded by the English in America was reduced to ashes. Soon afterward Bacon 
died, and with his death ended the rebellion. The rebels were severely punished; 
and fines, imprisonments, and confiscations of property disgraced the remainder of 
Berkeley's administration. From the time of the English Revolution of 16S8, Vir 
ginia was a prosperous and flourishing colony. 

MASSACHUSETTS (A. D. 1620-1776.) 

PLYMOUTH COLONY (1607-1692). 

Bartholomew Gosnold's Discoveries — Captain John Smith in New 
England. — In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold, Raleigh's friend, explored the coast 
of Massachusetts bay, and discovered and named Cape Cod. He also discovered 
the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and a group which he named the 
Elizabeth Islands, in honor of his queen. In 1603 and 1606, Martin Bring visitod 
the coast of North Virginia. In 1614, the intrepid Captain John Smith explored 
the country between Cape Cod and 'the Penobscot, and named the region " N','W 
England." 

The Council of Plymouth — Emigration of English Puritans to Hol- 
land. — In 1616, the Plymouth Company was dissolved, and a new company was 
formed, which was called "The Council of Plymouth," and to which was granted 
the territory called New England. A few years previous to this, a company of 
English Puritans, who had suffered persecution in their native land, because they 
did not conform to the established Anglican Church, settled in Holland. They 
were led by the Reverend John Robinson. Failing to become reconciled to the 
customs and habits of the Dutch, these humble Puritans, who felt that they were 
only pilgrims in this world, resolved to emigrate to the wilds of America, where 
they might worship God in their own way. 

The Puritan Settlement of Plymouth in New England. — These Puritans 
in Holland formed a partnership with some London merchants, who furnished them 
with capital for their enterprise. They returned to England ; and in September, 
1620, one-hundred and one of these pious men and women sailed for New England 
in a vessel called "the Mayflower." These "Pilgrim Fathers," as they are called, 
landed on a rock on the coast of Massachusetts bay, on the 21st of December, 1620. 
They named the place of landing "Plymouth;" and the town which they founded 
is the oldest in New England. In the cabin of the Mayflower, just before landing, 
they had adopted a written constitution of government, and chosen John Carver 
for their governor. Several months after their landing (March 21, 1621), Governor 
Carver made a treaty of friendship with Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampannag; 
Indians. A few days after this treaty. Governor Carver died, and William Biud- 
ford became governor of the colony. Many of the settlers had died during the 
winter. Other emigrants came. In 1627, the Plymouth colonists purchased the 
interests of the London merchants, and became the sole proprietors of the countiy .n 
which they had established themselves; and in 1634, they abolished their pure 
democracy, and adopted the mnro convenient form of representative government. 
17 



25vS MODERN HISTORY. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY (162S-1776). 

Founding of the Puritan Colony of Massachusetts Bay — ^John Endi- 
cott. — In 1628, John Endicott and one hundred Puritan emigrants founded Salem. 
They had been sent from England by a company which the following year (1629) 
was incorporated " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New Eng- 
land." In the same year the Company assigned the charter and government to the 
colonists. During 1629, other immigrants arrived, and settled Charlestown. 

Arrival of John W^inthrop — Founding of Boston and other Towns. — 
In 1630, a large number of Puritans from England arrived at Salem, with John 
Winthrop as governor. Some of them made settlements at Dorchester, Roxbury, 
Watertown, Cambridge, and Lynn; while Winthrop and others settled Boston, 
which became the capital of the Massachusetts Bay colony and the future metrop- 
olis of New England. In 1634, representative government was established in the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay. 

Puritan Intolerance — Banishment of Roger Williams and Ann Hutch- 
inson — The Puritans, who had just suffered so much persecution in England for 
their religious opinions, were no sooner settled in New England than they became 
persecutors themselves, and allowed no toleration for difference of opinion in reli- 
gious or civil matters. In 1635, Roger Williams, a Puritan minister of the gospel, 
was banished from the Massachusetts Bay colony, because he advocated toleration 
for all religious beliefs. Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island the next 
year. (1636.) Religious dissensions still disturbed the Massachusetts Bay colony; 
and in 1637, Mrs. Ann Hutchinson and the Reverend John Wheelwright, supporters 
of Williams, wer^ banished. 

"The United Colonies of New England." — In 1643, the New England 
colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in 
a confederacy for mutual protection against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians. 
This union, called "The United Colonies of New England," lasted more than forty 
years, when mutual jealousies caused its dissolution. 

Persecution of Quakers. — The year 1656 is noted in the history of the Massa 
chusetts Bay colony for a most cruel persecution of Quakers who sought an asylum 
in that colony. Some were whipped, others were imprisoned, and many were put 
to death. Finally a milder spirit prevailed, and persecution ceased. 

Popular Resistance to Royal Oppression. — The New Englanders, unlike 
the Virginians, sympathized with the enemies of the king during the civil war in 
England. When monarchy was restored in the mother country, in 1660, an at- 
tempt was made to restrict the liberties of the people of New England; and a royal 
commission was appointed to govern the colony of Massachusetts Bay; but this 
attempt at usurpation encountered so much popular resistance that it was relin- 
quished, and republicanism was triumphant. 

King Philip's War. — In 1675, the Wampanoag prince, Metacomet, commonly 
known as "King Philip," the son and successor of the good Massasoit, commerced 
a wai of extermination against the white people of New England. Philip's first 
attack was made at Swanzey, on Sunday, July 4th, 1675, and many of the whites 
were massacred. The whites were soon aroused, and seized their arms, while the 
savages desolated the English settlements on the Connecticut river. King Philip 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



259 



was repulseil in an attack upon Hatfield, in October, 1675; after which he was 
sheltered by the Narragansets of Rhode Island. A force of 1,500 New Englanders 
resented the hostile conduct of the Narragansets by applying the torch to their wig- 
wams; and hundreds of Indian men, women, and children perished in the flames, 
and a thousand of their warriors were killed or captured. The following year 
(1676), the Indians were subjugated, and their great leader, King Philip, was shot 
by an Indian who was friendly to the whites. 

New England Charters Annulled — Tyrannical Rule of Sir Edmund 

Andres. — After James II. became King of England, in 1685, he annulled the 
charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and appointed the infamous Sir Edmund 
Andros to rule all New England as Governor-General. Andros governed tyran- 
nically for two years; but when, in 1689, news reached Boston of the Revolution 
in England which drove King James II. from the throne, the Bo^tonians seized 
and imprisoned Andros, and sent him to England on a just charge of maladminis- 
tratioil in office ; and the New England colonies resumed their charters. 

" Salem Witchcraft." — In 1692, the people of Massachusetts Bay were af- 
flicted with a great delusion, known as "The Salem Witchcraft." A general belief 
in sorcery prevailed; many unfortunate persons were accused of practicing witch- 
craft ; and, during a period of six months, about twenty persons were put to death, 
and many others were imprisoned. This frightful delusion passed away as sud- 
denly as it had appeared. 

Union of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay as One Royal Province. 
— In 1692, King William III. of England united the colonies of Plymouth, Massa- 
chusetts Bay, and the English settlements in Maine and New Brunswick, as one 
royal province, under the name of Massachusetts ; and appointed Sir William 
Phipps governor. 

NEW YORK (A. D. 1623-1776). 

DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND (1623-1664). 

Henry Hudson's Discoveries and Explorations. — In 1609, Henry Hudson, 
an English navigator, then in the service of the Dutch East India Company, ex- 
plored the American coast from Chesapeake bay to Long Island Sound, and sailed 
up the beautiful river which bears his name, as far as the site of Albany. On this 
account, the Dutch claimed the territory drained by this stream. On a subsequent 
voyage, Hudson discovered the large bay which bears his name, in British America, 
and, while on his home voyage, his crew became mutinous and sent Hudson and 
his son in a boat adrift on the ice, and they were no more heard of. 

The Dutch West-India Company and the New Netherland Grant.— 
In 1614, the Dutch erected huts on Manhattan Island; and in the same year, the 
Dutch built a fort near the site of Albany. -In 1621, the States-General of Hol- 
land granted great privileges of colonization to a company of Amsterdam merchants 
who were incorporated the Dutch West India Company. This company claimed 
the territory between Cape Henlopen and the Connecticut river; and named it 
" New Netherland." 

Founding of New Amsterdam and Fort Orange — Minuit and Van 



26o MODERN HISTOR Y. 

Twiller. — In 1623, permanent Dutch settlements were made at New Amsterdam; 
on Manhattan Island, and at Fort Orange, on the site of Albany. Immigrants from 
Holland came over into the colony in large numbers. The first governor of New 
Netherland was Peter Minuit (1626-1633), and the second, was Wouter Van Twil- 
ler (1633-1638). 

Turbulent Administration of William Kieft — War v^^ith the Indians. — 
The third governor of New Netherland was the haughty, rapacious, and despotic 
Sir William Kieft, who vainly tried to suppress the growth of democracy among 
the New Netherlanders, and whose turbulent spirit soon involved him in trouble 
with the Swedes on the Delaware, the English on the Connecticut, the Indians all 
around him, and the colonists at his door. With cruel treachery, Kieft attacked 
the Indians at Hoboken, and hostilities were carried on with the greatest ferocity 
for two years, when the Indians were subdued, and their power and spirit was 
broken. In 1647, the quarrelsome Kieft was recalled; and on his way to Europe, 
his vessel was wrecked, and the infamous governor perished. 

Energetic Administration of Peter Stuyvesant— Conquest of New 
Sweden. — The fourth and last governor of New Netherland was the firm and 
energetic Peter Stuyvesant, who endeavored, as much as prudence would permit, 
to check the growing spirit of republicanism among the New Netherland people, 
who grew bolder by degrees, and who finally denied the right of taxation without 
representation, and showed an inclination to bear English rule for the sake of 
enjoying English liberty. In 1655, Governor Stuyvesant conquered the Swedish 
settlements on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. 

Conquest of New Netherland by the English. — In 1664, King Charles 
II. of England granted to his brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, all the ter- 
ritory embraced by the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The Duke sent a small 
naval force under Colonel Richard Nicolls to take possession of New Netherland, 
which was done in September of the same year. (1664.) The people of New 
Amsterdam, tired of Stuyvesant's rigor, and hoping to enjoy greater political free- 
dom under English nde, made no resistance, and Stuyvesant was obliged to surren- 
der the place to Nicolls. The name "New York" was given to New Amsterdam, 
as well as to the province of New Netherland; and Fort Orange was named 
"Albany." 

ENGLISH PROVINCE OF NE^A/" 'YORK (1664-1776). 

English Tyranny — Dutch Capture of New York — Its Restoration to 
the English. — Colonel Nicolls was the first governor of the English province of 
New York. The Dutch colonists were disappointed in their hopes of enjoying 
greater political liberty under English rule, as Nicolls, and his successor, Francis 
IvOvelace, governed most despotically. In 1673, during a war between England 
and Holland, a Dutch squadron captured the city of New York, but it was restored 
to the English by a treaty of peace the next year (1674), and Andros became 
governor. 

Charter of Liberties — Execution of Leisler and Milborne. — In 1683, 
the Duke of York granted the people of New York a "Charter of Liberties," allow- 
ing them a popular assembly ; but when he became King of England, in 1685, with 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 261 

the title of James II., he revokod the privileges which he had granted, and made 
the tyrant Andros governor of New York a second time. When news reached New 
York of the dethronement of James II. in England and the imprisonment of Andros 
in Boston, Jacob Leisler, a leading merchant, with the sanction of the people of 
New York, assmned the office of governor, until the arrival of Colonel Henry Slough- 
*er, the new royal governor, in 169 1 ; when Leisler, and his son-in-law, Milbome, 
wete tried and executed for high-treason. 

Growth of Republicanism — Vindication of the Freedom of the Press. 
— From the time of Leisler's death, the people of Nevv York resisted the oppression 
of the royal governors sent to rule them, and republicanism constantly gained 
strength. In 1734, William Cosby, then governor of the province, caused John 
Peter Zenger, the editor of the democratic newspaper in New York, to be arrested 
on a charge of libel. Zenger was tried and acquitted by a jury, and'the magistrates 
of New York city made a present to his counsel, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, 
for his noble vindication of the freedom of the press. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE (A. D. 1629-1776). 

The Grant to Gorges and Mason — Founding of Portsmouth, Dover, 
and Exeter. — In 1622, the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers 
was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason, under the name of " Laco- 
nia." The proprietors sent out emigrants to settle in Laconia; and as early as 
1622, fishing stations were established on the sites of Portsmouth and Dover. In 
1629, the Reverend John Wheelwright and others founded the town of Exeter. 

The New Hampshire Grant — New Hampshire and Massachusetts. — 

[n 1629, John Mason became sole proprietor of Laconia, and named the region 
"New Hampshire," after Hampshire county in England. Mason settled at Ports- 
mouth; and other settlements were made as far as Machias, in Maine. In 1 641, 
New Hampshire was united with the Massachusetts Bay colony, but the two colo- 
nies were again separated in 1 679, whe,n New Hampshire became a royal province. 
In 1 699, New Hampshire was reunited with Massachusetts under the same governor; 
but a final separation took place in 1741. 

MARYLAND (A. D. 1634-1776). 

Lord Baltimore and the Maryland Grant — Settlement of St. Mary's. — 
In 1622, William Clayborne erected a trading-house on Kent Island. King Charles 
I. of England granted the territory on both sides of Chesapeake bay, under the 
name of " Maryland," to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, an English Roman Cath- 
r>Iic nobleman, who desired to find a refuge in America for persecuted Roman 
Catholics. In 1634, nearly 200 English Roman Catholics, with Leonard Calvert, 
Cecil's brother, as their governor, formed a settlement at St. Mary's, near the mouth 
of the Potomac river. The assembly met at St. Mary's, in 1635, and adopted a 
liberal form of government for the Maryland colony. 

Clayborne's Two Rebellions. — In 1635, William Clayborne, who refused to 
recognize Lord Baltimore's authority, commenced a rebellion against the governor 
of Maryland, but he was defeated and compelled to flee from the province. In 



262 MODERN HISTORY. 

1 645, Clayborne returned and began another rebellion ; and for a time the rebels held 
the reins of power, and Govtrnor Calvert was obliged to flee to Virginia; but the 
rebellion was suppressed in 1646, and the governor returned to Maryland and 
resumed his authority. 

Toleration Act — Influx of Protestants — Disfranchisement of Catholics 
—Civil War. — In 1649, ^^ Maryland assembly passed "The Toleration Act," 
which granted religious freedom for all seels in Maryland; and this induced many 
I'lotestants who were persecuted elsewhere to settle in this Roman Catholic province 
At ,'ength the influx of Protestants was so great that they outnumbered the Catholics; 
and after obtaining a majority in the assembly, they questioned the rights of the 
proprietor, and, with the meanest ingratitude, they -disfranchised the Catholics and 
declared them not entitled to the protection of the laws. This outrageous proceed- 
ing led to a civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and the Protestants, which 
ended in the defeat of the Catholics and the overthrow of the proprietary govern- 
ment; but when monarchy was restored in England, in 1 660., Lxjrd Baltunore 
recovered his rights. 

Maryland a Royal Province — Restoration of Proprietary Government. 
— The Maryland colony now prospered until 16S9, when a Protestant insurrection 
overthrew- the proprietary government; and in 1691, King William III. of Eng- 
land deprived Lord Baltimore of his rights, made Maryland a royal province, and 
established the Church of England in the colony; and Roman Catholics were dis 
franchised in a province which they had founded. In 17 16, Maryland M"as re- 
stored to the heirs of Lord Baltimore, and it remained a proprietary province until 
the Revolution of 1775. 

CONNECTICUT (A. D. 1635-1776). 

Discovery of the Connecticut River by Adrian Block — The Connecticut 
Grant. — In 1614, Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, discovered the Connecticut 
river, and sailed up that stream as far as the site of Hartford. In 1630, the Coun- 
cil of Ptymouth granted the soil of Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who, the 
following year, granted it to Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. 

Founding of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield — Settlement ot 
Saybrook. — In 1633, the Dutch erected a fort at the site of Hartford, and in the 
same year the English under Captain Holmes established a trading-house at the 
site of Windsor. In 1635, emigrants from Boston settled Windsor and Wethers- 
field ; and in 1 636, other emigrants from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, led by 
the Reverend Thomas Hooker, founded Hartford. In 1635, John Winthrop, son 
of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, led a company of emigi-ants to 
the mouth of the Connecticut river, where they formed a settlement, which, in 
honor of Lord Say and Seal and Lord Brooke, they named "Saybrook." 

Pequod War — Founding of New Haven. — In 1637, a frightful war broke 
out between the Connecticut settlers and the Pequod Indians, the Mohegan and 
Narraganset tribes uniting with the whites ; and in a furious battle at the Mystic 
river, the savages were defeated by Captain John Mason, after their fort had been 
set on fire, and the tribe of the Pequods was exterminated, and their chief, Sassa- 
cus, fled to the Mohawks, who put him to death. ' In 1638, New Haven was 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



263 



fou ided by emigrants from England, led by the Reverend Jolm Davenport and 
Theophilus Eaton; and they resolved to be governed in civil matters according 
to the rules and principles of the Bible. 

Connecticut Constitution — Union of Connecticut, Saybrook, and New 
Haven. — In 1639, the settlers at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted a 
liberal constitution of government for the Connecticut colony. In 1644, the Say- 
brook settlement was united •w'l'Ca. Connecticut; and in 1665, the Connecticut and 
New Haven colonies were united into one colony, called "Connecticut," under a 
charter granted to the colonists by King Charles II., three years before. 

Resistance to Governor Andros. — In 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, then gov- 
ernor of New York, attempted to extend his authority over Connecticut; and for 
this purpose he went to Saybrook with a small naval force; but he was so firmly 
resisted that he relinquished the attempt. 

Andros and the Connecticut Charter. — In 1687, Andros, as Governor 
General of all New England, succeeded in depriving all the New England colonics, 
excepting Connecticut, of their charters. He went to Hartford to seize the Con- 
necticut charter; and while the assembly was in session in the evening, the charter 
was laid on the table; but just as Andros attempted to take it, the lights were sud- 
denly extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth carried away the charter and hid it in 
the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth was called "the Charter Oak." 
Andros, however, governed Connecticut, until he was imprisoned in Boston, in 
1689, when the Connecticut charter was taken from its hiding-place. 

Governor F'letcher and Captain Wadsworth. — In 1693, Governor Fletcher 
of New York attempted to bring Connecticut under his jurisdiction, and for that 
purpose he went to Hartford, where he assembled the Connecticut militia. When 
Fletcher proceeded to read his commission, Captain Wadsworth, the commander of 
the militia, commanded the drums to be beaten. "Silence," shouted Fletcher, 
whereupon Wadsworth stepped up and said, "Sir! if they are interrupted again, I 
will make the sun shine through you in a moment !" Fletcher returned to New 
York in great anger. From this time Comiecticut was a prosperous colony, 

RHODE ISLAND (A. D. 1636-1776). 

Founding of Providence by Roger Williams. — The first settlement in Rhode 
Island was made on the Pawtucket river, by William Blackstone, a Puritan minister. 
When Roger Williams was banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in 
1635, he traveled through the wilderness, in the midst of winter; and in 1636, he 
founded a settlement on Narraganset bay, which, with pious feelings, he named 
" Providence." This was the beginning of the Rhode Island colony, which became 
an asylum for persecuted Christians of all sects. 

Settlement of Portsmouth and Newport. — In 1638, William Coddington, 
a nonconformist minister, and others who were banished from the colony of Mas 
sachu3etts Bay, founded Portsmouth, on the island which they named Rhode Island; 
and in the following year (1639), the settlement of Newport was commenced. 

First Charter of the Providence and Rhode Island Plantations^ 
Religious Freedom. — In 1644, Roger Williams, who had gone to England for 



264 MODERN HISTORY. 

that purpose, obtained from the Long Parliament a liberal charter, under ■which 
"The Providence and Rhode Island Plantations" were united as one province; and 
in 1647, a colonial convention, assembled at Portsmouth, adopted a democratic 
torm of government and established the principles of perfect religious freedom in 
Rhode Island. 

Second Rhode Island Charter. — In 1663, King Charles II. of England 
crranted to the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations a charter which left the 
colonists in the full enjoyment of perfect civil and religious freedom. This char- 
U'r was suspended by the tyrant Andros in 16S7, but when he was imprisoned in 
IJoston, in 1689, it was resumed, and remained in full force as the instrument of 
government of the Commonwealth until 1842, when a State constitution was 
adopted. ' 

DELAWARE (A. D. 1638-1776). 

Settlement of New Sweden — Swedish Settlements on the Delaware 

— Under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company, a company of Swedish 
emigrants, under Perter Minuit, the first governor of New Netherland, made a set- 
tlement on Christiana Creek, near the site of Wilmington, in the present State of 
Delaware, in 1638, and named the territory "New Sweden." Swedish settlements 
were also made on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, in the present Pennsylvania. 
Conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch— Delaware and Pennsylvania. 
— The Dutch at New Amsterdam claimed the territory of New Sweden ; and in 
1655, Governor Stuyvesant of New Netherland conquered the Swedish settlements 
on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. The domain 
of New Sweden was granted to William Penn in 1682, and it became a part of 
Pennsylvania. The territory now known as Delaware became a separate province 
m 1702, with a legislature of its own, but it was united with Pennsylvania under 
one governor until 1776, when Delaware became an independent State. 

NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA (A. D. 1663-1776). 

NORTH CAROLINA (1663-1776). 

The Carolina Grant. — Between the years 1640 and 1650, emigrants from Vir- 
ginia settled near the mouth of the Chowan river. In 1663, King Charles II. of 
England granted to the Earl of Clarendon and seven associates the extensive region 
between Virginia and Florida, under the general name of " Carolina." 

The Albemarle and Clarendon Colonies. — In 1663, a number of emigrants 
from Virginia, with William Drummond as governor, founded Edenton, on the 
Chowan river. This settlement was called " The Albemarle County Colony," A 
representative government was adopted; and the first legislative assembly in Caro- 
lina convened at Edenton, in 166S. In 1665, some planters from the Eaibadoes 
Islands, with Sir John Yeamans as governor, established, on the Cape Fear River, 
a settlement known as " The Clarendon County Colony." This colony was broken 
up several years afterward. 

The Fundamental Constitutions.— Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and 
the philosopher John Locke prepared a constitution of government for tlie Caroli- 



- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 265 

nas. This instrument, known as "The Fundamental Constitutions," or "The 
Grand Model," was extremely aristocratic in spirit, and utterly repugnant to the 
wishes of the freedom-loving settlers of the Carolinas. It could never be enforced, 
as every attempt to do so produced a rebellion; and after a struggle of a quarter of 
a century, between the colonists and the proprietors, this absurd scheme of govern- 
ment was finally abandoned by the proprietors, in 1695; and the cause of republi- 
canism was triumphant in Carolina. 

Rebellion in North Carolina — Administrations of Seth Sothel and John 
Archdale. — The attempt to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions in the Albe- 
marle Colony (North Carolina) produced a rebellion, which resulted in the impri- 
sonment of the governor, and the temporaiy subversion of the proprietary government. 
In 1683, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors, became governor of North Carolina; 
but, after a tyrannical and corruiDt administration of five years, he was banished from 
the colony. In 1695, the good Quaker, John Archdale, became governor of both 
the Carolinas, and under his administration both colonies greatly prospered. 

Emigration to North Carolina — War with the Tuscarora Indians. — 
Quakers, Huguenots, and German Protestants settled in North Carolina. In 1711, 
a frightful war broke out between the North Carolina settlers and the Tuscarora 
Indians. The Indians massacred many of the German settlers ; but the Tuscaroras 
were finally subdued: 1,200 of them were captured, and the remainder joined the 
Five Nations in New York thus forming the league of " The Six Nations." 

SOUTH CAROLINA ('1670-1776) 

The Carteret Colony — Founding of Charleston — In 1670, a company of 
emigrants from England, with William Sayle as their governor, settled Old Charles 
ton, on the Ashley river. This is known as " The Carteret County Colony," so 
called in honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the proprietors of the Carolinas. In 
1680, the inhabitants of Old Charleston removed to a point between the Ashley and 
Cooper rivers, where they laid the foundations of the present city of Charleston. A 
representative government was established; and the first legislative assembly in the 
Carteret Colony convened at Charleston in 1682. 

Emigration to South Carolina — Rebellion — Sothel's and Archdale's 
Administrations. — Dutcli emigrants, Puritans, and Huguenots settled in the Car- 
teret Colony (South Carolina). An effort to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions 
led to a rebellion in South Carolina, which resulted in the banishment of the gov- 
ernor, James Colleton. In 1690, the infamous Seth Sothel came to South Carolina, 
of which colony he became governor; but, after oppressing and plundering the 
colonists for two years, he was banished. Under the wise administration of John 
Archdale prosperity attended the colony. 

War with the Spaniards of Florida — -War with the Yamasee Indians. 
—In 1702, hostilities commenced between the South Carolinians and the Spaniards 
of Florida. South Carolina sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Spaniards; 
but the Apalachian Indians, the allies of the Spaniards, were subjugated ; 800 of 
the Apalachians being captured, and their country taken possession of. In 1706, 
a combined French and Spanish fleet failed in an attack upon Charleston. In 1715, 
the South Carolina colonists became involved in a dangerous war with the Yamasee 



266 MODERN HISTORY. 

Indians. Governor Craven with 1,200 men subdued the Yamasees, and drove them 
into Florida. 

North and South Carolina, Royal Provinces. — In 1719, the people of 
South Carolina rebelled against the proprietary government; and in 1729, the pro- 
prietors, wearied of the perpetual opposition, surrendered their claims to the crown, 
wJ^ereupon North and South Carolina became distinct royal provinces, and so 
remained until the great Revolution of I775> which swept away feudalism and 
royalty. 

NEW JERSEY (A. D. 1664-1776). 

The New Jersey Grant — Puritan Settlement of Elizabethtown. — The 
Dutch efitablished a trading post at Bergen, in 1618, and another at Fort Nassau, 
below fne site of Camden, in 1623. The Swedes and Finns also made settlements 
on th,e Delaware. In 1664, when New Netherland was conquered by the Eng- 
lish, idling Charles II. of England granted the territoiy between the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and named the province 
"N'ew Jersey;" and in the same year (1664), some English Puritans settled Eliza- 
Yyethtown. Philip Carteret, a brother of Sir George, was made governor, and repre- 
sentative government was established. When, in 1670, the proprietors of New 
Jersey demanded the payment of quit-rents, the colonists rose in rebellion, and drove 
the governor from the colony. 

Division into East and West Jersey— Purchase of New Jersey by 
Quakers. — In 1674, Lord Berkeley sold his interest in New Jersey to some Quakers, 
who founded Salem; and in 1676, the province was divided, the Quakers obtaining 
West Jersey, and Carteret receiving East Jersey. In 1682, William Penn and other 
Quakers purchased East Jersey from Carteret's heirs, and made Robert Barclay 
governor. 

New Jersey a Royal Province — New Jersey and New York.- — In 1688, 
King James II. made the tyrant Andros governor of the Jerseys, from which time 
great confusion prevailed until 1702, when East and West Jersey were united as 
one royal province, and placed under the governor of New York, but having its 
own legislature. In 1738, New Jersey was entirely separated from New York, 
and Lewis Morris became governor. 

PENNSYLVANIA (A. D. 1682-1776). 

William Penn and the Pennsylvania Grant — Settlement of Quakers in 
Pennsylvania. — In 1643, the Swedes made a settlement on Tinicum Island, below 
the site of Philadelphia. In 1677, Swedish settlements were made on the Dela- 
ware and Schuylkill rivers. In 168 1, King Charles II. of England granted an 
immense territory west of the Delaware river to William Penn, a Quaker, who de- 
sired to secure an asylum for the persecuted sect to which he belonged. The prov- 
ince was named " Pennsylvania," which signifies "Penn's woods." In 1682, the 
territory of the present State of Delaware was added to Penn's grant. In 1682, a 
large company of Quakers from England arrived in Pennsylvania, founded the town 
of Chester, the oldest English settlement in the colony, and organized a liberal 
form of government. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



2(i1 



William Penn in Pennsylvania — Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — In 

die fall of 16S2, William Penn arrived in Pennsylvania, and was joyfully received 
by the Swedes and the English Quakers. He met the Assembly of Pennsylvania 
at Chester, when he established a permanent government for the colony. Under a 
large elm tree, on the site of Philadelphia, Penn made a treaty of friendship with 
the Indians, who were treated with the greatest kindness by the Quakers. The 
Indians who were present exclaimed, " We will live in peace with William Penn 
and his children as long as the sun and the moon shall endure!" They were true 
to their word. Not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian. This 
treaty was never sv^^orn to and never broken. 

Founding of Philadelphia — Charter of Liberties. — The same year (1682), 
Penn laid out a capital for his new province between the Delaware and Schuylkill 
rivers; and named the place "Philadelphia," which means "city of brotherly love." 
Within a y-ear, a hundred houses were built. In 1683, the colonial assembly met 
at Philadelphia, and adopted a " Charter of Liberties." 

Penn's Return to England — His Second Visit to Pennsylvania. — In 
1684, William Penn returned to England; and in 1689, he was deprived of his 
province by King William III., who suspected Penn of being disloyal to his gov- 
ernment. Penn's province was restored to him in 1694; and in 1699, he visited 
Pennsylvania a second time. He gi-anted the colonies greater privileges, and 
allowed Delaware to have a separate legislature. Both colonies had the same 
governor until the American Revolution. William Penn died in London in 1718; 
and in 1776, the Pennsylvanians purchased the claims of his heirs, and the prov- 
ince became an independent commonwealth. 

Mason's and Dixon's Line, — The boundaiy line between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland, which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled as at present, in 
1 76 1, by George Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, surveyors appointed for the purpose 
by the King of England; and the line established by them is still called "Mason's 
and Dixon's Line." 

GEORGIA (A. D. 1733-1776). 

Benevolent Design — Founding of Savannah — Oglethorpe's Treaty 
with the Indians. — In 1743, ],^ing George II. of England granted to the philan- 
thropic James Edward Oglethorpe, a member of the English Parliament, and other 
benevolent individuals, "in trust for the poor," all the territory between the Sa- 
vannah and Altamaha rivers. Oglethorpe's plan was to offer an asylum in America 
to virtuous persons imprisoned for debt, and to other poor. Near the close of 1 732, 
one-hundred and twenty of these unfortunate persons sailed from England, with 
Oglethorpe as their governor; and in February, 1733, they arrived in America, and 
founded the city of Savannah. Oglethorpe met fifty Indian chiefs, with the Creek 
sachem, Tomochichi, at their head, and concluded a friendly treaty witli them, 
obtaining a large tract of territory, which was named " Georgia," in iionor of King 
George II. 

War with the Spaniards of Florida — Georgia a Royal Province. — Id 
1739, a war broke out between England and Spain; and in 1 740, Oglethorpe, with 
2,000 Georgians, invaded the Spanish province of Florida; but after an unsuccessfu' 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

siege of St. Augustine, he returned to Georgia. In 1 742, the Spaniards invaded 
Georgia; but they were defeated and driven back. Oglethorpe left Georgia forever 
in 1743; and in 1752, the trustees of the colony, wearied of their troublesome 
charge, sold their interests to the crown; and Georgia became a royal province, and 
so continued mitil 1776, when it became an independent State. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



AGE OF PETER THE GREAT AND 
CHARLES VI. 

Vv AR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (A. D. 1702-1714) 

CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 

Will of Charles II. of Spain — Archduke Charles of Austria and Duke 
Philip of Anjou. — After the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, the question which chiefly 
engaged the attention of Europe was whom the childless Charles II. of Spain, the 
last Spanish king of the House of Hapsburg, and then on the brink of the grave, 
should appoint as his heir to the vast dominions of Spain. His nearest relatives 
were King Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany. Both 
of these powerful monarchs were the first cousins, and both were the sons-in-law, 
of the Spanish sovereign; but Louis XIV. had renounced all claims to the crown 
of Spain by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659. Exasperated at the conduct of the 
Kings of France and England, in arranging a partition of the Spanish dominions 
between the sons of the claimants before his death, Charles II. appointed the young 
Elector of Bavaria as his heir. But this prince soon afterward died, and Kings 
Louis XIV. and William III. signed a new partition treaty. Greatly irritated at 
the French monarch, the King of Spain acknowledged the Archduke Charles of 
Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold I., as his successor; but the Spanish nobles, 
corrupted by the gold of Louis XIV., induced Charles II. to make a new will, by 
which Duke Philip of Anjou, grandson of the King of France, was appointed suc- 
cessor to the Spanish throne. Charles II. died in 1700; and after some hesitation. 
Louis XIV. adopted the last will. "When the Duke of Anjou started for Madrid, 
to tak.; possession of the throne of Spain, with the title of Philip V., Louis said to 
him, "There are no more Pyrenees." 

Coalition of Germany, England, and Holland Against France and 
Spain. — The Emperor Leopold I. of Germany opposed the last will of Charles II., 
and Esnt into Italy a large army under his great general. Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
a Frenchman by birth, but who had gained great renown in the services of the 
Emperor, in the wars of the German Empire against the Ottoman Porte. In 1701, 
Prince Eugene drove the French forces under Marshals Velleroi and Catinac out of 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



269 



Italy. While this petty war between France and Germany was in progi'ess, Louis 
XIV., by one imprudent act, provoked a powerful combination against himself. 
On the death of the exiled James II., in 1701, Louis recognzed his son as King of 
England, with the title of James III., after having promised not to do so. This 
act of the French king was regarded by England as a national insult, and King 
William III. found his Parliament and people, who before had been averse to 
England's participation in a continental war, ready to second all his views The 
most earnest preparations for war were now made by England. The death oi 
William III., in 1702, produced no change in this respect, as his successor, Anne, 
declared her determination to adhere to the policy adopted by her predecessor. An 
alliance against France was immediately formed by the German Empire, England, 
and Holland. The Elector of Bavaria entered into an alliance with the King of 
France. Spain was divided: Aragon siding with the Archduke Charles, and Cas- 
tile with Philip of Anjou. Thus England, Holland, and the German Empire were 
united against France and Bavaria. Thus began " The War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion," which for twelve years convulsed Southern and Western Europe. In his 
former wars, Louis XIV. had generally triumphed over his enemies ; but during 
the whole course of " The War of the Spanish Succession " he suffered a continua- 
tion of the most calamitous defeats. He no longer displayed the vigor and energy 
for which he had been before noted. 

EVENTS OF 1702 AND 1703. 

The War in Italy and in the Spanish Netherlands. — In Italy, during 
the year 1702, a French force under the Duke of Vendome gained the battle of 
Luzara over the Austrians. At this time, a powerful English army, under John 
Churchhill, Duke of Marlborough, who proved to be one of England's greatest 
generals, appeared in the Spanish Netherlands, and defeated the French forces 
commanded by the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Boufllers. 

Events in Spain and Germany. — During the year 1702, the united fleets 
of England and Holland were repulsed in attack upon the Spanish port of Cadiz, 
but they succeeded in destroying, in the harbor of Vigo, a combined French and 
Spanish fleet laden with the treasures of Spanish America. In the following year 
(1703), a French army under Marshal Villars passed the Rhine into Germany, and 
defeated the German imperial army commanded by Prince Louis of Baden, in the 
battles of Friecjlingen and Hochstelt. 

Protestant Insurrection in France — Protestant Rebellion in Hungary. 
— In 1703, the Protestants in the region of the Cevennes, maddened by religious 
persecution, rose against their bigoted and tyrannical king, and Louis XIV. sup- 
pressed the insurrection with great difficulty. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold 
I. of Germany produced a rebellion of his Protestant Hungarian subjects, who, led 
by the valiant Count Ragotzky, resisted the Austrians until 171 1, when Hung-.-r)' 
was reduced to submission. 

EVENTS OF 1704. 

Capture of Gibraltar. — On the 4th of August, 1704, the strong rocky fortress 
of Gibraltar, in Southern Spain, was taken by a few English sailors under Sir George 
Rooke. This achievement was by far the most important to England of any during 



270 MODERN HISTORY. 

the War of the Spanish Succession, as Gibraltar has ever since remained in her 
possession, and has given her the Icey to the Mediterranean sea. 

Battle of Blenheim. — The forces of Austria and the German Empire were at 
this time hard pressed by the French and the Bavarians. For the purpose of re- 
lieving them, the Duke of Marlborough, with the English army, forced his way into 
Bavaria, and succeeded in forming a junction with the Austrians undei Prince 
E'lgene, who had advanced from Italy. The united forces, numbering 80,000 men, 
wen a brilliant victory, on the 13th of August (1704), near the small villages of 
Hochstett and Blenheim, over 80,000 French and Bavarians, under Marshals 1 aliard 
and Marsin and the Elector of Bavaria. The victorious English and Germans lost 
13,000 men, while their defeated enemies lost 30,000. Marsin was made a prisoner, 
and all the French artillery, baggage, and camp-equipage fell into the hands of the 
victors. The disastrous issue of this battle compelled the French to evacuate Bavaria, 
and to fall back to the west side of the Rhine. The Elector of Bavaria, thus aban- 
doned and placed under the ban of the German Empire, was obliged to retire from 
his dominions, and France was deprived of all aid. 

Portugal Joins the Allies — An English Army in Spain. — During the year 
1704, Portugal joined the coalition against France, and the Archduke Charles, with 
the assistance of an English army under the Earl of Peterborough, landed in Spain. 

EVENTS OF 170B. 

Operations in Italy and Spain — ^Joseph I., Emperor of Germany. — In 
Italy, in 1705, the French, under the skillful Duke of Vendome, gained many advan- 
tages over the Austrians, and finally inflicted a severe defeat upon Prince Eugene, 
at Cassano. In Spain, the English under the Earl of Peterborough took Barcelona. 
During the same year, the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany died, and was suc- 
ceeded on the imperial throne by his son, Joseph I. 

EVENTS OF 1706. 

Battle of Ramillies. — The campaign of 1706 was a glorious one for the Allies, 
who acquired the supremacy in the Netherlands, in Italy, and in Spain. A French 
army of 80,000 men under Marshal Villeroi, having advanced into the Spanish 
Netherlands, was disastrously defeated by the English under the Duke of Marl- 
borough, in the decisive battle of Ramillies, on the 23d of May, 1706. The con- 
sequences of this battle were that the French king lost most of his acquisitions in 
the Spanish Netherlands. 

Battle of Turin. — The French, who thus far had been generally victorious in 
Italy, laid siege to Turin ; but Prince Eugene, with the German imperial army, 
•advanced to the relief of the city; and on the 7th of September, 1706, he defeated 
the French so disastrously before the walls of the city that they were obliged to 
raise the siege and evacuate Italy. Thus the fruits of all former French victories 
in Italy were lost by the result of a single battle. In Spain, during 1706, the allied 
English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Lord Galway, took 
possession of Madrid. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 271 

EVENTS OF 1707. 

Battle of Almanza. — The campaign of 1707 in a measure revived the hopes 
of Louis XIV. In Spain, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese armies, com- 
manded by Lord Galway, were almost annihilated in the battle of Almanza, on tlie 
25th of April (1707,) by the French army under the Duke of Berwick, a natural 
son of the ill-fated James II. of England. During the same year Prince Eugene 
Tnade an unsuccessful effort to take Toulon by siege. 

EVENTS OF 170S. 

Battle of Oudenarde. — The Allies still maintained their supremacy in the 
Spanish Netherlands. On the llth of July, 1708, the allied English and German 
armies, under the Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, severely defeated a 
large French army under the Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy, at I'he village of 
Oudenarde, on the Scheldt. Soon afterward the victors took Lille by siege, and 
the way to Paris stood open. 

EVENTS OF 1709. 

Louis XIV. asks for Peace. — France was now threatened with the horrors 
of famine. This danger, together with the exhausted state of the French finances, 
made Louis XIV. anxious for peace. He solicited peace with Holland, but the 
Dutch, remembering the insults which they had suffered from him, rejected all his 
proposals with disdain, and Louis found himself to continue the war, or to submit 
to the most humiliating conditions. 

Battle of Malplaquet. — The French received another severe blow in the 
Spanish Netherlands. In the bloody battle of Malplaquet, on the iith of Septem- 
ber, 1709, Marlborough and Eugene with their united armies defeated the French 
army of 80,000 men commanded by Marshals Villars and Boufflers. The French 
escaped from the field with the loss of 10,000 men, while the victorious English 
and Germans lost 20,000. 

EVENTS OF 1710. 

Haughty and Insulting Demands of the Allies. — In 1710, Louis XIV. 
again solicited peace, offering to make great concessions to the Allies. Pie even 
offered to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain, to furnish no more 
assistance to his grandson Philip, and even to supply the Allies with money to 
prosecute the war against him. But the allied powers demanded that Louis him- 
self should send an army into Spain to assist in driving out his grandson. This 
insulting demand Louis rejected with scorn, saying, "If I must continue the war, 
I should rather fight against my enemies than against my own giandson." The 
French people, who had clamored for peace, shared the indignation of their mon- 
arch, and were resolved not to submit to any such degrading conditions. 

French Victories in Spain. — Louis was somewhat encouraged by the suc- 
cesses of his arms in Spain during the year 1710. The campaign opened with the 
victories of the Austrians under Count Stahremberg, in the battles of Saragossa and 
Almenara; but afterwards the entire English corps under Stanhope was captured 
by the Duke of Vendome, after a severe battle at Brihuega. On the loth of Decern- 



272 



MODERN BIS TOR V. 



ber (1710), Vendome defeated Stahremberg at Villaviciossa, after a bloody battle 
of two days. 

EVENTS OF 1711. 

Consequences of the Death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany. — 

Early in 17 11, an event occurred which changed the situation of all parties. This 
was the death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany and the succession of hi? 
brother, the Archduke Charles, the competitor of Philip of Anjou, to the thrones oi 
Austria and the German Empire. The union of the crowns of Spain and Ger- 
many, in the person of a prince of the House of Hapsburg, was as alarming to the 
other powers of Europe as the union of the crowns of Spain and France, under a 
prince of the House of Bourbon. 

Change in the English Ministry. — A change of opinion with regard to the 
war had taken place in England, which resulted in the expulsion of the Wigs from 
office and the accession to power of the Tories, who opposed the war. The Tory 
Ministry, at the head of which stood Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, removed the 
avaricious Marlborough, who had been the most influential of the Whigs, from the 
chief command of the English army, and appointed in his stead the Duke of Or- 
mond, who had secret orders not to fight. 

EVENTS OF 1712, 'IS, '14. 

Peace of Utrecht — Peace of Rastadt. — As early as January, 1712, through 
the influence of England, conferences for peace were opened at Utrecht, in Hol- 
land; but, owing to the opposition of the Dutch and German ambassadors, negotia- 
tions progressed very slowdy. Finally, on the llth of April, 1713, a treaty of 
peace was agi-eed to by the ambassadors of France and England. Holland and 
Germany, however, obstinately resolved to continue the war; but the decisive defeat 
of the German imperial army under Prince Eugene, by the French under Marshal 
Villars, in the the battle of Denain, on the 24th of July, 17 13, alarmed the Dutch 
so much that they also agreed to a treaty of peace with France. By the Peace of 
Utrecht, England received Gibraltar from Spain, and Nova Scotia and the Hudson's 
Bay Territory from France. The succession of Anne to the throne of England 
was acknowledged by France; while Philip of Anjou was recognized by England 
'as King of Spain, on condition that the crowns of France and Spain should never 
be united. The war between France and the German Empire continued until the 
7th of March, 17 14, when the Peace of Rastadt was concluded, by which the 
House of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, 
which were thus separated from the dominion of Spain; the Emperor of 
Germany recognized Philip of Anjou as King of Spain; the exiled Elector of 
Bavaria was to be restored to his dominions; and the new kingdom of Prussia, 
which had been established in 1701, was recognized. Thus after a war which had 
een, on the whole, disastrous to Louis XIV., that monarch obtained honorable 
terms of peace; and the Allied Powers were punished for their former unreasonable 
and insolent demands. 

Condition of France — Death of Louis XIV. — Louis XV. — Peace came 
none too soon for France, whose condition, in consequence of the long and expen- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



273 



sive wari occasioned by the ambition of her warlike monarch, was at this time 
most deploral)le. The pubhc debt was enonnous, the nation was ahnost financially 
ruined, and the resources of the kingdom were almost exhausted; and nothing but a 
long period of peace would enable the country to recuperate. Louis XIV. sank into 
his grave in September, 1715, after a reign of seventy-two yeai'S, fifty-four from the 
expiration of the regency. As all the children and grand-children of Louis XIV. 
had died before him, his great-grandson was invested with the crown of France, with 
the title of Louis XV. During the minority of Louis XV., the talented but profli- 
gate Duke of Orleans acted as regent of the French kingdom. The young king 
was instructed in all sorts of vice; and when he assumed the government, on 
the expiration of the regency, in 1723, his moral depravity was equal to that of 
the unworthy regent. 

THE NORTHERN WAR (A. D. 1700-1718). 

Russia Under the House of Romanoff — Peter the Great. — Under the 
wise, peaceable, and virtuous Michael Romanoff, who ascended the throne of Rus- 
sia in 1 613, that country enjoyed a period of prosperity. ' During the reign of 
Michael's son Alexis (1645- 1676), the Russian Empire was extended in every 
direction. In 1689, Peter I., surnamed "the Great," became sole sovereign of 
the Russian Empire. Well did this prince deserve the title of "the Great," as he 
did more for the civilization and advancement of Russia than all of his predecessors 
and successors. Before his time Russia was a nation of barbarians, and more of an 
Asiatic empire than a European one. Peter the Great was one of the very few 
monarchs who have labored for the welfare of their subjects. Having, by extensive 
travels through Europe, early seen the practical advantages of civilization, he en- 
couraged foreign mariners, artisans, and officers to emigrate to Russia. In 1697, 
Peter left his dominions as a private individual, and went on a travel to other parts 
of Europe, where he studied such arts as he thought would be useful to his subjects. 
For the purpose ot better acquiring a knowledge of the art of ship-building, Petei 
worked as a common ship-carpenter in Holland and in England. Although Petei 
civilized his subjects, he could not civilize himself, and he remained a cruel barba- 
rian all his life. He often said that he corrected the faults of the Russian people, 
but not his own. He had some great vices, and was guilty of some shocking 
crimes, but still his name stands deservedly among the first of those sovereigns who 
have labored for the good of their subjects. 

Alliance of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, against Sweden. — When, 
in 1697, Charles XII., a youth eighteen years of age, became King of Sweden, the 
sovereigns of Russia, Poland, and Denmark considered the time favorable for wi est- 
ing from Sweden the provinces which she had formally conquered. Peter the 
Groat of Russia was desirous of the possession of some of the Swedish provinces 
on the east side of the Baltic; Frederic Augustus, King of Poland and Elector of 
Saxony, resolved upon seizing Livonia; and King Frederic IV. of Denmark deter- 
mined to appropriate unto himself Schleswig, which belonged to the Duke of Hoi ■ 
stein, a brother-in-law of the young King of Sweden. An alliance against Swederi 
was accordingly concluded between the Czar of Russia and the Kings of Poland 
and Denmark, for the purpose of obtaining the coveted provinces by force. Almost 
18 



274 



MODERN HISTORY. 



at the same time, in the year 1700, the King of Denmark carried war into the 
dominions of the Duke of Holstein, the King of Poland marched into Livonia and 
fell upon Riga, and the Czar of Russia, with 80,000 men, invaded Esthonia, and 
laid siege to Nai-va. 

Charles XII. of Sweden — Denmark Humbled — Peace of Travendal.— 
To the astonishment of all Europe, the young King of Sweden suddenly exhibited 
great military abilities. Indignant at the aggressive conduct of his enemies, and 
having determined upon carrying the war into Denmark, Charles XII. landed with 
an army on the island of Zealand, and laid siege to Copenhagen. The inhabitants 
of the Danish capital saved their city from their horrors of a bombardment by the 
payment of a large sum of money. Having invaded Holstein, the King of Den- 
mark was a't this time completely hemmed in, and found that nothing but a disad- 
vantageous peace would save his kingdom from falling into the power of the Swedes, 
The Peace of Travendal was accordingly concluded between the Kings of Sweden 
and Denmark, by which Frederic IV. renounced his alliance with Russia and Po- 
land, and agreed to indemnify the Duke of Holstein. 

Battle of Narva. — After humbling the King of Denmark, Charles XII., at the 
head of 8,000 Swedish troops, marched against the Czar of Russia, who, with 80,000 
men, was then besieging Narva. Although the Swedish king had but one-tenth as 
many men as his antagonist, he did not hesitate to attack the army of Peter the 
Great. Having broken the Russian intrenchments by a heavy cannonade, Charles, 
on the 30th of November, 1700, ordered a bayonet charge, and, under cover of a 
severe storm of snow which was driving into the faces of the Russians by the wind, 
he assailed the enemy. The Russians were unable to stand their ground, and, after 
a terrible battle of three hours, their works were forced on all sides. The Russian 
loss was 8,000 killed and 30,000 made prisoners. Many were drowned in the Neva 
by the breaking of the bridge. The Russians also lost all their baggage, stores, and 
cannon. Chailes entered Neva as a conqueror, thinking that this great blow had 
completely broken the power of Peter the Great. The Czar, however, was not dis- 
couraged. He said, " I knew that the Swedes would beat us ; but in time they 
will teach us to become their conquerors." After his defeat, Peter evacuated the 
Swedish provinces, and devoted his attention to disciplining his army. 

Victories of Charles XII. over the King of Poland. — Instead of following 
up his victory over Peter the Great, the Swedish king, after wintering at Narva, 
marched against King Augustus II. of Poland, who had unsuccessfully besieged 
Riga the previous year. After defeating the Polish king in the bloody battle of 
Duna, in July, 1 701, and obtaining full possession of the provinces of Livonia and 
Couiland, Charles XII. marched into Poland. The Swedish monarch entered 
Warsaw on the 14th of May, 1702, and soon afterward declared that he would not 
grant a peace to Poland, until the Polish Diet had dethroned Augustus II. and 
elected another king in his place. On the 9th of July, 1702, Augustus was defeated 
with heavy loss by Charles, in a desperate engagement near Gliessaw, in a large 
plain between Warsaw and Cracow. The camp, baggage, artillery, and military 
cnest of Augustus fell into the hands of Charles, who soon afterwards took possession 
of Warsaw. 

Peter's Conquests on the Baltic — Founding of St. Petersburg. — While 
Charles XII. of Sweden was conquering in Poland, his most powerful enemy, Peter 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



275 



the Great of Russia, was reducing the Swedish provinces on the east side of the 
Baltic, and annexing them to the Russian Empire. Peter took Narvt, by storm, 
Ijuilt tht fortresses of Schlusselburg and Cronstadt, and caused the islands at the 
mouth of tl-e Neva to be drained by serfs; and there he laid the foundations of a 
city which he named St. Petersburg, and which he intended should be the capital 
of the Rus iian Empire. In 1 703, Peter compelled 300,000 people from Moscow 
and other Russian cities to settle at St. Petersburg. He also encouraged foreigners 
to emigrate thither. Famine and disease soon carried 200,000 of the settlers of 
the new city to their graves. Yet Peter was not discouraged, but he persevered 
in his enterprise, and, by his liberal and enlightened policy, foreign artisans and 
merchants were induced to emigrate to St. Petersburg. 

Dethronement of Aug'ustus II. of Poland — Successes of Charles XII. in 
Poland. — In 1703, Charles XII. again defeated Augustus II. of Pola'nd, and com- 
pelled him to retreat into Saxony, his hereditary dominions. Through the influence 
of the King of Sweden, Augustus was dethroned by the Polish Diet, in July, 1 704, 
and Stanislaus Leczinski, voiwode of Posen, a creature of Charles XII., was elected 
to the throne of Poland, by a Diet surrounded by Swedish soldiers. Resolving to 
recover the Polish crown, Augustus returned to Poland with an army of Saxons, 
and took Warsaw, but was at length forced to retire. Augustus afterwards received 
the assistance of 60,000 Russians, whom Peter the Great had sent to expel the 
Swedes from Poland ; but Charles routed the different Russian divisions in succes- 
sion, and struck such terror into their ranks, by the rapidity of his movements, that 
the Russians retired into their own territories. (1706.) 

Invasion of Saxony by Charles XII. — Peace of Altranstadt. — In the 
meantime, a victory gained by the Swedes over the forces of Augustus opened to 
(he Swedish monarch the way into Saxony. Accordingly, Charles XII. invaded 
«he Saxon dominions of Augustus, without asking permission from the Emperor of 
Germany, whose attention was too much engrossed by the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession to give any heed to the movements of the King of Sweden. Notwithstand- 
ing the strict discipline of the Swedes, they frightfully ravaged the Saxon territories. 
Augustus had now no other alternative than to consent to such terms of peace as 
the conquering King of Sweden chose to dictate. Under these circumstances, the 
Peace of Altranstadt was concluded, on the 24th of September, 1706, on terms most 
humiliating to Augustus, who was required to renounce the crown of Poland for 
himself and his posterity, to dissolve his alliance with the Czar of Russia, and to sur- 
render the Livonian Patkul to the Swedish monarch, who put him to a cruel death. 
Invasion of Russia by Charles XII.— In September, 1707, Charles XII., at 
Ine head of 40,000 troops, reentered Poland, where Peter the Great had been 
endeavoring to retrieve the affairs of Augustus. As the King of Sweden advanced, 
the Czar -etired into his own dominions. Charles resolved to march upon Mos- 
cow; and Peter, becoming alarmed at this bold movement of his antagonist, 
solicited peace; but Charles, who had determined to completely subdue his great 
rival, haughtily replied, " I will treat at Moscow." Charles now advanced into 
Russia, and directed his course toward Moscow. Peter destroyed the roads and ies- 
olated the country between Poland and Moscow, so that hunger, fatigue, and constant 
partial actions would so weaken the Swedish army that it could not reach Moscow. 
Mazeppa, the Cossack Chief.— The plan of the Czar succeeded. Charle% 



276 



MODERN HISTORY. 



whose army was completely exhausted, now resolved to march southward into tl.e 
Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who had 
resolved to throw off his allegiance to the Czar. Peter discovered the plans of the 
rebellious ;hief and thwarted them by the execution of his associates; and Mazeppa 
appeared in the Swedish camp as a fugitive, rather than as a powerful ally. 

Swedish Misfortunes. — Charles XII. had ordered a large army from Sweden, 
under General Lewenhaupt, to reinfore him. While on his mar oh to join Charles, 
1 ,ewenhaupt was defeated by the Russians in three battles, with the los^ of all his 
artillery, baggage, and provisions; and he, only succeeded in reaching the camp of 
Charles with a small force. The severity of the winter of 1708, 9, reduced the 
Swedish army to 20,000 men. At one time, 2,000 were frozen to death before the 
eyes of the hard-hearted Charles. 

Battle of Pultowa. — Notwithstanding the misfortunes and sufferings of his 
army, the ambitious King of Sweden was still obstinately resolved upon the con- 
quest of Russia. At length, Charles laid siege to the strong town of Pultowa, on 
the frontiers of the Ukraine. When the Czar approached, with 70,000 men, for the 
relief of the garrison, Charles hastened with the greater portion of his army to give 
battle to Peter, leaving the remainder to press the siege with vigor. On the 8th of 
July, 1709, was fought the great battle of Pultowa, which ended forever the splen- 
did career of Charles XII. of Sweden. In this battle, Peter the Great and his 
subjects fully proved that they had profited by the lessons of their enemies. The 
Swedes charged with such impetuosity that the Russian cavahy were forced back, 
but the Russian infantry held their ground until the cavalry had rallied and again 
gone into the fight. In the meantime, the Russiaan artilleiy had made frightful 
havoc in the Swedish ranks. Having left his heavy cannon in the morasses, 
Charles could not contend successfully against his antagonist; and, after a terrible 
battle of two hours, the Swedish army was hopelessly annihilated. Having been 
wounded during the siege of Pultowa, Charles was carried about the field in a litter, 
which was shattered to pieces by a cannon-ball while the battle was raging. The 
Czar's hat was pierced by a musket-ball, and his favorite general, Menzikoff, had 
three horses shot imder him. Eight-thousand Swedish troops lay dead on the san- 
guinary field, and 6,000 were made prisoners by the victorious Russians; and after 
retreating to the Dnieper, 12,000 were compelled to surrender to the pursuing Rus- 
sians, and the once-splendid army of Charles XII. was totally destroyed. The 
Swedish soldiers who were made prisoners by the Russians were dispersed over 
the vast Russian Empire, and not one of them ever returned to his native land. 
Many perished in the wilds of Siberia. 

Flight of Charles XII. to Turkey — New Coalition Against Sweden. — 
The once-conquering Charles XII. now became a helpless fugitive; and, with 30*: 
of his guards, he fled to the Turkish town of Bender, having lost in one day all 
what he had gained during nine years of war. The dethroned Augustus now 
reentered Poland, and wrested the Polish crown from Stanislaus Leczinski; and 
Denmark, Poland, and Russia renewed their alliance against Sweden. The King 
of Prussia laid claim to certain Swedish possessions in Germany, and joined the 
coalition against Sweden. Peter the Great invaded the Swedish provinces on the 
east side of the Baltic, the King of Denmark fell upon Schleswig, and the Pnis- 
sians seized upon Swedish Pomerania. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



277 



Charles XII. Incites the Turks to a War on Russia — Russo-Turkish 
Treaty. — The Swedish monarch met with an honorable reception at the hands c( 
the Turks. He lived at Bender in royal splendor as the guest of the Sultan. He 
did not entertain a single thought of returning to his kingdom without having first 
conq-iered Russia. Charles made use of all the means at his command to induce 
ihe Turks to make war on Russia, and at length he succeeded. A Turkish :.rmy 
ol 200,000 men marched to the Pruth, where it was met by a Russian army under 
tlie Czar Peter. After four days of hard fighting, in July, 171 1, Peter and his who.'e 
army would have been killed or made prisoners had not Peter's wife, Catharl::e, 
corrupted the Turks with Russian gold, and thus brought about an honorable peace. 
Charles could not repress his rage at finding all his hopes for the overthrow of his 
great rival thus blasted. 

Resistance of Charles XII. to the Turkish Government. — The obstinate 
Charles XH. still determined to remain in Turkey, even after the Sultan had 
ordered him to leave the Ottoman dominions; and the Porte found it necessary to 
employ forcible means to send him away. Arming his immediate attendants, about 
300 in number, Charles defied a Turkish army of 26,000 men. After a fierce re- 
sistance, in which many of his attendants were killed, and the house in which he 
defended himself had been set on fire, Charles was made a prisoner. The Swedish 
monarch remained a captive in Turkey ten months longer, wasting his time in use- 
less obstinacy. 

Swedish Disasters.— In the meantime, the Swedish army under General 
Steinbock had defeated the Danes and the Saxons at Galesbrusch, in Mecklenburg, 
and burned the defenseless town of Altona, but were afterwards compelled to 
iurrender as prisoners of war to the Czar of Russia. The Russian arms were 
oiaking rapid progress in the Swedish province of Finland, and the Russian fleet 
gained a great victory over the Swedish navy, near the island of Aland, in the Bal- 
^c sea. 

Return of Charles XII. to Sw^eden.— When Charles XII. learned that the 
Council which governed Sweden in his absence was about to appoint his sister 
regent of the kingdom, and make peace with Russia and Denmark, he resolved to 
i-eturn to Sweden. The Swedish king left the Ottoman territories in October, 1 7 14; 
cind, after having travelled through Hungary and Germany, in the disguise of a 
peasant, he unexpectedly arrived at Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania. 

Siege and Capture of Stralsund. — At length, the allied Danish, Saxon, and 
Prussian armies laid siege to Stralsund. After a heroic defense on the part of the 
Swedes for over a year, Stralsund was surrendered to the besieging enemy, in 
December, 17 15' whereupon the whole of Pomerania, and the island of Rugen, 
were taken possession of by the Prussians. Charles escaped to Sweden in a boat, 
and still ol^stinately refused to consent to a peace. 

Invasion of Norway by Charles XII. — Scheme of Baron Gortz. — In 
1716, Charles XII. invaded Norway, for the purpose of humbling the King 0/ 
Denmark for violating the Peace of Travendal. Charles soon returned to Sweden; 
and his attention was now occupied with the bold political schemes of his Prime- 
Minister, Baron von Gortz, who was negotiating with Peter the Great for an alliance 
between Russia and Sweden by which these two powers might dictate law to 
Europe. 



2^8 MODERN HISTORY. 

Siege of Fredickshall and Death of Charles XII.— In 1718, the Swedish 

monarch invaded Norway a second time, and laid siege to the fortress of Freder- 
ickshall. Here the great wan-ior-Idng found his death. While reconnoitering the 
works, during a terrific fire from the Danish batteries, on the night of the 30th of 
November, 17 18, Charles XII. was killed, whether by the bullet of an assassin, or 
by a grape-shot from the. enemy, is a disputed point in history. 

Ulrica Eleanora— Peace of Nystadt.— After greatly restricting the roya! 
■ power, th; Swedish Senate placed Ulrica Eleanora, sister to Charles XII., on th . 
throne of Sweden; and, in 1719, Baron von Gortz was barbarously executed, fr 
1 721, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded, by which Sweden surrendered most of 
her foreign possessions, in return for an indemnification in money. The Baltic 
provinces of Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia were ceded to Russia ; the greater part 
f>f Pomerania to Prussia; and Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark. 

Russia after the Northern War. — While Sweden was almost ruined by the 
mad ambition of Charles XII., Russia, under the illustrious Peter the Great, was 
taking her place as a leading European power. Agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce were encouraged, and many useful reforms were adopted. Learning 
that his son Alexis intended to restore the old order of things after his father's death, 
Peter compelled the young prince to renounce his right to the succession to the 
throne, and threw him into prison, where he died. Peter the Great died in 1725. 
and was succeeded on the Russian throne by his wife, Catharine I. Russia made 
rapid strides during the reigns of Catharine I., Peter II., Anna, and Elizabeth. 

GENERAL AFFAIRS OF EUROPE. 

England and Scotland— House of Brunswick— Scotch Rebellion of 

lyig.—AIthough the crowns of England and Scotland had been united in 1603, 
each of the two kingdoms had its own Parliament until 1707, when it Svas agreed 
that one Parliament for both kingdoms should thenceforth meet in London ; and 
England, Scotland, and Wales have ever since been known by the common desig- 
nation of "Great Britain." Queen Anne died in 1714, whereupon, in accordance 
with "The Act of Succession," passed by the English Parliament in 1689, the 
Elector George of Hanover became King of Great Britain, with the title of George 
I.; and ever since that time, the House of Hanover, or Brunswick, has occupied the 
British throne. The Tories were antagonistic to the House of Brunswick ; and in 
1 715, some of their number in Scotland, headed by the Earl of Mar, took up arms 
for the restoration of the deposed House of Stuart to the throne. The Duke of 
Argyle, who espoused the cause of King George I., defeated the Scotch insurgents 
n the battle of Sheriff-Muir, near Dumblain, in 17 16. The Earl of Derwentwater, 
Mr. Foster, and Lords Kinmuir and Nithsdale, who had excited a Tory, or Jacobite, 
insurrection in the north of England, were also defeated and made prisoner.;. The 
leaders of this rebellion suffered the penalty of death, with the exception of Lord 
Milhsd ile, who effected his escape from the country in a very romantic manner. 
The insurrection was soon suppressed both in England and Scotland. King George 
I. died in 1727, whereupon his son, George II., ascended the British throne. 

War of Venice and Austria against Turkey— Peace of Passarovitz.— 
In 1 7 14, the Ottoman Porte began a war against the Republic of Venice, foi the 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



279 



purpose of regaining possession of the Morea. In 17 16, Austria joined Venice in 
the war; and the Austrian army, under the great Prince Eugene, defeated the im- 
mense hosts of the Turlis at Petervvardein, in 1716, and at Belgrade, in 1717. liy 
the Peace of Passarovitz, in 1 7 18, the Porte surrendered Belgrade to Austria, but 
Venice ceded the Morea to the Sultan. 

War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. — The intriguing efforts of 
lire able, but unprincipled, Cardinal Alberoni, the Prime-Minister of Philip V. of 
jpaii, for placing the Pretender, son of James II., on the throne of England; ft-r 
olDta nuig the regency and succession to the throne of France for the King of Spain / 
and for wresting Sicily from the House of Austria, to which that island hatl been 
assigned by the treaty of Rastadt, produced, in 1717, a "Quadruple Alliance" of 
England, France, Holland, and Germany, for the purpose of compelling Spain to 
observe the stipulations of the treaty of Utrecht. The Spanish fleet in the Mediter- 
ranean sea was defeated and destroyed by a British squadron under Admiral Byng ; 
the Spanish troops in Sicily were defeated by the Austrians ; while a French force 
invaded Northern Spain and gained some successes. These events alarmed the 
weak and imbecile monarch of Spain, who consequently dismissed and banished 
his ambitious Minister and made peace, in 17 18. 

The Mississippi Scheme. — The wars occasioned by the ambition of Louis 
XIV. had reduced the finances ol^ France to a most deplorable condition, and an 
effort undertaken to remedy the evil only hastened their entire ruin. (1720.) This 
remedy was the famous "Mississippi Scheme," projected by the Scotchman, John 
Law. The regent adopted the plan proposed by Law, who assured him that it 
would add enormously to the wealth and prosperity of France ; and a commercial 
association, called " The Mississippi Company," was organized, the profits of whose 
extensive trade with the French province of Louisiana, in North America, were to 
liquidate the whole national debt of France. Measures were taken to depreciate 
the value of the gold and silver coin, and the success of Law's project at first ex- 
ceeded all expectations. The people throughout France, with one impulse of avarice, 
exchanged their gold and silver for paper money; and the notes that were issued 
soon arose to eighty per cent, of the value of the current coin. But the bank finally 
failed; the gold and silver had all disappeared; the worthless paper money only 
remained ; and thousands of families were reduced to poverty. The popular indig- 
nation finally compelled Law to leave France. 

The South-Sea Scheme. — A project similar to the Mississippi Scheme was 
undertaken in England about the same time. (1720.) This project was the cele- 
brated "South-Sea Scheme," proposed by Sir George Blount. The plan projected 
by Blount was the buying-up of the entire national debt of Great Britain by a com- 
mercial association, styled ■"The South-Sea Company," because it had been origi- 
nally formed to trade to the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea. This debt, which had been 
contracted chiefly by King William III. in carrying on his wars against Frnnce, 
already amounted to an enormous sum. The Ministry readily adopted the 'jlar 
projected by Blount, who gave every assurance that it would be to the advantage 
of tlie nation, as well as to the South-Sea Company ; and the people throughnut 
England, seized with an insatiable avarice, exchanged their entire fortunes for stock 
in the South-Sea Company. The scheme was at first successful, and the stock of 
the Company arose to ten times the value for which it was subscribed; but finally 



26'o MODERN HISTORY. 

the bui)ble burst, and thousands of famiUes were involved in utter financial ruin. A 
storm of popular indignation manifested itself against the unprincipled contrivers 
of the scheme, and many of them were justly punished by the Parliament, with the 
forfeiture of all the wealth and estates which they had so dishonorably acquired. 

War of the Polish Succession. — On the death of Augustus II. of Poland, 
in 1733, the Polish Diet chose the deposed Stanislaus Leczinski to the throne d 
I'oJand; but Stanislaus was expelled from the country by the militaiy power of 
•Jerm: ny and Russia, and the son of Augustus II. was elevated to the Polish 
.'hronc, with the title of Augustus III. Louis XV. of France, who had married a 
tlauglUer of Stanislaus, opposed the action of Germany and Russia, and thus brought 
about "The War of the Polish Succession." Spain and Sardinia formed alliances 
with France. In Northern Italy, the combined French and Sardinian ai"mies de- 
feated the Austrians in two bloody campaigns; while the Spanish troops under 
Don Carlos expelled the Austrians from the Kingdom of Naples. The German 
imperial forces, under Prince Eugene, were everywhere defeated on the Rhine, and 
forced to retire before the advance of the French. In 1735, a treaty of peace was 
signed, by which Stanislaus renounced his claims to the throne of Poland, and 
received in lieu the German Dukedom of Lorraine; while Francis Stephen, Duke 
of Lorraine, son-in law of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, was to receive 
the Italian Duchy of Tuscany, on the approaching extinction of the famous House 
of Medici. On the death of Stanislaus, Lorraine was to be forever united with the 
French monarchy. Spain obtained the Kingdom of Naples for Don Carlos, and 
the leading powers confirmed the Pragmatic Sanction, which the Emperor Charles 
VI. had framed for the purpose of securing the peacable succession to his here- 
ditary Austrian estates to his daughter Maria Theresa. 

War of Russia and Austria against Turkey — Peace of Belgrade. — In 
1736, the Empress Anna of Russia began a war against the Turks. In 1737, Aus- 
tria took part in the war, as an ally of Russia. The Russians conquered the 
Crimea from the Turks, but the Austrians were defeated on the Danube, and forced 
to a disgraceful retreat. In 1739, the Peace of Belgrade put an end to hostilities 
i>etween Austria and Turkey, Austria surrendering Belgrade to the Turks. Peace 
was also soon made between Russia and the Porte. 

War between England and Spain. — The general tranquility which Western 
and Southern Europe had enjoyed since the Peace of Utrecht was owing to the 
efforts of the Prime-Ministers of England and France, Sir Robert Walpole and Car- 
dinal Fleury; but commercial difficulties between England and Spain led to a war 
between those two powers in 1739. An English naval expedition under Admiral 
Vernon captured the rich Spanish town of Porto Bello, on the northern coast of 
South America; but in the following year (1740), Vernon's fleet, in conjunction 
with an English land force under General Wentworth, was repulsed in an attack 
upon Carthagena, another Spanish American town. At the same time, a British 
fleet mder Commodore Anson sailed to the South American waters, and afterwards 
crossed the Pacific to China, in search of a rich Spanish galleon, which was finally 
captured, after which Anson completed his voyage around the globe. This Anglo- 
Spanish war was soon merged in that general European contest known as the War 
of the Austrian Succession, and was ended by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 
October, 1748. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 281 

War between Russia and Sweden— Peace of Abo. — In 1741, Sweden, 
whose king, Frederic, was controlled by a selfish aristocracy, began a war against 
the Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the war liad continued two years, and 
several of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic had been conquered 
by the Russians, the Peace of Abo was concluded, on terms not very honorable to 
Sweden. (1743.) 

PERSIA AND INDIA. 

Afghan Invasion of Persia— Reign of Kouli Khan or Nadir Snah -- 
After the death of the Great Shah Abbas, in 1 624, Persia rapidly declined in national 
greatness; and, in 1722, the country was invaded and desolated by the Afghans, 
who held Persia for seven wretched years, during which they destroyed a million of 
its population. In 1736, Kouli Khan, who had once been a camel driver, and who 
had risen rapidly, step by step, usurped the throne of Persia, and assumed the title 
of Nadir Shah. This monarch was famous for his cruelties, as well as for his vic- 
tories. He soon reconquered several provinces which Peter the Great of Russia 
had wrested from Persia, and compelled the Turkish Sultan to cede Armenia and 
Georgia to him. In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded the Mogul Empire in India, took 
Delhi, its capital, and caused 100,000 of the inhabitants of that city to be brutally 
massacred. In 1747, this bloody monster and tyrant was assassinated by one of 
his own guards, after which Persia again declined in importance. 

Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire in India — Battle of Panniput. — 

The Mogul Empire in India, under its great sovereign, Aurungzebe, who held the 
crown from 1659 to 1707, had attained the zenith of its greatness and power. After 
the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the empire rapidly verged toward its fall, and 
soon crumbled to pieces. While the Mogul power declined, the Mahratta states 
were becoming the leading power in Hindoostan, while the Afghans had estab- 
lished a powerful monarchy west of the Indus. The Afghans at length marched 
against the Mahrattas, who had advanced into the Mogul territories; and on the 
7th of January, 1761, was fought the great battle of Panniput, near Delhi. Each 
army numbered 200,000 men. The Mahratta army was almost totally destroyed, 
and the victorious Afghans returned home. The power of the Mogul emperor 
was now at an end. 



AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND 
CATHARINE II. 

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (A. D. 1741-1748). 

CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 

The New Kingdom of Prussia — Frederic the Great. — The Great Elector 
of Brandenburg, Frederic William, who reigned from 1640 to 1688, enlarged hi; 
dominions on all sides by conquest, freed Prussia from the supremacy of Poland, 
encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and laid the foundations of a 
great kingdom. On the death of the Great Elector, in 1 688, his son Frederic suc- 
ceeded to the electoral throne of Brandenburg; and at Konigsburg, in 1701, with 



282 MODERN HISTORY. 

the consent of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany, he was crowned the first King 
of Prussia, with the title of Frederic I. The new kingdom was recognized by the 
European powers in the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, in 1713 and 17 14. Fred- 
eric I. died in 17 13, whereupon his son, the brutal and tyrannical PVederic William 
I., received the crown of Prussia. Frederic William I. died in 1740, and was suc- 
ceeded on the Prussian throne by his son, the illustrious Frederic II., surnamed 
" the Great," who, by his abilities as a general and a statesman, raised Prussia to 
fnjnt lank in the list of nations. Frederic II., on his accession to the throne, re 
ueived a well-provided treasuiy, and a powerful, well organized, and slnclly-disci 
plined army. 

Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany — The Pragmatic 
Sanction. — The Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, who had been the competitor 
of Philip of Anjou for the throne of Spain, died in 1740. Hasving no male heirs, 
he had, a short time before his death, obtained, by great concessions, among w'hich 
was the cession of the German Dukedom of Lorraine to France, the agreement of all 
the leading European powers to the famous " Pragmatic Sanction," by which he 
left the succession to his hereditary Austrian dominions to his only daughter, Maria 
Theresa, Queen of Hungary, wife of Did<e Francis Stephen of Lorraine. 

Coalition against Maria Theresa. — No sooner had the Emperor Charles 
VI. descended to his grave, than a host of claimants appeared for various portions 
of the hereditary Austrian estates, and endeavored to make good their pretensions 
by force of arms. The Elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, laid claim to the heredi- 
tary States of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, as a descendant of the eldest daugh- 
ter of the Emperor Ferdinand I.; Augustus HI., Elector of Saxony and King of 
Poland, raised claims to Moravia; Frederic IL, the young King of Prussia, revived 
some old pretensions of the House of Hohenzollern to Silesia; Spain cast a longing 
eye on some of the Italian possessions of the House of Austria ; and France, 
regarding the opportunitiy auspicious for the humiliation of the proud House of 
Hapsburg, readily violated the Pragmatic Sanction, by supporting the claims of the 
Elector of Bavaria to the Austrian succession. England alone at first espoused 
the cause of Maria Theresa, furnishing her with large subsidies, and afterwards 
offering her military aid ; and Holland and Sardinia finally took up arms in her 
favor. This contest, which convulsed Europe for seven years, is known as " The 
War of the Austrian Succesion." 

EVENTS OF 1741. 

First Silesian War — Battle of Molvitz. — Soon after the death of the Em- 
peror Charles VI., Frederic II. of Prussia made a sudden irruption into Silesia, at 
the head of 30,000 men. Frederic speedily conquered Silesia, and offered to enter 
into an alliance with Maria Theresa, if she confirmed him in the possession of his 
new conquest; but the young Queen of Austria and Hungary declared her deter- 
mination to tiphold the integrity of her hereditary dominions, and thus gave occa- 
sion to " The First Silesian War." On the loth of April, 1 741, hostilities were 
commenced by the battle of Molvitz, in which the King of Prussia, by the skill and 
bravery of his two leading generals. Prince Leopold of Dessau and Marshal Schwe- 
rin, gained a complete victory over the Austrians; and was thus enabled to hold 
possession of Silesia. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 283 

French and Bavarian Invasion of Austria and Bphemia. — France having 
determined to support the cause of the Elector of Bavaria, a powerful French anny 
under Marshal Belleisle marcTied into Germany, and, after having been joined by 
the Bavarians and the Saxons, invaded the Archduchy of Austria, captured Lintz, 
menaced Vienna, compelled Maria Theresa to flee from her capital, and then 
marched into Bohemia and took possession of Prague. 

Charles VII. Emperor of Germany. — The Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria 
« as crowned at Lintz as Archduke of Austria, and at Prague as King of Bohemia ; 
and, through the influence of France" and Prussia, the German Electoral Princes^ 
in the Diet at Frankfort-on-thc-Main, elected him to the imperial throne of Ger- 
many, with the title of Charles VII. 

Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — With her infant son Joseph in her 
arms, Maria Theresa appeared in the Diet of the Hungarian nobles at Presburg, 
and sympathetically appealed to them to aid her in her distressed condition. The 
hearts of the Hungarians were touched, and they unanimously exclaimed, " Mori- 
amur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!" "We will die for our sovereign, Mai'ia 
Theresa!" 

EVEMTS OF 1742. 

Austrian Invasion of Bavaria. — Troops of Croats, Pandours, and Slaves, 
wild and warlike races of Southeran Hungary, under the conduct of Khevenhuller, 
and Barenklau, now flocked to the standard of Maria Theresa, and, after driving 
the French and the Bavarians out of the Austrian territories, entered Bavaria, and 
took possession of Munich on the very day that the Elector of Bavaria was crowned 
Emperor at Frankfort. The new Emperor was obliged to live in retirement from 
his hereditary Bavarian dominions, which were frightfully plundered and devasLated 
by the Austrians and the Hungarians. 

Frederic's Invasion of Bohemia — Battle of Czaslau — Peace of Breslau. 
— In the meantime, the King of Prussia had invaded Bohemia with a powerful 
army; and on the l6th of May, 1742, he was fiercely attacked near Czaslau, by the 
Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Field-Marshal Konigseg. By the 
irresistible impetuosity of the Prussian cavaliy, under Field-Marshal Buddenbrock, 
and a dashing charge by the Prussian infantry, headed by Frederic in person, the 
Austrians were repulsed with heavy loss. This victory gave Frederic full possession 
of Silesia. On the 2Sth of July, 1742, Frederic concluded with Maria Theresa 
the Peace of Breslau, by which he was left in possession of Silesia. 

Bohemia Recovered from the French — Belleisle's Retreat Through 
Germany. — After the Peace of Breslau with the King of Prussia, the Austrians 
recovered the greater part of Bohemia from the French. The French army undei 
Marshal Belleisle was besieged in Prague, and at length compelled to evacuate that 
city and retreat in the midst of winter to Eger, and thence through Germany to the 
Rhine, after immense losses, only 13,000 men of Belleisle's once-splendid army 
surviving. 

EVENTS OF 1748. 

Alliance of England with Maria Theresa— Battle of Dettingen. — In 
1743, England began to take an active part in the war against France, as an ally 



284 MODERN HISTORY. 

of Maria Theresa. An English army of 40,000 men, ander King George II. and 
the Earl of Stair, having advanced into Germany, was attacked by a French army 
of 60,000 men, under Marshal de Noailles, at the village of Dettingen, near Aschaf- 
lenburg. Brought by the excellent arrangements of the French marshal into a 
perilous position, where advance or retreat was impossible, without being exposed 
to attack at the greatest disadvantage, the whole English army with the king would 
have become prisoners to the French but for the impetuosity of one of the French 
commanders, v/ho attacked the English through a narrow defile, where his troops, 
l)ecoming entangled, were fiercely assailed by the Earl of Stair, and all the plan^ 
of Noailles were disconcerted. A general engagement ensued, and the French 
were disastrously defeated and compelled to retreat. The English, however, ne- 
glected to follow up their victoiy. 

EVENTS OF 1744. 

Invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XV. — Austrian Invasion of 
Alsace. — In 1744, a French army, commanded by King Louis XV. in person, 
invaded the Austrian Netherlands and captured several towns; but in the midst 
of his victorious career, the King of France was obliged to return, to defend his 
own dominions against the Austrians, who, under Prince Charles of LoiTaine, 
crossed the Rhine and conquered the greater portion of Alsace. The Austrians 
were, however, soon recalled to operate against the King of Prussia, who had 
again taken up arms against Maria Theresa. 

Second Silesian War — Frederic's Second Invasion of Bohemia. — Fear- 
ing that Maria Theresa, encouraged by her successes against the French and the 
Bavarians, would make an attempt to reconquer Silesia, Frederic II. of Prussia 
commenced "The Second Silesian War" by invading Bohemia with 70,000 troops. 
In September (1744), Frederic laid siege to Prague, which was soon compelled to 
surrender, with its garrison of 18,000 Austrian troops. Frederic was, however, 
soon compelled to retreat, with the loss of 20,000 men, as the promised diversion 
of the French on the side of the Rhine was prevented by the illness of Louis XV. 
at Metz. 

EVENTS OF 174S, '48, '47, '48. 

Death of the Emperor Charles VII. — Francis I. Emperor of Gerruany. 
— The Emperor Charles VII. of Germany died on the 20th of January, 1745; and 
his son, Maximilian Joseph, who succeeded him as Elector of Bavaria, made peace 
with Maria Theresa, renouncing all claims to the Austrian dominions. Maria 
Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Emperor of Germany, with the 
title of Francis I. Although the original cause of the war was now removed, the 
national hatred which animated England and France prevented the restoration of 
n general peace. 

Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf — Peace of Dresden. 
--In the meantime, the Austrians, under the able Field-Marshal Traun, had recon- 
quered Silesia from the Prussians. But the Prussians soon regained the supremacy 
l)y some splendid triumphs: on the 3d of June, 1745, Frederic II. won a brilliant 
victory over the Austrians among the hills of Hohenfriedberg; a Prussian force 
under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick gained a victory at Sorr; and Prince Loo- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 285 

pold of Dessau, with Prussian troops, defeated the Saxons, who were now the allies 
of the Austrians, in a bloody engagement at Kesselsdorf ; and the King of Prussia 
entered Dresden, the Saxon capital, in triumph. The Second Silesian War was 
ended by the Peace of Dresden, by which Maria Theresa consented to leave Silesia 
in the possession of Frederic, who in turn recognized her husband as Emperor. 

The War in the Austrian Netherlands — Battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, 
and Laffeld. — The Austrian Netherlands were now the theatre of some severe 
struggles on the part of the French against the united armies of England, Holland, 
and Austria. On the 30th of April, 1745, was fought the great battle of Fontenoy, 
in which the combined English, Dutch, and Austrian forces, commanded by the 
Duke of Cumberland, son of George II. of England, were thoroughly defeated, with 
the loss of 7,000 men, by the French army, numbering 50,000 men, under the com- 
mand of Marshal Saxe, a natural son of Augustus III. of Poland. ' The French 
were also victorious in the battle of Raucoux, in 1746, and in the battle of Laffeld, 
in 1747; and the campaign there terminated with the expulsion of the Austrians, 
and their Dutch and English allies, from the Austrian Netherlands. 

Campaign in Italy — Expulsion of the French and the Spaniards. — 
^Vl^ile the military events just related were occurring in Germany and in the Austrian 
Netherlands, bloody conflicts were taking place in Italy, between the armies of 
France, Spain, and Naples, on the one side, and the forces of Austria and Sardinia 
on the other. In 1746, the Austrians and Sardinians won the battle of Piacenza 
over the French and the Spaniards, who, after a bloody campaign the following 
year, were entirely driven from Italy. 

Scotch Rebellion of 1745 — Battles of Preston-Pans, Falkirk, and Cul- 
loden Moor. — In 1745, Prince Charles Edward, "The Young Pretender," grand- 
son of James II., encouraged by the defeat of the English at Fontenoy, resolved to 
attempt the restoration of his family to the throne of Great Britain. He sailed from 
France in a French vessel, and, after landing in Scotland, was joined by some of 
the Highland clans. The Pretender took possession of Edinburgh, on the i6th 
of September; and, on the 21st of the same month, he defeated the Government 
forces under Sir John Cope in the battle of Preston-Pans, and proclaimed his father 
King of Scotland, with the title of James VIII. Elated by success, the Pretendei 
marched into England, took the town of Carlisle, and advanced to within a hundred 
miles of London, creating the greatest consternation throughout the kingdom; but 
he was soon obliged to retreat into Scotland. The Pretender was again victorious 
over the Royal forces under General Hawley, at Falkirk, on the 13th of January, 
1746; but in the memorable battle of Culloden Moor, near Inverness, on the i6th 
of April, 1746, the Pretender was hopelessly defeated by the Royal army under 
the Duke of Cumberland, and there his cause and that of the Stuart family received 
its death-blow. The English tarnished the glory of their victory by acts of cnielty, 
and by a savage desolation of the country around Culloden. After a series of ro- 
mantic adventures and narrow escapes, Prince Charles Edward reached France in 
safety. Many of his adherents were punished with death, and hundreds were 
banished to America. 

The War in America — Capture of Louisburg. — The vt^ar between England 
and France extended to America. On the 28th of June, 1745, after a siege of one 



286 MODERN HISTORY. 

month, the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, was 
surrendered to a British fleet under Admiral Warren and an English colonial land 
force under General William Pepperell. 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — The War of the Austrian Succession was closed 
by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748, on the basis of a mutual resti 
tution of all conquests made during the war. France recognized the succession of 
the House of Brunswick to the throne of Great Britain; and Maria Theresa was 
confirmed in the sovereignty of all the hereditary Austrian territories, except Silesia, 
fthich remained with the King of Prussia. 

THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1756-1763). 

CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE ^A;■AR. 

Disputes Between France and England — Colonies in North America. 
- -The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle proved to be nothing more than a hollow truce. 
Many of the questions at issue between France and England were left unsettled, 
and thus grounds were furnished for a renewal of hostilities. The limits of the 
English colony of Nova Scotia, in North America, the right claimed by the French 
to connect their settlements in Louisiana and Canada by a line of forts in the rear 
of the English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America, and the desire of 
both nations to obtain a political preponderance in India, all led to protracted dis- 
putes which soon resulted in another war. In 1754, hostilities broke out between 
the English and French colonists in North America, although the two mother- 
countries did not formally declare war against each other until May, 1756. In 
1755, an English force under General Monckton reduced the French forts in 
Nova Scotia, but the English general Braddock was defeated and killed in an ex- 
pedition against Fort DuQuesne, and his army was only saved from total destruction 
by the valor and prudence of Colonel George Washington, who commanded the 
English colonial forces. 

Relations of Austria and Prussia — The Province of Silesia. — It was 
very evident that Austria and Prussia could not long remain at peace, as the Empress 
Maria Theresa, who could not forget the loss of Silesia, was determined to recover 
that province. She spent the eight years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 
forming alliances with the other courts of Europe against the great Frederic II. of 
Prussia, for the purpose of realizing her determination. 

Coalition against Frederic the Great. — The two causes of dispute already 
mentioned had no direct connection with each other, yet mutual interests led to the 
formation of alliances. The strangest feature of all was the alliance of Austria 
and France, nations that had been enemies for two centuries; and the coalition of 
Prussia and England, nations that had hitherto appeared extremely jealous of each 
other. This change of policy on the part of France was brought about by Madame 
Pompadour, the favorite mistress of the dissolute monarch, Louis XV., who, capti- 
vated by a flattering letter from the Empress Maria Theresa, and angry at the sar- 
casm which the King of Prussia had uttered against her, was easily won to the side 
of the Austrian empress. The profligate empress, Elizabeth of Russia, affronted at 
the sarcastic manner in which Frederic spoke of her, was easily induced by her 
prime-minister, BestuchefF, to conclude an alliance with Maria Theresa agaiast 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



287 



Prussia. Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, who w.as also 
oi'fended at Frederic's sarcasm, formed an alliance with the Austrian empress- 
queen. Sweden, through the influence of the French court, joined the coalition 
.igainst the Prussian monarch. Thus Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden 
were united against Prussia and England. The English carried on a successful war 
against the French on the ocean, in North- America, and in the East and West Indies ; 
hut they could give little effective aid to the Prussian king against the powerful ene- 
m'.es who threatened to wrest from him a large portion of his dominions, and reduce 
him to the condition of an Elector of Brandenburg. But the great military ability 
of Frederic, and the splendid discipline of the Prussian army, enabled Prussia tu 
come forth from the gigantic struggle powerful and victorious. 

EVENTS OF 17S6. 

Fredef'p's Invasion of Saxony — Battle of Lowositz— Surrender of the 
Saxons. — The King of Prussia did not wait to be attacked; but, resolving to sur- 
prise his enemies by an imexpected blow, he was first in the field. In August, 
1756, he suddenly burst into Saxony, with an army of 70,000 men, took possession 
of Leipsic, Wittenberg, and Dresden, and blockaded the Saxon army, which had 
established a strongly-fortified camp at Pima, on the Elbe. At the head of only 
25,000 men, Frederic the Great, in the battle of Lowositz, defeated 50,000 Austrians 
under General Brown, who were marching to the relief of the Saxons; after which 
he compelled the Saxon forces, reduced by hunger to 14,000 men, to surrender 
themselves prisoners of war, and forced them into the Prussian service. The 
Elector Augustus III. now abandoned Saxony, and retired into Poland, where he 
remained until the end of the war. Thus Frederic the Great conquered Saxony 
in his first campaign in the Seven Years' War. 

Disasters to the English. — While the Prussians were thus victorious in the 
campaign of 1756, their allies, the English, were not so fortunate. The island of 
Minorca, in the Mediterranean sea, was captured by a French force, after a gallant 
defense on the part of the English; and in North America, the French general 
Montcalm crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English fort and 
garrison at Oswego. 

EVENTS OF 17B7. 

The Immense Armies of Frederic's Enemies. — The enemies of Frederic 
the Great assembled immense armies for the campaign of 1757; a Russian army 
of 130,000 men entered Prussia on the east; a Swedish force of 20,000 men was 
preparing to march into the Prussian province of Pomerania; 80,000 French troops 
were advancing from the west; and 180,000 Austrians were in the field. 

Battle of Prague. — After som-e maneuvering by which he completely deceived 
the Austrians, the King of Prussia began the campaign of 1757 by invading Bohe- 
mia. On the 6.th of May, at the head of 70,000 men, Frederic attacked 75,000 
Austrians at Prague. The assaults of the Prussians were at first repulsed, and the 
old Prussian marshal Schwerin fell fighting at the head of his regiment; but the 
fall of the brave Austrian marshal Brown finally decided the battle, which ended in 
a glorious victory for the Prussians. Frederic, however, purchased his triumph at a 
heavy cost, as 12,500 of his brave troops lay dead or wounded on the field of battle. 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

Battle of Kolin. — Seeking to follow up his victory at Prague, Frederic the 
Great, on the i8th of June (1757), attacked the Austrians under Count Daun, who 
occupied a strong position at Kolin. After a bloody battle, in which the Austrians 
at first gave way, the Prussian king was so badly defeated that he was obliged to 
raise the siege of Prague, and evacuate Bohemia as speedily as possible. 

Desperate Situation of Frederic the Great. — The disastrous result of the 
battle of Kolin deprived Frederic the Great of the fruits of his former victories, 
and it seemed as though he must fall before the overwhelming power of his numer- 
ous enemies, who now threatened him on all sides. His English and Planoverian 
allies, under the Duke of Cumberland, after having been defeated by the J'rench at 
Hastenbach, were compelled, by the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, to lay 
down their arms, thus leaving the French at liberty to operate against Frederic in 
Saxony. A Russian army of 100,000 men, under Apraxin, invaded Prussia on the 
east, defeated 24,000 Prussians under Lehwald, and advanced against Frederic; 
20,000 Swedish troops entered Pomerania, and advanced toward the Prussian 
capital; and an Austrian amiy invaded Silesia and besieged Schweidnitz, while 
another Austrian force made its way through Lusatia, and laid Berlin under contri- 
bution. 

Battle of Rosbach. — In his desperate situation Frederic the Great saw that 
he must strike a decisive blow in order to save himself from utter ruin. He accord- 
ingly marched into Saxony, for the purpose of expelling the French from that coun- 
try. With only 25,000 men, Frederic occupied a height at the little village of 
Rosbach, where he was soon confronted by 70,000 French and Austrian troops, 
under the Prince of Soubise, a favorite of Madame Pompadour. The object of the 
French and their Austrian allies was to see whether the King of Prussia would 
venture to attack them. They resolved to surround Frederic, take him and his 
whole army prisoners, and thus put an end to the war at once. At length, at two 
o'clock in the afternoon of the 5th of November (1757), Frederic gave his orders 
to attack, and immediately his troops fell so suddenly and irresistibly, and with 
such rapidity of movement, upon the enemy that in less than half an hour the French 
and their allies fled from the field in dismay; and Frederic won a glorious victory. 
Some of the French troops fled into the middle of Germany, while many did not 
stop in their flight until they had crossed the Rhine. On this memorable field 
Frederic lost only 515 men in killed and wounded. He took 7,000 prisoners, 
among whom were eleven generals. He invited the most distinguished of his 
prisoners to sup with him, and, after expressing his regret at not being able to afford 
them a better entertainment, he said, " Gentlemen, I did not expect you soon, nor 
in such large numbers." 

Battle of Leuthen. — By his victory at Rosbach, Frederic the Great recovered 
the whole of Saxony. He next marched into Silesia, which province had been 
taken possession of by a large Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine. 
On the 5th of December, 1757, exactly one month after the battle of Rosbach, 
Frederic, with only 30,000 men, met 90,000 Austrians under Charles of Lorraine, 
at Leuthen. Frederic immediately took possession of some heights near by, which 
masked the movements of his troops ; and then deceiving the Austrians by a false 
attack upon their right wing, he suddenly turned and attacked their left so fiercely 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



289 



that it was routed before the righ* could render it any assistance ; and, after a con- 
liict of three hours, Frederic won one of the most brilliant victories of modern times. 
The entire Prussian loss was only 5,000 men, while the Austrian loss was over 
28,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

English Assistance to Frederic the Great. — The brilliant achievements of 
rVederic the Great at Rosbach and Leuthen created the greatest enthusiaim in 
England for the King of Prussia and his army; and the English Government, then 
under the direction of the great statesman, the elder William Pitt, agreed lo furnish 
liberal subsidies to Frederic, and to send another army into Germany, \^'^ll[e tho 
war wa? thus raging fiercely in Europe, the English experienced another misfortune 
in Norin America, the French general Montcalm having captured Fort William 
IIenry_ in the province of New York. 

EVENTS OF 1758. 

Movements of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. — The campaign of 1758 
was commenced by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who, through the influence of 
the King of Prussia, was appointed to the command of the English and Hanoverian 
army. With only 30,000 men, Ferdinand drove the French army of 90,000 men 
acrass the Rhine, early in the spring, and routed them at Crefeld with heavy loss. 

Battle of Zorndorf. — After some important movements against the Austrians 
in Silesia and Moravia, Frederic the Great marchetl against the Russians, who were 
perpetrating the most barbarous atrocities in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, 
sparing neither age nor sex. On the 24th of August (1758), Frederic, at the head 
of 30,000 men, met 60,000 Russians under Fermor, near the village of Zorndorf, 
not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles 
of the Seven Years' War. It began at nine o'clock in the morning, and ended at 
ten in the evening, when 19,000 Russians and 1 1,000 Prussians lay dead or wounded 
on the sanguinary field. Frederic was victorious, and the Russians were obliged 
to evacuate the Prussian dominions and retreat into Poland. 

Battle of Hochkirchen. — After the battle of Zorndorf, Frederic the Great 
marched into Saxony, to the assistance of his brother Henry, who was hard pressed 
by the Austrians. On the 14th of October, Frederic was surprised and disastrously 
defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Austrians under Count Daun. In 'this bloody 
engagement Frederic lost all his artillery and baggage. 

Frederic in Silesia and Saxony. — The King of Prussia was not discouraged 
by his disaster at Hochkirchen. Daun was foiled in all attempts to follow up his 
victory; and Frederic again expelled the Austrians from Silesia, and then returned 
to Saxony, and, after compelling Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipsic, 
drove him into Bohemia. 

English Successes in North America. — In 1758, success gleamed upon the 
English arms in North America, where 'three important posts were wrested from 
the French. After a siege of more than a month, the French fortress of Louisliutg, 
on the island of Cape Breton, surrendered to the English under General Amherst, 
on the 26th of July ; Fort Du Quesne was evacuated by its French garrison, on the 
approach of an English force under General John Forbes; and Fort Frontenac, at 
the foot of Take Ontario, in Canada, was captured by an English force under Colo 
19 



290 



MODERN HISTORY. 



nel Bradstreet ; but the English general Abercrombie was repulsed in an attack 
upon the fortress of Ticonderoga, on the western border of Lake Champlain. 

EVENTS OF 1759. 

Battle of Kunersdorf. — At the commencement of the campaign of 1759, the 
Austrians overran Saxony and threatened Berlin; the Russians under Soltikoff 
defeater' the Prussian detachments on the Oder, menaced Silesia, and at length 
effected c junction with the Austrians under Laudon. Frederic the Great was in a 
most por.lous situation. In the midst of these accumulating dangers, he resolved 
Ujon striking an effective blow. He at length set his army in motion; and, on the 
1 2th of August, 1759, with only 50,000 men, he attacked the united Austrian and 
Russian armies under Laudon and Soltikoff, numbering together 100,000 men, at 
Kunersdorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Frederic was at first successfid, 
and the enemy were driven from the field; but the stubborn Russians rallied and 
renewed the fight; and a terrific charge of tlie Austrian cavalry, headed by Laudon 
in person, put the entire Prussian army to rout. Tliis disaster- was a grievous blow 
to Frederic the Great. The Prussian loss was more than 18,000 men, and the 
total Austrian and Russian loss amounted to almost 16,000 men. Berlin was in 
danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, and Frederic's cause seemed ruined ; 
but, instead of following up their victory, the Austrian and Russian generals, who 
were jealous of each other, spent so much time in quarreling that the King of 
Prussia was enabled to collect another army ; and Berlin was again safe. 

Disasters to Prussian Detachments. — At this unfortunate period of his 
military career, Frederic the Great was constantly receiving intelligence of defeats 
sustained by his detachments ; and his situation was extremely dangerous. One of 
the Prussian generals was defeated at Maxen ; and another at Meissen; and Dresden 
fell into the hands of the Austrians. 

Operations of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick — Battle of Minden. — 
While Frederic the Great was so unfortunate during the year 1759, his English and 
Hanoverian allies, under their able commander, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, 
were conducting a successful campaign against the French. Altough Ferdinand 
was beaten, on the 13th of April, in the battle of Bergen, near Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, he 4efeated the French so badly in a sanguinary battle at Minden, on the 1st 
of August, that they were obliged to abandon Hanover and Westphalia, and make a 
hasty retreat across the Rhine. In the battle of Minden the French lost 8,000 
men. 

English Conquests in North America — Capture of Quebec. — ^Vhile the 
war was thus raging in Europe in 1759, conquest shone upon the British arms in 
North America, where the power of the French was irreparably broken. Forts 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on the western coast of Lake Champlain, were evac- 
uated by their French garrisons, on the approach of an English force under General 
Amherst, in July; after a siege of more than a month, Fort Niagara was captured 
by an English force under General William Johnson; and finally, on the I3lh of 
September, the English under General Wolfe, who had besieged Quel^ec for several 
months, scaled the Heights of Abraham, near that city, attacked the French army 
under Montcalm, and, after a desperate battle, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



291 



were mortally wounded, the French were hopelessly defeated; and on the i8th 
(September, 1759), the city of Quebec was surrendered to the victorious English. 

EVENTS OF 1760. 

Prussian Disasters. — The campaign of 1760 opened most disastrously foi the 
King of Prussia. His general, Fouquet, after gallantly maintaining himself for 
joiae time in Silesia against a superior Austrian force under Laudon, was defeated 
on the 24th of June, at Landshut, with the loss of 8,000 men, either slain or made 
prisoners. Frederic himself afterwards besieged Dresden, but he was obliged to 
retire, on the approach of Laudon, with a strong Austrian force, for the relief of the 
garrison. Laudon, however, failed to wrest Breslau from the Prussians by siege. 
Battle of Liegnitz. — Frederic now marched into Silesia, to recover that prov- 
ince from the Austrians. While the Austrians and Russians, in number 180,000, 
were preparing to surround the King of Prussia, and his complete overthrow ap- 
peared certain, he suddenly and furiously assailed the astonished Laudon, at the 
head of the Austrian detachment, at Liegnitz, on the l6th of August. Laudon's 
force was terribly defeated, with the loss of 10,000 men in killed and wounded, 
before the reinforcement under Daun could come to the scene of action. Both 
Laudon and Daun fled to the Katzbach, and Frederic the Great was again master 
of Silesia ; but Berlin was taken possession of by Austrian and Russian troops, and 
the hereditary dominions of Frederic were plundered and devastated. 

Battle of Torgau. — Frederic next marched into Saxony, with the view of 
expelling the Austrians from that country. On the 3d of November, he fiercely 
attacked the intrenched position of« the Austrians ur.der Daun, at Torgau. After a 
day of the most frightful carnage, Frederic gained a complete victory, but at the 
cost of 14,000 of his gallant troops, who lay dead on the field of battle. The con- 
sequence of this battle was that all of Saxony, except Dresden, was again in the 
hands of the King of Prussia; and the Austrian, Russian, and Swedish forces were 
obliged to evacuate the Prussian dominions. 

The War in North America — Conquest of Canada by the English. — 
The year 1760 was signalized by the total subversion of French power in North 
America. In April of that year, the French made an attempt to recover Quebec, 
and totally defeated the English in the battle of Sillery, near that city, on the 28th 
of April; but the attempt to recover the city failed; and on the 8th of September 
(1760), Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in North America, surrendered 
to the English general Murray, and, with the fall of that post, the conquest of Canada 
by the English was complete. 

" Family Compact " of the Bourbons. — Ferdinand VI. of Spain died in 
1759, and was succeedetl by his son, Charles III., who departed from the peaceful 
policy of his predecessor by signing with the French court the famous " Family 
Compact," which bound the two reigning branches of the House of Bourbon to 
assist each other against the gigantic power of Great Britain. The result of this 
alliance was to subject Spain to a series of disasters similar to those suffered by 
France. 



292 MODERN HISTORY. 

EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. 

Campaign of 1761 — Peaceful Disposition of England. — The campaign of 
1761, which was distinguished by no important battle, was disastrous to Frederic 
the Great. The Austrians under Laudon captured Schweidnitz, and regained pos- 
session of Silesia, while the Russians overpowered the Prussian detachments in 
^omer.nia. While the King of Prussia was struggling against the united power of 
Austria, France, Russia, and Sweden on the Continent of Europe, his powerfiiJ 
ally, Great Britain, was triumphant over the French and the Spaniards on the ocean, 
and in the East and West Indies. Belleisle, on the very coast of France, was cap- 
tured by the British navy; and Pondicherry, the capital of the French possessions 
in India, surrendered to the English. Cuba and the Philippine Islands were taken 
from the Spaniards by powerful British naval armaments. The English people 
had now grown extremely tired of the war in Germany; and after the accession of 
George III. to the British throne, in October, 1760, the English Government, under 
the direction of the Earl of Bute, had shown itself ardently anxious for peace, even 
at the Cost of abandoning the cause of the King of Prussia. 

Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia — Alliance of Russia and 
Prussia. — It now appeared that Frederic the Great must fall before the over- 
whelming power of Austria and Russia; but in January, 1762, the Empress Eliza- 
beth of Russia, Frederic's implacable enemy, died, and was succeeded by Peter III., 
who ardently admired the talents and courage of Frederic, and who immediately 
concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Prussian warrior-king, and sent 
Russian troops to the assistance of the Prussians. 

Successes of Frederic the Great in 176/ — Neutrality of Catharine 11. of 
Russia. — Encouraged by the happy circumstances in which he so suddenly and 
unexpectedly found himself, the King of Prussia made the Austrians feel the effects 
of his vengeance by reentering Silesia, defeating Daun at Buckersdorf, and recap- 
turing Schweidnitz, which again gave him possession of Silesia. Frederic next 
invaded Bohemia, destroyed the Austrian magazines at Prague, burned the city of 
Eger, and terribly ravaged the country. A Spanish army invaded Portugal, the 
ally of England; but was driven back by an English force which had been sent to 
the assistance of the Portuguese. The Czar Peter III. had 'been deposed in 
January, 1762, by his wicked wife, who then made herself sole sovereign of Russia, 
with the title of Catharine II. The unfortunate Peter soon afterward died in prison, 
supposed to have been assassinated at the instigation of Catharine. The new Em- 
press immediately renounced the alliance with Frederic the Great, declared herself 
neutral with respect to the war in Germany, aiid recalled the Russian armies from 
Prussia. Sweden had already made peace with Prussia. 

Peace of Paris — Peace of Hubertsburg. — On the loth of February, 1763, 
England, France, Spain, and Portugal concluded treaties of peace at Paris, by which 
they agreed to observe neutrality with regard to the war between Austiia and 
Prussia. The terms of the Peace of Paris were most humiliating to France. Nova 
Scotia, Canada, and other French possessions in North America were surrendered 
to Great Britain. Louisiana was ceded to Spain, in consideration of the losses sus- 
tained by that power in the war. Spain ceded Florida to England, in excliange 
for Cuija, which had been captured by the British navy. Austria and Prussia, thus 




FREDERIC THE GREAT. 




CATHARINE II. OF RUSSIA. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



293 



left to continue the war themselves, soon agreed to a treaty of peace, which was 
signed at Hubertsburg, on the 21st of February, 1763) leaving the province of 
Silesia, for which so much blood had been shed, in the possession of Frederic the 
Great. Thus England and Prussia came forth victorious from a long struggle 
against the combined Powers of Europe. 

Re.sult of the War — Decay of the German Empire — Elevation of 
Prussia.— By the result of this war, France, weakened and exhausted, had surk 
fat l)ek\v the commanding position which she had formerly occupied, and her pres- 
tige was gone; while Great Britain took her place as the leading commercial ar.d 
naval power of the world. The German Empire had long been a rotten structure, 
and the Peace of Hubertsburg made its weakness clearly manifest. About three- 
hundred and fifty states, of which the Empire was composed, exerc;ised the rights 
of sovereignty, and were almost independent of the Emperor, whose authority over 
the different Princes of the Empire was little more than nominal. Wliile the 
German Empire was thus in a decaying condition, the young Kingdom of Prussia, 
under its illustrious sovereign, Frederic the Great, had already taken its place as 
one of the leading Powers of Europe. During the twenty-four years of Frederic's 
reign after the Seven Years' War, Prussia enjoyed the greatest prosperity, 

PARTITIONS OF POLAND AND RUSSO-TURKISH 
WARS (A. D. 1768-1795). 

The Empress Catharine II. of Russia. — While France, under her profligate 
iponarch, Louis XV., was declining in national power and greatness, and while 
Prussia, under the illustrious Frederic the Great, had attained a leading position 
among the great powers of the earth, Russia, under her great Empress, Catharine 
II., exercised a preponderant influence in Eastern Europe. The two great objects 
of Catharine's ambition were the tottering Republic of Poland and the declining 
Ottoman Empire; and her whole political policy was one of aggression and terri- 
torial aggrandizement. Catharine II. devoted considerable attention to measures 
for the civilization of her subjects, and founded many schools and academies. In 
her private character the Empress was dissolute and immoral; she left the govern- 
ment of her Empire to her favorites, the chief of whom was Potemkin the Taurian; 
and the court of St. Petersburg was as much distinguished for its luxury, immorality, 
and debauchery as was that of Versailles. 

Decline of Poland — Stanislaus Poniatowski. — The Republic of Poland 
was becoming weaker and weaker every day. The decline of this nation was 
attributable to its internal dissensions, in consequence of its elective constitution. 
Every election for King was a scene of the greatest contention and the most vio- 
lent proceedings. On the death of Augustus III., in 1764, the Polish nobles, 
through the influence, and at the dictation, of Russia's great Empress, elected Stan- 
islaus Poniatowski King of Poland. 

The Polish Dissidents. — It was about this time that the Dissidents, as all Pol- 
ish Protestants and adherents of the Greek Church were called, petitioned the 
Polish Diet for the restoration of the civil and religious privileges of which they 
had been deprived by the Diets of 171 7 and 1733. The Roman Catholic majority 
in the Diet, through the influence of the Polish clergy, rejected the petition, where- 



294 



MODERN HISTORY. 



upon the Diisidents formed a league known as "The Confederation ol Radovi," 
and, with the aid of Russia, they determined to obtain the desired privileges by 
force. 

Civil 'War in Poland. — The Diet of Poland was compelled by Russian troops 
to concede to the Dissidents the rights which they demanded; whereupon the 
Polish Catholics formed "The Confederation of Bar," in opposition to that of 
Radovi, for the purpose of again depriving the Dissidents of their civil and religious 
Tights, and liberating Poland from Russian supremacy. A bloody civil war cns..ed 
between the two Confederations. With the assistance of a Russian army, tl s 
t Confederation of Radovi came forth triumphant. Bar and Cracow, the strongholds 
of the Bar confederates, were carried by assault. The defeated forces fled into the 
Turkish territories, closely pursued by the victorious Russians. (1768.) 

War Between Russia and Turkey. — The violation of Turkish territoiy by 
the Russians, in the pursuit of the defeated and retreating Poles, caused the Ottoman 
Porte to declare war against Russia; and for six years (176S-1774), a sanguinary 
land and naval war raged between the Turks and the Russians. After achieving 
two' great victories, the Russians under Romanzoff conquered the Turkish provinces 
of Moldavia and Wallachia; and in 1770, the Turkish town of Bender was taken 
by storm. Bloody battles were fought between the Russians and the Turks in the 
Morea, or Southern Greece, on the coast of which a Turkish fleet was destroyed by 
fire. (1771)- 

First Partition of Poland. — Convinced of the weakness of Poland, and anxious 
for an increase of their own respective territories, the neighboring powers resolved to 
divide a portion of the Polish Republic among themselves. After a personal inter- 
view between Joseph II. of Austria and Frederic the Great of Prussia, and a visit of 
Prince Henry of Prussia to St. Petersburg, a treaty of partition was agreed upon by 
Austria, Prussia, and Russia (August 5, 1772), by which these three powers seized 
those portions of Poland adjoining their own dominions. The Polish Diet pro- 
tested before the whole world against this iniquitous scheme, — this most audacious 
violation of the rights of nations. Surrounded and threatened by Russian troops, 
the Diet at length yielded to force, and consented to the dismemberment of Poland. 
Thus the Polish provinces watered by the Vistula were taken by Prussia; Galicia 
was seized by Austria; and the territories of the Dnieper were absorbed by Russia. 

Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche. — The war between Russia and Turkey 
was terminated in 1774, by the Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche, by the terms of 
which the right of passage through the Ib.rdanelles was conceded to Russia, and the 
Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under Russian protection. 
Pugatscheff's Rebellion — Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars.— In 1774, 
a formidable rebellion against the Empress Catharine II., headed by Pugatscheff, 
a Don Cossack, broke out in the region of the Volga ; but the revolt was speedily 
suppressed, and Pugatscheff was beheaded in Moscow, in 1775. In 1782, the K.al- 
tnuck Tartars, 500,000 in number, affronted at the Russian Empress, abandoned 
their homes in European Russia, and, wandering eastward several thousand miles, 
settled themselves in the dominions of the Emperor of China. 

Russian Conquest of the Crimea. — Russian ambition was not satisfied with 
the defeat of the Turks. In 1783, the Russian forces under Potemkin conquered 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 295 

the Nogai T;irtars of the Crimea, and annexed that country, with other territories 
on the Black Sea, under the name of Tauris, to Russia. 

War of Russia and Austria against Turkey. — The evident design o\ the 
Empress Catharine II. of expelling the Turks from Europe, and founding a new 
Christian empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and a member of the imperial 
He use of Romanoff for its prince, and the aggressive conduct of Russia in the 
legion of the Black Sea, alarmed the Ottoman Porte-; and another bloody land and 
naval war broke out between Russia and Turkey in 1787, and lasted five yeai ■, 
Joseph II. of Austria participated in the war, as an ally of the Russian Enipvess 
The Austrian forces under Laudon defeated the Turks on the Danube, and sub 
dued portions of Servia and Wallachia; while, at the same time, conquest shone 
upon the Russian arms. In December, 1788, the Russians under Potemkin took 
the strong city of Oczakow, after a furious assault, in which many livgs were sacri- 
ficed; and in December, 1790, a Russian army under the cruel Suwarrow carried 
by storm the fortress of Ismail, and caused 20,000 Turks to be put to the sword. 

War between Sweden and Russia. — England and Prussia assumed a me- 
nacing atttitude toward Russia, in consequence of her aggressive policy, and the 
success of her arms against the Turks; and in 1788, King Gustavus III. of Sweden 
formed an alliance with the Sultan, and began a land and naval war against Russia. 
After sustaining several defeats, the Swedes gained a great naval victory in the 
Baltic sea; but Catharine II. succeeded in making an equitable peace with Sweden, 
in 1790. The able Gustavus III. had aroused the discontents of his subjects by 
his war with Russia; and in 1792, he was assassinated at a masquerade, by Ankar- 
strom, one of his former guard-ofiicers. 

Peace of Jassy. — The Empress of Russia closed her second war with the 
Turks by the Peace of Jassy, in January, 1792, by which the Porte ceded the terri- 
tories of the Dniester to Russia. Peace had previously been made between Aus- 
tria and Turkey. 

New Polish Constitution. — Poland was at this time endeavoring to free her- 
self from Russian domination. With the support of Prussia, the Poles dissolved 
" The Perpetual Council," which the Russians had established at Warsaw to rule 
the Polish Republic. In 1791, a new constitution was adopted, by which Poland 
was changed from an elective kingdom to an hereditary monarchy with two legis- 
lative chambers. The Polish king took an oath to observe and defend this con- 
stitution, which was applauded by all Europe, with the exception of Russia. 

War of the Poles against Russia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. — A party of 
Polish nobles, who were dissatisfied with the new constitution, formed " The (^^on- 
federation of Targowicz," for the purpose of restoring the old elective constitution. 
This party received the aid of the Russian Empress, who immediately sent an 
anny into Poland. Prussia, which had just been in alliance with the Polish 
pah-iots, now sided with Russia in the contest, on the ground that the principle? of 
French republicani-sm were embodied in the new Polish constitution. The illus- 
trious Thaddeiis Kosciuszko, who had nobly fought for freedom in America, 
became the chief of the patriot party, and led the Polish army against the Russians, 
by whom he was defeated at Dubienka, on the 17th of July, 1792. The Polish 
king, now becoming alarmed, renounced hostilities against Russia, and joined tht 



296 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Confecleiation of Targowicz. The gallant Polish patriots, whose efForts were para- 
lyzed liy the cowardice and irresolution of their king, fled from their country, burn- 
ing wiili wrath against their Russian oppressors. 

Second Partition of Poland. — In 1793, Russia and Prussia determined upon 
a second partition of Poland, assigning as a reason that the principles of the Frencn 
revolutionists were fast gaining ground in that country. The Polish Diet, which 
rt'so'/tuely, but vainly, opposed itself to the new treaty of partition, was surrounded by 
Uussian troops, who violently carried off the boldest speakers. A second divisior, 
■^{ the Polish Republic then followed, between Russia and Prussia. The Eastern 
Polish provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Lithuania, Ulcraine, and Little Poland were 
taken by Russia: Great Poland and Dantzic went to Prussia. 

War of the Poles Against Russia and Prussia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. 
— The stolen provinces were immediately occupied by Russian and Prussian troops. 
Iglestrom, the Russian ambassador at Warsaw, was the virtual ruler of Poland. A 
conspiracy was formed, in the spring of 1794, by the Polish patriots, for the purpose 
of reconquering the lost territories, and restoring the constitutional government. 
Kosciuszko and the emigrant Poles returned to their countiy, and placed themselves 
at the head of the patriot party. Iglestrom's palace at Warsaw was burned to the 
ground, the Russian troops who occupied Warsaw were made prisoners or put to 
death, and four of the Polish supporters of Russian supremacy perished on the 
scaffold. The Prussian forces which had advanced against Warsaw were driven 
back by the Poles under Kosciuszko, Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski, the 
king's nephew. The Empi^ess Catharine IL was determined to crush the Polish 
rising, and a large Russian army under Suwarrow soon appeared in Poland. In a 
sanguinary engagement at Macziewice, on the loth of October, 1794, Kosciuszko 
was defeated by the Russians, and, falling wounded from his horse, with the excla- 
mation, "The end of Poland!" was made a prisoner. Praga was taken by storm 
by Suwarrow, on the 4th of November, 1794, and 12,000 defenseless persons were 
killed, or drowned in the Vistula. Warsaw was forced to surrender to the victorious 
Russians, and King Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate the throne 
of Poland. He took up his residence in St. Petersburg, where he was supported 
by a pension from the Russian government, until his death, which occured in 1798. 

Third Partition of Poland. — A partition of what remained of the Republic 
of Poland, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, took place in 1795. Austria 
obtained the Southern part of the Republic with Cracow ; Prussia took the territory 
west of the Vistula with Warsaw ; and Russia seized the remainder. Thus the 
once-powerful Poland ceased to exist, as an independent power, — a victim to its 
own internal dissensions, and to the rapacity of its neighbors. Kosciuszko was re- 
leased by the Emperor Paul, Catharine's successor, and he died in Switzerland in 
1817. His remains were conveyed to Cracow. 

GENERAL AFFAIRS IN EUROPE. 

Party Contests in England — John Wilkes. — The Seven Years' War left 
England oppressed with a heavy debt, and consequently burdened the English peo- 
ple with the most oppressive taxes. Party spirit was extremely violent, and the king- 
dom, at one time, appeared to be on the verge of civil war. King George II. died 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



297 



m October, 1760, and was succeeded on the British throne by his grand^jon, George 
III., who dismissed the Whigs from office, and placed the government of the 
British Empire in the hands of the Tories, with the Earl of Bute as Prime-Minis- 
ter. Heavy duties on certain articles of home manufacture created a universal 
ferment throughout Great Britain, which resulted in the resignation of the Earl 
of Bute, and the elevation of George Granville, also a Tory, to the head of the 
British Government. But Mr.- Grenville was as unpopular as his predecessor hac 
bef^n, and one of the first acts of his administration was the arrest and prosecution 
of John Wilkes, editor of " The North Briton," and a member of the House of 
Commons, fur asserting in his journal that the King's speech to the Pailiament con. 
tained a falsehood. The judges of the Court of Common Pleas decided that the 
commitment of Mr. Wilkes was illegal, and that his privileges as a member of 
Parliament had been infringed. Wilkes was afterwards outlawed by the Mouse oi 
Commons, for failing to appear to answer the charges against him ; but subsequently 
this sentence of outlawry was reversed, and Wilkes was four times chosen to Par- 
liament, by the Electors of the County of Middlesex, but the House of Commons 
as often rejected him. 

Conquest of Corsica by France. — The island of Corsica, which belonged to 
the Republic of Genoa, had for many years been engaged in a war for its independ- 
ence. The insurgent Corsicans, led by the gallant Paschal Paoli, defeated every 
attempt of the Genoese to reduce them to submission. When the Genoese became 
convinced that they could not restore their authority in the revolted island they sold 
Corsica to France. Paoli bravely resisted the French, and, after being forced to 
yield, he retired to England; and Corsica came into the possession of France in 
1769. 

War of the Bavarian Succession. — The attempt of the Emperor Joseph H. 
of Germany, upon the death of the Elector Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, in 1777, 
to enlarge the hereditary Austrian dominions by the acquisition of a large portion 
of Bavaria and the Palatinate, aroused the jealousy of Frederic the Great, who sent 
an army into Bohemia, and the result was a short contest between Austria and 
Prussia known as "The War of the Bavarian Succession." After a few slight skir- 
mishes, peace was concluded, Joseph H. relinquishing his ambitious designs. ( 1 779.) 

The Gordon or " No-Popery" Riots in London. — Several laws passed by 
the British Parliament in 1780, removing political disabilities on Catholics, produced 
the most shameful riots in some of the leading cities of Great Britain, particularly 
in Edinburgh and London. In June, 1780, an immense mob, aroused by the fana- 
tical Lord George Gordon, assembled in St. George's Fields, London, and held 
control of the city for several days, during which the greatest outrages were perpe- 
trated, and Roman Catholic chapels, the prisons of Newgate, the king's bench, and 
the fleet were burned. The riot was only suppressed when the military were called 
out, and after 250 of the mob had been killed or wounded. 

Alliance of German Princes. — After the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, 
m 1780, Joseph II. made another attempt to acquire Bavaria and the Palatinate; 
but the King of Prussia frustrated the designs of the Emperor by establishing an 
"Alliance of German Princes." Before this princely alliance could produce any 
important result, Frederic the Great died at Potsdam in May, 1786, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Frederic William II. 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

Rebellion in Holland. — lii 17S4, a democratic insurrection broke out in Hol- 
land against the Stadtholder's authority. Tiie rebellion continued for several years, 
and order was only restored in 1 787, by an army which had been sent to the 
Stadtholder's assistance by King Frederic William II. of Prussia, brother to the 
Stadtholder's wife. 

Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. — Joseph II., who upon the death of 
hi3 father, Francis I., in 1765, became Emperor of Germany, and upon that of his 
mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780, became sovereign of the hereditary Austrian terr." 
tories, undertook various reforms in ecclesiastical, civil, and political matters. He 
granted religious toleration, allowing the Protestants the free exercise of their wor 
ship, and giving them equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. He limited 
the number of convents, and applied the property of the Church to the improvement 
of schools and to beneficent purposes. 

Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary. — ^The attempts of 
Joseph II. to introduce his reforms into the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) 
produced a formidable rebellion in that country against Austrian authority. The 
attempted introduction of Joseph's reforms into Hungary led to a general insurrection 
in that country also. Grief and irritation at these events hurried the noble-hearted 
Emperor, whose health had been seriously injured while warring with the Turks 
in the region of the Danube, to his grave. He died in 1 790; and his brother, 
Leopold II., who then succeeded to the thrones of Austria and Germany, restored 
quiet in the Austrian Netherlands, and in Hungary, by abolishing most of the ob- 
noxious reforms of his well-meaning predecessor. Leopold II. died in 1792, and 
Francis II. succeeded to the sovereignty of the hereditary Austrian territories, and 
to the imperial throne of Germany. 

Impeachment and Trial of Warren Hastings. — In 1787, Warren Hast- 
ings, Governor-General of British India, was impeached by the British House of 
Commons, for misgovernment and oppression of the people of India. The trial of 
Mr. Hastings by the House of Lords lasted a period of eight years, and ended in 
the acquittal of the accused. During this celebrated trial, the great statesmen, 
Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, distinguished themselves by their oratory. 

Irish Rebellions — Parliamentary Union of England and Ireland. — In 
1798, a rebellion against British power commenced in Ireland. After some battles 
and frightful massacres by both parties, the authority of the British Government 
was fully restored. On the ist of January, 1 801, a legislative union took place 
between England and Ireland. In 1803, an insurrection, headed by a young enthu- 
siast, Robert Emmett, broke out in Dublin. The insurgents were easily overcome, 
and Emmett was tried and hanged for treason. 

CONQUESTS OF THE ENGLISH EAST-INDIA COMPANY. 

The English East-India Company. — In the year 1600, an association of 
English merchants received a charter from Qiieen Elizabeth, and were incorporated 
the English East-India Company. Under the auspices of this corporation, English 
trading-posts and settlements were established in Hindoostan during the seventeenth 
century. In 1639, the important city of Madras was granted to the Company 
by its native prince; in 1661, Bombay was purchased from the Portuguese; and 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



299 



in 1699, an English settlement was made at Calcutta, where Fort William was 
erected. 

War with Surajah Dowlah — " The Black Hole of Calcutta." — From the 
beginning of the eighteenth century, the English East-India Company had meddled 
in the disjiutes and wars between the native princes of Hindoostan, with the view 
of ultin-'ately establishing its supremacy in that quarter of the globe. In 1756, 
Sui-ajah Dowlah, a native prince, declared war against the Company, and, after a 
vigorous siege, took Calcutta, with its garrison of 146 English troops. No sooner 
had the garrison surrendered, than they were crowded into a narrow prison, eigh- 
teen feet square, called " The Black Hole of Calcutta," where all but twenty died 
befoi-e the following morning. 

Colonel Clive — Battle of Plassey. — Calcutta was recaptured in 1757, by an 
English force, under Coloijel Clive, who had rapidly risen, by the force of his own 
talents, from the humble position of clerk of the Company, to the position of com- 
mander-in-chief of its forces. The rich city of Hoogly was captured and plun- 
dered by an expedition sent by Clive. The power of Surajah Dowlah was thoroughly 
broken by Colonel Clive, in the celebrated battle of Plassey, fought on the 23d of 
June, 1757, and the East-India Company gained the ascendancy in Southern India. 

First War with Hyder Ali. — In 1767, the East-India Company became in- 
volved in a war with Hyder Ali, who had raised himself, by his abilities, from an 
obscure condition, to the throne of Mysore, a powerful kingdom in Southern Hin- 
doostan, which he had enlarged by conquests in all directions. The Company was 
obiiged to consent to a peace in 1769. 

Second War with Hyder Ali — Battle of Cuddalore. — In 1780, Hyder 
Ali renewed hostilities against the East-India Company, and spread desolation 
through a large portion of their territories. An English force was entirely cut to 
pieces by Tippoo Saib, the valiant son of Hyder Ali; but afterwards, Hyder Ali, 
himself, was completely defeated by a body of English troops under Sir Eyre 
Coote, at Cuddalore. In 1782, Hyder Ali died, and was succeeded on the throne 
of Mysore, by his son, Tippoo Saib, who continued the war against the Company 
until 1784, when a treaty of peace was made. 

War with Tippoo Sfiib — Capture of Bangalore — Battle at Seringapa- 
tam. — In 1790, another war broke out between Tippoo Saib and the East-India 
Company. In 1791, Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General of British India, laid 
siege to Bingalore, which he finally took by storm. In 1792, Lord Cornwallis 
thoroughly defeated Tippoo Saib in front of Seringapatam, the capital of his kingdom. 
Soon afterward, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the East-India Company 
obtained a large increase of territoiy. 

Last War with Tippoo Saib — Fall of Seringapatam and Death of Tip- 
poo Saib. — In the early part of 1799, Tippoo Saib renewed the war against the 
Company, for the purpose of expelling the English from India. The English forces 
iaid siege to Seringapatam, which they carried by assault, on the 4lh of May, 1799 
'Tiio. valiant Tippoo Saib was slain in the conflict, and his kingdom was annexed lo 
die territories of the East-India Company. 

War with the Mahrattas — Battle of Assayfe. — In 1803, the Company w.as 
involved in a wai with the Mahrattas. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley 



300 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



afterward the great Duke of Wellington, defeated the Mahrattas in the battle of 
Assaye. Delhi and Agra were carried by storm, and the war ended in the pros- 
tration of the Mahratta power before the suprema<;y ot the English East- India 
Company. 

ANGLO-FRENCH COLONIAL WARS. 

FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA. 

French Explorations in North America — Founding of Acadia by De 
Monts. — While the English were colonizing the Atlantic coast of North America, 
from New England to Georgia, the French were exploring and settling the valley 
of the St. Lawrence, the shores of the Great Lakes, and the valley of the 
Mississippi. In 1605, the Huguenot De Monts founded the first permanent French 
settlement in North America, at Port Royal (now Annapolis), in Nova Scotia, 
giving the territory, now known as Nova Scotia and New Bran^wick, the name 
"Acadia." 

Founding of Quebec by Samuel Champlain — The Hurons and Al- 
gonquins. — In 1608, Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, founded the city of 
Quebec, on the St. Lawrence river; and in the following year (1609), he discovered 
the beautiful lake, between the present States of Vermont and New York, which 
bears his name. Champlain and his followers allied themselves with the Huron 
and Algonquin Indians, and defeated their foes, the Five Nations of New York. 
Thenceforth the Five Nations were the firm friends of the English and the bitter 
enemies of the French. 

Explorations of the Mississippi by James Marquette and Louis Joliet 
— By LaSalle. — In 1679, James Marquette, a French Jesuit, and Louis Joliet, a 
French Canadian, entered the Mississippi river from the W^isconsin, and, in two 
birch-bark canoes, sailed down the great river to a point below the mouth of die 
Arkansas. In 1682, Robert de LaSalle, a French Canadian officer, after exploring 
the shores of the Great Lakes, entered the Mississippi from the Illinois, and sailed 
up the mighty stream almost to its source, and then down to its mouth, and naming 
the entire Mississippi valley, "Louisiana," in honor of his king, Louis XIV., claimed 
that extensive region for France. 

French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. — In the latter part of the 
seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the French made 
settlements on the banks of the Mississippi river; on the shores of the Great Lakes, 
and on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Kaskaskia, in the present State of Illinois, 
was founded in i6Sj; Detroit, in Michigan, in lyoi; and Vincennes, in Indian.a, in 
1705. In 1699, a company of French colonists, headed by Lemoine d'Iberville, a 
IVench Canadian, settled Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi; and in 1702, 
most of the settleis of Biloxi founded the city of Mobile, in the present Alab.amn 

Louisiana under Anthony Crozat — Under the Mississippi Company. — 
in 17 12, Louisiana was leased, for a stated period, to Anthony Crozat, a wealthy 
French merchant, under whose auspices was built Fort Rosalie, — the beginning of 
the present city of Natchez, in Mississippi. In 17 17, Crozat relinquished his lease; 
and Louisiana was for fifteen years under the control of the Mississippi Company, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 301 

which the Scotchman, John Law, had organized in France. Bienville, the governor 
sent to Louisiana by this Company, founded New Orleans, in 17 18. 

War with the Natchez Indians— War with the Chickasaws.— In 1729, 
the Natchez Lidians, exasperated at the threatened encroachments of the French, 
fell upon the French settlement at Fort Rosalie, massacred the men, and carried 
the women into captivity. In revenge for this outrage, a body of French troops 
almost exterminated the Natchez, the following year. (1730.) A few years later, 
the French made two unsuccessful attempts to subjugate the warlike Chickasaws, 
ano';her powerful Indian tribe. The French built a chain of forts between Mont- 
real and New Orleans, the most important of which were Detroit, erected in 1701; 
Niagara, in 1726; and Crown Point, in 1730. 

KING WILLIAM'S WAR (A. D. 1689-1G97). 

Both Parties Aided by the Indians. — The war that broke out between Eng- 
land and France in 1689, extended to the Enghsh and French colonies in North 
America, and is known in American history as "King William's War," because it 
occurred d^iring the reign of William III. in England. The Indians of Canada 
and Acadia aided the French, while the Five Nations, of New York, assisted the 
English. 

Attack on Dover — Destruction of Schenectady. — In July, 1690, the town 
of Dover, in New Hampshire, was attacked by the French and their Indian allies; 
and in February, 1690, Schenectady, in New York, was burned, and sixty of its 
inhabitants were massacred, by the French and the Indians. • 

New England Expeditions against the French— Peace of Ryswick. — 
In May, 1690, the New England colonies sent a naval expedition, under Sir Wil- 
liam Phipps, which plundered the French colony of Acadia. The same year, a 
land expedition, under a son of Governor Winthrop. of Connecticut, proceeded to 
attack Montreal, while a naval force, under Sir William Phipps, was sent against 
Quelxic. Both expeditions were failures. The people of New England suflered 
terribly from the attacks of the French and their savage allies, until the Peace of 
Ryswick was concluded between England and France, in 1697. 

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (A. D. 1702-1713). 

Desolation of English Settlements — Deerfield Burned. — In 1702, a war 
broke out between England and France, which extended to the colonies of those 
nations in North America. This war, calle-d in Europe " The War of the Spanish 
Succession," is known in American histoiy as "Queen Anne's War," so called 
because it happened during the reign of Queen Anne in England. The French 
and Indians again spread desolation among the English settlements. Deerfield, in 
Massachusetts, was burned, and its inhabitants were massacred by the savages and 
their French allies. 

Conquest of Acadia — Expeditions against Quebec — Peace of Utrecht. 
— In 1 7 10 a fleet from England, aided by a land force from New England, cap- 
tured Port Royal, in Acadia. Port Royal was named Annapolis, and Acadia be- 
came an English province, under the name of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. Id 



302 



MODERN HISTORY. 



171 1, a fleet and army from England, under Sir Hovenden Walker, assisted by 
New Englanders, the whole expedition consisting of 5,000 men, proceeded against 
Quebec. The vessels were wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 
men perished. The expedition was abandoned, and the Peace of Utrecht was con- 
cluded between England and France, in 1713. 

KING GEORGE'S WAR (A. D. 1744-1748). 

Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — In 1744, another war began bet^veen 
England and France, known in Europe as " The War of the Austrian Succession,'' 
but in American history as "King George's War," because it took place while 
George II. was King of Great Britain. The principal event of this war in America 
was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. In April, 1745, Gov 
ernor Shirley, of Massachusetts, sent an army, under General William Pepperell, 
against this fortress, on account of its strength called " The Gibraltar of America." 
The army, in conjunction with a British fleet under Admiral Warren, laid siege to 
the fortress late in May, and on the 28th of June (1745), Louisburg and the island 
of Cape Breton were surrendered to the English. • 

D'Anville's Attempt to Recover Louisburg — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
— In 1746, the French sent a powerful fleet, under the Duke d'Anville, to retake 
Louisburg. The greater part of this fleet was destroyed by storms, and the enter- 
prise was abandoned. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded between England 
and France in 1 748, put an end to the war. 
• 

THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (A. D. 1754-1763). 

CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 

English and French Colonial Possessions in North America. — The 
three wars between the English and the French in North America, the accounts of 
which we have just considered, had their origin in the European disputes of France 
and England. The fourth and last war, and the one which ended in the overthrow 
of the French power in North America, originated in disputes about the bounda- 
ries between the French and English colonial possessions. After the Peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the French built forts in the rear of the English colonies, 
for the purpose of confining the English to the country east of the Alleghany 
mountains. 

The Ohio Company. — In 1749, the King of Great Britain granted 600,000 
acres of land on the south side of the Ohio river to an association of English and 
Virginia speculators, called "The Ohio Company." The surveyors and traders 
sent out by the Company were made prisoners by the French. This aggressive 
conduct led to open hostilities. 

Washington's Mission. — The French under St. Pierre built three forts in 
N'orth-western Pennsylvania: one at Presque Isle, now Erie; another at La Boeuf, 
now Waterford ; and a third at the site of the present town of Franklin. Governor 
Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent George Washington, a young Virginian, twenty-one 
years of age, with a remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French commander. St. Pierre, 
who said that he acted under the orders of Du Quesne, Governor of Canada, refused 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



303 



to withdraw his troops from the domain of the Ohio Company, as request ad by 
Dinwiddie. 

EVENTS OF 17S4. 

Battle of the Great Meadows. — When it was known in Virginia that St. Piene 
refused to withdraw his troops from the territoiy granted to the Ohio Comjiany, a 
body of Virginians under Major George Washington was sent to expel the invaders. 
Washington moved toward the Ohio, and in the present Fayette county, in Penn- 
sylvania, he built Fort Necessity. On the 28th of May, 1754, he defeated the 
French and killed their leader, Jumonville, in the battle of the Great Meadows. 
This was the first bloodshed in the long and distressing French and Indian War. 

Capitulation of Fort Necessity. — Already the French had seized a fort which 
the English had been engaged in building at the junction of th'e Alleghany and 
Monongahela rivers, and named it "Fort Du Quesne," in honor of the Governor 
of Canada. Washington was at length besieged by the French at Fort Necessity. 
On the 4th of July, 1754, he suiTendered to the French, who allowed him and all 
bis troops to march back to Virginia. 

Colonial Congress at Albany. — On the day of the capitulation of Fort 
Necessity (July 4, 1754), a congress composed of delegates from six of the Anglo- 
American colonies, convened at Albany, in the province of New York, for the 
purpose of devising measures for protection against the encroachments of the French. 
A plan of union drawn up by Dr. Benjamin Franklin was rejected both by the home 
government and the colonial assemblies. 

EVENTS OF 17SS. 

Braddock, Commander-in-Chief— Plan of the Campaign. — In 1755, 
Edward Braddock, a distinguished Irish officer, was sent to America as commande)- 
in-chief of the English forces there. Three expeditions against the French wer - 
projected: one was to proceed against the French forts in Nova Scotia; anothe 
under Braddock was to drive the French from Fort Du Quesne; and a third unde 
Governor Shirley of Massachusetts was to move against F6rt Niagara. 

Capture of French Forts in Nova Scotia. — An English force of 3,000 men, 
under General Winslow, landed at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in June, 1755, 
where they were joined by 300 regulars, under Colonel Monckton, who assumed 
the chief command. The expedition took Fort Beausejour from the French, on 
the 1 6th of June, and Fort Gaspereau on the 17th. The English disgraced them- 
selves by their cruel treatment of the Acadians, many of whom they sent away and 
iistributed among the English colonists. 

Defeat and Death of Braddock. — In June, 1755, General Braddock, with 
2,000 men, marched against the French at Fort Du Quesne. On the 9th of July, 
when within twelve miles of Fort Du Quesne, the English were attacked by the 
French and the Indians. Braddock was killed, and his troops were completely 
defeated. Of all the mounted officers on the side of the English, Major Waiilng- 
ton alone remained unhurt. After the fall of Braddock, Washington assumed the 
command of the English troops, and conducted them back to Virginia. Thus, the 
expedition against Fort Du Quesne was a total failure. 



304 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Failure of Shirley's Expedition. — The expedition under Shirley against 
Fort Niagara was also a complete failure. The expedition went only as far as 
Oswego, where Shirley built a new fort ; and storms, sickness, and desertions of 
his. Indian allies, caused him to abandon the object of the expedition. 

Johnson's Expedition — Battle of Lake George. — In August, 1755, an 
Englisli anny under Sir William Johnson marched against Forts Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point, which the French had erected on the Western shores of Lake Cham- 
plain. A part of Johnson's force, under Colonel Williams, was defeated, on the Sib 
of September, by the French under Baron Dieskau. After this fight, in which 
Williams was killed, Dieskau moved forward and fought with Johnson the Ijattlt 
of Lake George. In this battle, Dieskau was defeated, wounded, and taken pris- 
oner. After the battle, Johnson built Fort William Henry, and garrisoned it, as 
well as Fort Edward, with some of his troops, after which he returned to Albany, 
and dispersed his army. 

EVENTS OF 17S6. 

Declaration of War — Lord Loudon Commander-in-chief. — In May, 
1756, England declared war against France, and fonned an alliance with Frederic 
the Great of Prussia, in his war with France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony; 
and thus arose the great " Seven Years' War." The inefficient Lord Loudon was 
sent to America to take the chief command of the English forces there. 

Montcalm's Capture of Oswego — Battle of Kittanning. — In August, 
1756, tlie Marquis de Montcalm, with a body of French and Indians, crossed Lake 
Ontario from Canada, and captured the English forts at Oswego, with 1,400 pris- 
oners. The only thing accomplished by the English in 175O, was the chastisement 
of the Indians in Western Pennsylvania. On the 8th of September, Colonel John 
Armstrong fell upon the savages at Kittanning, their chief town on the Alleghany 
river, killed their principal chiefs, and destroyed the village. 

EVENTS OF 17S7. 

Surrender of Fort William Henry to Montcalm. — In Northern New 
York, a force of French and Indians, under Montcalm, marched against Fort Wil- 
liam Henry, in August, 1757.' Colonel Monro, who commanded the small English 
force which garrisoned the fort, called upon General Webb, the English commander 
at Fort Edward, for assistance. The cowardly Webb refused any aid, and the gal- 
lant Monro was compelled to surrender, after a brave defense. After their surrender, 
the English troops were allowed to march out with the honors of war, but no 
sooner had they left the fort, under a promise of protection, than despite the efforts 
of Montcahn to prevent it, many of them were massacred by the Indians m the 
French army. Montcalm expressed great sorrow at this sad occurence. 

William Pitt, Prime-Minister of England — General Abercrombie. — 
In the summer of 1757, William Pitt, the ablest stateman in Engbnd, was placed 
at the head of the British Government. Energy and forecast marked every move- 
ment of Mr. Pitt's administration, and from this time until its close, the war was 
favorable to the English, who, after a series of brilliant successes, were finally 
enabled to effect the permanent conquest of the French American possessions. In 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



305 



1757, General Abercrombie was sent to America, to take the chief command of the 
English forces there. 

EVENTS OF 17S8. 

Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — Early in July, 1758, Generals Amherst 
and Wolfe, with English troops, and Admiral Boscawen, with a British squadron, 
laid siege to Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. After a vigorous siege 
Louisburg, and the island of Cape Breton, were surrendered to the English, on llift 
26th of July. (1758.) 

Unsuccessful Attack on Ticonderoga — Capture of Fort Frontena;.— 
A' the beginning of July, 1758, an English force of 15,000 men, under General- 
Abercrombie, moved against Ticonderoga. On the 6th, a part of this force, under 
Lord Howe, defeated the French, but Lord Howe was among the slain. Aber- 
cromliie continued his advance, and attacked Ticonderoga on the 8th of July, but 
met with a disastrous repulse. He then fell back, and abandoned the object of the 
expedition. On the 27th of August (1758), Fort Frontenac, on the site of the pres- 
ent city of Kingston, in Canada, was captured by Colonel Bradstreet, at the head 
of an English force, which had' been sent out for that purpose by Abercrombie. 

Capture of Fort DuQuesne. — In 175S, an English force, under General 
John Forbes, proceeded against Fort Du Quesne. When within fifty miles of the 
fort, a council of war decided to abandon the enterprise; but when prisoners, who 
were brought in at this moment, gave every assurance that the gan'ison of Fort Du 
Quesne was weak, it was resolved to move forward. A part of the expedition, 
under Major Grant, had been defeated by the French and Indians, on the 21st of 
September. Washington and his Virginians led the advance against Fort Du 
Quesne. The French evacuated the fort on the approach of the English, and fled 
down the Ohio in boats; and late in November, the English flag waved over Fort 
Du Quesne, the name of which was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great 
English statesman. The flourishing city of Pittsburg now occupies the site of the 
fort. 

EVENTS OF 1759. 

Plan of the Campaign. — The English planned three expeditions for the cam 
paign of 1759: one, under Generals Prldeaux and Johnson, was to attempt the 
capture of Fort Niagara; another, under Lord Amherst, was to take possession of 
Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and a third, under General James Wolfe, 
was designed for the reduction of Quebec, the strongest French fortress in America. 

Capture of Fort Niagara. — In July, 1759, the English, under Generals Pri- 
deaux and Johnson, commenced the siege of Fort Niagara. On the 15th, Pridc.aux 
was killed by the bursting of a mortar; and the command of the English army 
devolved upon Johnson, who continued the siege until the 25th, when the Frend; 
surrendered the fort. 

Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — On the approach of the l'"ng- 
lish "umy under Lord Amherst, in July (1759), Forts Ticonderoga and Crown 
I'oint *ere evacuated by their French garrisons, and those strong posts were imme- 
diate!} taken possession of by the English. 
20 



2o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

Wolfe's Expedition— Battle of Quebec— Surrender of Quebec— In June, 
1759, an English force of 8,000 men, under General Wolfe, arrived before Quebec. 
For two months, the English besieged the city, and destroyed a large part of it by 
means of hot shot. On the 31st of July, in the mid^t of a terrific thunder storm, a 
portion of the English army, under Colonel Monckton, fought with the French the 
battle of Montmorenci. At length, a council of war was held by the English offi- 
cers, and it was resolved to storm the French camp. Accordingly, on the night of 
the I2tfc of September (1759), the English army, led by Wolfe in person, scaled 
Jie Heights of Abraham, in the rear of Quebec; and on the morning of the ijtb, 
a furious battle ensued. The commanders of both armies, Wolfe and Montcalm, 
were slain; and in the city of Quebec stands a fine monument to their memory. 
The French were completely defeated; and on the l8th (September, 1759), Quebec 
was surrendered to the English. 

EVENTS OF 1760. 

Attempt of the French to Recover Quebec — Battle of Sillery. — In the 
spring of 1760, a French force under M. Levi, Montcalm's successor, attempted to 
recover Quebec, and defeated the English army commanded by General Murray, in 
the bloody battle of Sillery, three miles below Quebec, on the 28th of April (1760). 
The English fell back to Quebec, where they were besieged ; but the French, be- 
coming alarmed at the supposed approach of a large English fleet, hastily abandoned 
the siege and retired. 

Surrender of Montreal — Conquest of Canada by the English. — On the 
8th of September, 1760, Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in America, 
surrendered to the English army under General Murray, who had collected 18,000 
men for the reduction of the city. With the fall of Montreal, the conquest ot 
Canada by the English was completed. 

EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. 

Peace of Paris — North America under the Anglo-Saxon Race. — On 

the loth of February, 1763, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between Eng- 
land, France, and Spain. France surrendered to Great Britain all her possessions 
in North America east of the Alleghany mountains and north of the latitude of 
Iberville river. Spain ceded the Floridas to Great Britain. Thus closed a most 
important war, — a war which assigned North American forever to the Anglo-Saxon 
race. 

War with the Cherokee Indians — Pontiac's War. — In 1759, the Chero- 
kee Indians in Georgia began a war against the white people of Georgia and the 
Carolinas. After a war of two years, the Indians were subdued by Colonel Grant. 
In 1763, Pontiac, a famous Ottowa chief, secretly formed a confederacy of Indian 
tribes, to expel the English from the country west of the Alleghany mountains. 
Within a fortnight, this sagacious chief seized all the English posts west of the Ail& 
ghanies, except Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. The Indians were soon subdued 
*nd, in 1765, Poutiac was killed, by an Illinois Indian, on the Mississippi river. 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 




MARQuiS DE LA FAYETTE. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



307 



WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-1783). 

Causes of the American Revolution — Tyranny of Great Britain — By 
the French and Indian War, England, as we have seen, had secured a vast empire 
in North America. The fairest portion of this colonial empire she was destinijd 
soon to lose, on account of her stupid folly and her ungenerous treatment of her colo 
nial subjects. The French and Indian War had oppressed England with an enor- 
mous debt, and to relieve her subjects at home, her Ministry and Parliament under- 
took the scheme of taxing her North American colonies. The colonists denied tl.e 
right of Parliament to tax them, as they were not represented in that body; but the 
Ministry and Parliament foolishly and obstinately persisted in their schemes. In 
1765, the famous Stamp Act was passed, but it met with such violent opposition in 
English America that it was repealed in the following year; but other equally 
obnoxious measures were passed by Parliament, and the military were called into 
requisition to enforce the submission of the colonists. Taxes were lexied on various 
articles imported into the colonies, and the Americans burned with indignation 
against their oppressors. The democratic spirit which had always prevailed among 
the Anglo-Americans made them impatient with every appearance of political 
oppression. 

Rebellion of the Americans — Lexington and Bunker's Hill — Invasion 
of Canada. — The Americans, exasperated at the oppressive measures of the British 
Ministry and Parliament, finally rose in armed rebellion against the authority of 
the mother country, and resolved to defend their liberties at all hazards. The first 
blood in the War of the American Revolution was shed at Lexington and Con- 
cord, Massachusetts, April 19th, 1775, when the British troops made an attack 
upon the Minute-men, as they were called. The battle of Bunker's Hill, June 
17th, of the same year, opened the war in dead earnest. The royal governors of 
the various colonies were expelled by the colonists, and all royal authority was re- 
pudiated. The Americans seized Ticonderoga, May loth, 1775, invaded Canada 
in September, and seized Montreal ; but were disastrously defeated in an assault 
upon Quebec, on the last day of the year 1775 ; and in the following year, were 
entirely driven out of Canada. 

Declaration of American Independence— England's Foreign Relations. 
— As Great Britain was making gigantic efforts to crush the rebellion against her 
authority in North America, having hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to con- 
quer the Americans, and having passed new oppressive measures, sentiments of 
political independence spread among the Americans; and on the 4th of July, 1776, 
the American Congress declared the Anglo-American colonies free and independent 
States, under the name of "The United States of America." We will now proceed 
to give an account of the part which European nations bore in the war, and avoid 
repetition by referring the reader to another portion of the book for a detailed 
account of the American events of the war. The French nation, still smarting 
under the defeats and humiliations which she had suffered in the preceding war, 
waited for a favorable opportunity to assist the Americans in their struggle for in- 
dependence. From the beginning, the French people had sympathized with the 
revolted colonists, and prominent individuals in France, such as the young Marquis 
de Lafay« tte, volunteered in the cause of American liberty. The other nations of 



3oS MODERN HISTOR Y. 

Europe, jealous of England's maritime power, secretly wished for the success of 
the colonists. 

War between England and France. — The surrender of the British aimy 
under General Burgoyne to the American army under General Gates, on the I7fh 
of October, 1 777, encouraged the French court to espouse the cause of the strug- 
gling patriots; and accordingly, on the 6th of Februarj', 1778, France formed a:i 
alliance with the United States, and recognized their independence. War between 
England and France ensued; and hostilities were prosecuted with vigor; or. t3 « 
jcean, and in the East and West Indies. 

War between England and Spain. — In June, 1779, thinking the opportunity 
favorable for recovering the fortress of Gibraltar from the English, Spain declared 
war against England ; and a united French and Spanish fleet laid siege to Gibral- 
tar, while another combined French and Spanish armament attempted an invasion 
of England. The, war between the English and the Spaniards was conducted 
vigorously, on the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. 

"War between England and Holland. — On the 20th of December, 1780, 
England declared war against Holland, on learning that a secret treaty had been 
concluded between the Dutch Republic and the United States. The war between 
the English and the Dutch was also carried on with great vigor, on the ocean, and 
in the West and East Indies. 

Armed Neutrality against England.-;-In 1780, the Empress Catharine II. 
of Russia, induced the Governments of Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia to unite 
with her in a maritime league, called, " The Amied Neutrality," to guard against 
encroacliments on the commerce of neutral powers by British armed vessels. 

The War on the Ocean and in the East and West Indies. — After the 
opening of the war between France and England, hostilities were prosecuted with 
energy by the English against the French in India. Pondicheriy, the capital of 
the French possessions in India, was immediately besieged by the English and 
their Hindoo allies, and, after a spirited defense, was compelled to surrender. 
Severe fighting also occurred in the West Indies, where powerful fleets were en- 
gaged in conquering or defending the possessions of the various contending nations. 
On the ocean, numerous engagements occurred between the naval forces of Great 
Britain on one side, and those of France, Spain, and Holland, on the other. The 
British fleets, under Admirals Rodney, Keppel, Graves, Parker, and others, main- 
tained the honor of England on the seas, against the attacks of her combined 
enemies. 

Surrender of Cornwallis — British Evacuation of America. — In the mean- 
time, the war had been carried on with various success, for nearly seven years, on 
American soil, between the British and the Americans. The Americans, led by the 
iirjiortal Washington and other valiant leaders, had baffled every attempt of the 
most pov/erful nation in the world to subdue them; and finally, on the igll of 
October, 1781, the British army under Lord Cornwallis was compelled to surrcndei 
to the allied Ameaican and French forces at Yorktown, Virginia, after a vigorom 
siege. This great event closed hostilities in America, and the British forces soor 
evacuate.! the American shores. 

The Wai between England and her European Enemies— Siege of 



EIGHTEENTII CENTUR V. 



309 



Gibraltar. — Allhoiij^h military operations wore thus ended in North America, 
hostilities were now prosecuted with the greatest animosity between England and 
her European enemies. For several years, the war had hcen conducted with vari- 
ous success by the English, against the French, the .Spaniards, and the Dutc.i, on 
the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. In June, 1781, a bloody, but inde- 
cisive b.attle was fought on the Dogger Bank, in the North .Sea, between the Eng- 
lish fleet under Admiral Parker, and the Dutch fleet under Admiral Zoutman. On 
'he 1 2th of April, 1782, the British fleet under Admiral Rodney defeated the 
Frc::i;h fleet under the Count de Grasse, in the West Indies, the English loji:.g 
only I, too men, while the French lost 1 1, 000 in killed, wounded, and prisouers. 
the Count de Gr.osse being among the prisoners. In 1782, the Spaniards con- 
quered the island of Minorca, after a vigorous defense on the part^of the English. 
The attention of all Europe was attracted to the siege of Gibraltar by the united 
armies and navies of France and .Spain. The fortress had been besieged since 
1779, but the besiegers had made no progress in the way of its reduction. The 
garrison in the fortress consisted of about 7,000 English troops under General 
Elliot. In November, 1 78 1, the garrison made a successful sally from the fortress, 
utterly demolishing the enemy's works. After immense preparations, the comljined 
French and Spanish fleets and annies besieging Gibraltar were increased to about 
100,000 men; and, on the 13th of September, 1782, a grand attack was opened 
upon the fortress; but, after the most terrific fighting, the garrison, assisted by the 
English gunboats, repulsed the attacks of the besiegers. At night, while the fight 
was still raging fiercely, the Spanish fleet caught fire, and the groans of the .Span- 
iards on board the burning ships were pitiful beyond description. Hereupon the 
English seamen, with characteristic humanity, forgetting that the Spaniards were 
their enemies, and thinking of them only as suffering fellow-men, hastened to their 
rescue, and saved hundreds of them from the perils by which they were surrounded. 
During the night, the garrison of Gibraltar was relieved by Lord Howe's fleet from 
England, and the French and the Spaniards relinquished the siege of the impreg- 
nable fortress. 

Peace of Paris — Independence of the United States. — On the 30th of 
November, 1782, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, between Great 
Britain and the United -States, by which the former acknowledged the independence 
of the latter. On the 20th of January, 1783, preliminary treaties were signed be- 
tween England, France, Spain, and Holland. On the 3d of September, 1783, 
definitive treaties of peace were signed at Paris, between all the belligerent powers, 
and the United States took its place among the nations of the earth as an independent 
power, and commenced its glorious career. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (A. D. 1789-1799;, 

CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 

Profligacy and Debauchery of Louis XV. — Louis XV. had at first secured 
the esteem of the French people to such an extent that he was surnamed "The 
Well-beloved." When he was taken seriously ill at Metz, in 1744, the whole 
kingdom y/a.s filled with sorrow; and his recovery was hailed with transports of joy. 



3IO 



MODERN HISTORY. 



But Louis soon lost the affections of his subjects when he plunged into the most 
ex-^cssive vices and riotous debauchery, and left the government of his kingdom to 
the mo3t profligate and licentious favorites. Of these favorites, Madame Pompa- 
dour possessed the greatest influence at court. For twenty years, she controlled the 
affairs of France, procured the appointment of her favorites to the most responsible 
offices, used the public revenues for her own private purposes, and determinned 
ylien the nation should be at peace or war. The favorites of the king encouraged 
his debauchery, so that he would leave the affairs of state entirely in tlieir rands 
As the king grew older his licentiousness increased, so that at length he lost a) 
lespect and was regarded with contempt. 

Taxation, Tithes, and Feudal Dues. — The voluptuousness and extravagance 
of the F"rench court, and the unnecessary and expensive wars with the other Euro- 
pean states, exhausted the French treasury, increased the public debt, and bur- 
dened the French people with the most oppressive taxes. The taxes were all paid 
by the middle and lower classes, while the nobility and the clergy were exempt 
from all taxation. In addition to the land and property tax, capitation tax, house 
tax, and duties upon certain articles, the lower classes had to pay tithes, labor dues, 
and other feudal taxes to the aristocracy. 

Disputes between the King and the Parliaments. — All laws and decrees 
respecting taxation, in order to be valid, required registration by the parliament of 
Paris. Whenever the parliament refused to register or sanction the tax laws and 
decrees, it became involved in a vehement dispute with the court, which generally 
ended in a "Bed of Justice," by which the king overcame all opposition and 
carried his point. 

Lettres de Cachet. — Another cause of strife between the court and the parlia- 
ment were "the lettres de cachet," written orders beaiing the seal of the king, ban- 
ishing the person to whom they were addressed, or ordering him to be confined in 
prison. This power was greatly abused. Any person hating another, could easily 
gratify his malice by obtaining, for a certain sum of money, a "lettre de cachet," 
from the ruling favorite of the king, consigning the innocent victim to a lonely dim- 
geon, from which death, in the majority of cases, was the only release. The only 
check on the absolute power of the king was the parliament of Paris. After a ten 
year's contention with the parliament, Louis put an end to the matter by causing 
the most refractoiy members to be arrested, and, by a series of edicts, deprived the 
parliaments of all their privileges. 

Louis XVL and his Queen, Marie Antoinette. — The profligate Louis XV. 
died If i774' ^"d was succeeded on the throne of France by his grandson, Louis 
XVI., who was then only twenty years of age. Louis XVI. was a pious prince, 
and sincerely anxious for the good of the people over whom he reigned; but he 
'acked thi; ability and firmness necessary for the circumstances by which he was 
rurrounded. The extravagance and wickedness of the court of Louis XV. had 
leduced France toamost deplorable condition. The finances of the kingdom were 
in a disordered state, the public credit was gone, and the great body of the Frencl.' 
people were groaning under the most oppressive taxation. The weak king per 
mitted the extravagance and frivolousness of his brothers, the Count of Provence 
(afterward Louis XVIII.) and the Count of Artois (afterward Charles X.). lis 
also allowed his wife, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the great Austriaif empress, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 



311 



Maria Theresa, to exercise great influence upon the court and goceminentcf France, 
The pride and the haughty conduct of the queen provoked the disHke of the French 
people, who attributed every unpopular measure to her influence in the affairs of 
state. 

Disordered State of the French Finances — Turgot's Ministry. — The 
pre\-alent scarcity of money, and the disordered state of the public finances of 
France, could only be remedied by wise reforms, such as were proposed by Turgot, 
ft'hom the young king first entrusted with the charge of the finances. But Tnigjt's 
mcasuies of economy were bitterly opposed by the extravagant courtiers, ami th; 
able minister of finance was obliged to resign his office. 

Necker's First Ministry. — Necker, a wealthy Swiss banker, was next apponUed 
to take charge of the French finances. By pursuing the same course which his 
predecessor had adopted, and exposing the financial state of France in a pamphlet, 
Necker made liimself so obnoxious to the French court and aristocracy that he also 
was obliged to retire from his post (17S1). 

Republican Spirit Imbibed in the American Struggle for Liberty. — 
About this time, the War of the American Revolution, in which France took part 
as ally of the Americans, increased the public debt of France, and excited senti- 
ments of freedom and republicanism among the French people. Such of the French 
soldiers who served in America carried to France the republican spirit which they 
had imbibed from their American allies, and imparted to their countrymen the les- 
sons of freedom which they had learned. Many writers in France, especially 
Rousseau, had advocated republican principles with the greatest eloquence. 

Calonne, Minister of Finance. — The vain and extravagant Calonne, who, 
through the influence of the queen, was now appointed minister of finance, adopted 
a policy just the reverse of that which had been pursued by the economical Necker. 
He continued the system of loans long after the termination of the American war, 
and delighted the queen and the courtiers by giving the most extravagant enter- 
tainments; but his resources were at length exhausted, and he saw no other remedy 
than the taxation of the nobility and the clergy of France. For the purpose of 
securing the adoption of this course, he called an Assembly of Notables at Ver- 
sailles, in 1787. After a long struggle, the project of universal taxation was de- 
feated ; and Calonne, threatened with impeachment, resigned his office, and retired 
from the country. 

Brienne, Financial Minister. — Calonne's successor as minister of finance was 
Brienne, who found himself obliged to follow the usual method of raising loans 
anil increasing the taxes, in order to cover the deficit in the revenue; but in this 
he met with the most determined opposition from the parliament of Paris, which 
rel used to register his edicts. The government then arrested the boldest speakers 
o." the parliament, and banished them to Troyes. This proceeding aroused such a 
Storm of indignation among the French people that the government effected a com- 
promise with the banished members, who were again recalled, and the parliamen.i 
were again sanctioned. 

Spirit of the French People. — The French people now openly manifested 
their opposition to the court party. The parliament of Paris was surrounded by 
noisy multitudes, which denounced the court party, and showed their approval of 



312 



MODERN HISTORY. 



the course of the opposition members. Brienne, who had incurred the hatred of 
the people, was daily burned in effigy, and in many towns in the kingdom alarm- 
ing riots occurred. The people demanded the convocation of the States-General. 
The government made an effort to put an end to all opposition by changing the 
parliament into a "cour pleniere" (plenary court) and several subordinate courts. 
15ut the effort to overcome the opposition of the people was useless; and Brier ne 
r>UHd himself obliged to resign his situation at a time when the French treasuiy 
»"as destitute of funds, and the French government appeared on the eve of b.iiik 
ruptcy. 

Necker's Second Ministry — The States-General Summoned. — -That 
great idol of the French people, Necker, was now recalled to the management of 
the finances of France. His restoration was hailed with acclamations of joy, and 
confidence was again lestored. Necker procured the repeal of the edicts against 
the parliament of Paris, and then made arrangements for the assembling of the 
States-General, an assembly composed of representatives chosen by the Three Es- 
tates, the nobility, the clergy, and the people, which had not met since 1 614. A 
Convention of Notables was first assembled to decide on the preliminaries necessary 
to the convocation of the States-General. The people demanded, and Necker 
maintained, that the representatives of the people, or Third Estate, in the coming 
meeting of the States-General, should equal the number of representatives of the 
other two Estates taken together. This double representation, after much deliber- 
ation, was conceded; and the king fixed the number of representatives at 300 for 
the nobles, 300 for the clergy, and 600 for the people. The king appointed the 
ensuing May as the time for the meeting of the States-General. 

HE TIME OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. 
(MAY 5, 1789-SEPTEMBER 30, 1791.) 

EVENTS OF 1789. 

Difficulty at the Opening of the States-General. — The States-General 
assembled at Versailles on the 5th of May, 1789. Some of the ablest and most dis- 
tinguished men of P'rance were among its members. At the opening of this great 
assembly, a difficulty arose as to how the representatives of the Three Estates should 
vote. The clergjs and the nobility demanded that the three orders should meet in 
three separate bodies; while the people insisted that the Three Estates should meet 
in one body. If they met in separate bodies, every measure, in order to become a 
law, must receive the approval of two of the Estates voting separately. It would, 
therefore, be an easy matter for the clergy and the nobles, whose interests were 
almost identical, to unite for the purpose of defeating measures for the elevation of 
the people. On the other hand, if they met in one body, the people, on account of 
tlieir double representation, would be able to manage everything their own way. 

The States-General Declares Itself a National Assembly. — After wait- 
ir.g some weeks for the nobility and the clergy to join them, the deputies oi the 
Third Estate, on the 17th of June, 1789, declared themselves the National Assembly 
of France, being, as they maintained, the representatives of the great body of tha 
French people. Its ablest members were the Count de Mirabeau and the abbe 
Sieyes. The astionomer Bailly, the representative of Paris, and a great advocate 



EIGHTEL N'TH CENTUR V. 3 j j 

of popular freedom, was chosen president of the Assembly, which was then joined 
by a part of the representation of the clergy and the nobles. 

A Royal Session Held — Bold Address of Count Mirabeau.— The National 
Assembly immediately voted that the present levy of taxes should only continue so 
long as th' Estates remained undissolved, and that they should cease entirely in 
case of a dissolution of the Estates. This boldness of the Assembly alarmed the 
courl, under whose influence the king appointed a " Royal Session," and closed 
the hall of the Assembly for several days. When, on the 20th of June (1789), the 
members of the Assembly found the halls closed, they proceeded to the Tennis Cour'., 
where they made a solemn vow not to separate until they had framed a constitution 
for the French nation. When, on the 22d of June, the court caused the Tennis 
Court to be closed, the members of the Assembly proceeded to the church of St. 
Louis, where they held their meeting. The Royal Session took place on the 23d 
of June. The king granted some concessions, but threatened vengeance upon the 
National Assembly, unless the Three Estates met in three distinct bodies. y\.fter the 
close of the Royal Session, the king dissolved the Assembly. The nobility and 
the clergy obeyed, and immediately withdrew from the hall, but the deputies of 
the people kept their seats; and when the king's officer ordered them to withdraw, 
Count de Mirabeau arose from his seat and exclaimed, " You, sir, have no seat, 
nor a right to open your lips here. You are not to remind us of the king's desire. 
Go, tell your master that we sit here by the power of the people of France, and 
that we will only be driven away at the point of the bayonet." The weak monarch 
did not attempt to force the refractory deputies to obey, l>ut a few days afterward he 
advised the nobles and the clergy to unite with the representatives of the people. 

Excited State of the Parisian Populace. — While the National Assembly 
was engaged in forming a constitution for the F"rench kingdom, the populace of 
Paris were kept in a constant state of excitement, by licentious journals, pamphlets, 
and inflammatory speeches. Unprincipled demagogues delivered violent discourses 
upon the rights of man, in the streets, in taverns, and particularly in the Palais 
Royal, the residence of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, the cousin of the king. 
The people were encouraged to obtain their rights by violence. Among the popu- 
lar orators, was the young enthusiast for popular liberty, Camille Desmoulins. The 
military in the capital joined the popular side, and became members of the National 
Guard, a new body of militia, which the people had just organized. The city 
government of Paris was placed in the hands of the democrats, with Bailly as Mayor. 

Revolutionary Condition of the Capital. — The French court, becoming 
alarmed at the excited state of the populace of Paris, retired to Versailles, with a 
small guard composed of German and Swiss troops. The leaders of the people, 
thinking that the king intended some act of violence, took advantage of the removal 
of the court to inflame the people of Paris still more. The irresolute king now 
listened to the indiscreet counsels of his courtiers and nobles; and a large army 
nnder Marshal Broglio was collected between Versailles and the capital. This, 
nstead of intimidating the people, only inflamed their rage. At the same timCj 
Neckei, whom the people greatly esteemed, was dismissed from the ministry. The 
populace of Paris, thinking this preliminary to an intended act of violence on the 
part of the court, rose as one man. Crowds of the lowest rabble, wearing the newly- 
adopted national cockade, or tricolor, consisting of red, white, and blue ribbon. 



314 MODERN HISTORY. 

marched through the streets of the city; the alarum bell was sounded, the gun 
smiths' shops were broken open and plundered, and the whole city was filled will? 
riot and confusion. 

Storming and Capture of the Bastile. — On the 14th of July, 1789, the 
populace of Paris, after obtaining 30,000 stand of amis and some cannon from the 
Hospital of Invalides, proceeded against the Bastile, an old castle used as a State 
piison. The governor, Delaunay, was induced by the garrison in the Bastile to 
leniove the cannon from the fortress, as they only served to increase the fury of ihr 
populace. Soon afterwards, a deputation from the commune of Paris, headed by 
the popular leaders, appeared, and demanded an entrance into the Bastile, for the 
purpose of conferring with the governor. The drawbridge was lowered for the 
adnission of the deputation; but when the mob rushed forward and demanded 
arms, the drawbridge was closed, and the garrison, by order of the governor, fiicd 
upon the multitude. The cries of the wounded and the dying filled the people 
with ungovernable rage, and they commenced storming the Bastile with fury. The 
garrison still resisted the advance of their assailants, who, being soon joined by a 
body of grenadiers, redoubled the vigor of the assault. The governor and the 
garrison, in despair, at length surrendered, and the populace were completely trium- 
phant. The governor was torn in pieces by the enraged mob, while on his way to 
the Hotel de Ville, and his head was carried on a pole through the streets of Paris. 

Necker Recalled — Lafayette, Commander of the National Guard. — 

The storming and capture of the Bastile by the mob of Paris struck the king and the 
aristocrats with consternation. The banished Necker was immediately recalled to 
the ministry, and was received with enthusiastic joy by the people. The king 
returned to Paris, gave orders for the removal of the troops, appeared before the 
people with the tri-colored cockade in his hat, and declared himself united with the 
nation. Lafayette, who had fought so nobly for freedom in America, was appointed 
commander of the National Guard. 

The Emigrants. — Many thousands of the French nobles, with the Count of 
Artois and the Prince of Conde at their head, now left the countiy. For this reason 
they were called "Emigrants." They gathered at Turin, and afterwards at Cob- 
lentz, and tried eveiy effort to induce foreign governments to make war on France, 
and to suppress the Revolution by the povver of their annies. 

Insubordination Throughout France. — The consequences of the capture of 
the Bastile were that the authority of the government and the laws throughout F"rance 
was at an end. All power was in the hands of the people. The peasants of the 
provinces no longer paid their dues to the clergy and the nobility, but they took a 
terrible revenge for the tyranny which they and their ancestors had suffered for 
centuries. Many of the nobles were murdered or driven away, and their chateaux 
were reduced to ashes. 

Abolition of Aristocratic Privileges and Titles. — \Vlien informed of the pro- 
ceedings in the provinces, the National Assembly declared that the aristocracy should 
show by their conduct that they were ready to ameliorate the condition of the masses of 
the French people, and, with this view, renounce all their exclusive privileges and titles. 
In one sudden burst of enthusiasm, the nobles and the clergy consented to surrender 
all their privileges and titles. Each of the privileged classes seemed to vie with tha 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



315 



other in showing their willingness to make the greatest sacrifices for the welfare of the 
people. In one excited session, in the evening of the 4th of August, 1789, the 
National Assembly abolished all tithes, labor dues, all exclusive privileges, and all 
titles and distinctions of rank in France ; and declared the equality of all classes 
before the law and with respect to taxation. All remnants of the Feudal System 
of the Middle Ages were now swept away; religious freedom was established; the 
church was deprived of her possessions; and the whole political condition of France 
ivas changed. 

Imprudent Conduct of the King and the Queen. — The hesitation oi tne 
king in promulgating the resolutions of the Assembly as laws, produced suspicions 
among the French people of his sincerity. These suspicions gained ground when 
the Flemish regiment was summoned to Versailles, and the king, the queen, and 
the dauphin, were imprudent enough to appear at a dinner given by the soldiers 
of the body-guard to the officers of the regiment, when several royalist toasts were 
drunk, and many of the officers, mostly young nobles, under the influence of wine, 
made imprudent speeches against the privileges and liberties which had just been 
acquired by the people. An exaggerated account of these proceedings was spread 
through Paris, and the people feared that an attempt would be made to restore the 
former despotism. 

The King Brought to Paris by a Mob. — In the meantime, the popular leaders 
were instigating the populace of Paris to demand that the king and the National 
Assembly should remove from Versailles to the capital; and, on the 5th of October 
(1789), a multitude of the lowest refuse of the people, mostly women, armed with 
pikes, clubs, and forks, left Paris and proceeded to Versailles. The mob demanded 
that the king and the Assembly should return to Paris, and cried for a relief from 
the scarcity of bread, Dumg the night, the mob stormed the palace, and massacred 
many of the king's guards who defended it; and had it not been for the timely 
arrival of Lafayette with the National Guard, the whole royal family would have 
been sacrificed to the fury of the mob. On the following day, the king and his 
family were obliged to accompany the mob to Paris, and to take up their abode in 
the Tuileries, which henceforth remained their palace and prison. Soon after- 
wards the National Assembly transferred its sittings from Versailles to the capital. 

The Jacobin Club. — The lower classes in France gradually acquired more 
power, and were kept in a constant state of excitement against the royal family 
and the aristocrats, by inflammatory speeches from unprincipled demagogues. The 
infamous Marat, in his licentious journal, "The Friend of the People," encouraged 
the people to acts of violence. The Revolution was also aided by the democratic 
clubs, which increased every day in extent and influence. Of these, the Jacobin 
club, which had branches in every town in France, was the most celebrated and 
the most powerful. The members of this club were satisfied with nothing less than 
a republic, with liberty and equality for all classes. 

EVENTS OF 1790 AND 1791. 

The Ceremony of Federation. — On the 14th of July, 1790, the anniversary 
of the capture of the Bastile, a grand " Ceremony of Federation" was held in the 
Champ de Mars. This was a veiy imposing spectacle. Lafayette, in the name of 



31 6 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

the National Guard, the president of the National Assembly, and the king, made 
solemn vows to support the coming constitution. The utmost enthusiasm and good 
feeling was manifested on this occasion by all classes and all parties. 

Death of Count Mirabeau. — Necker had already retired to Switzerland, and 
Count Mirabeau, who had at first been one of the most enthusiastic supporters of 
the Revolution, now joined the cause of the king, believing a constitutional monar- 
chy, and not a republic, to be the best form of government for France. He now 
exerted himself to his utmost to prevent any further encroachments on the authority 
of the king; but, unfortunately for Louis XVI., Mirabeau died in April, I79i,and 
the timid and irresolute king was no longer able to resist the increasing influence 
of the Jacobins. A short time before his death, Mirabeau said, " Before lon^, 
neither the king nor the National Assembly will rule, but a vile faction will over- 
spread the land with its horrors." 

Flight of the Royal Family to Varennes. — The refusal of the king to 
declare the Emigrants traitors led to a prevalent belief among the French people 
that he was not a true supporter of the constitution then framing. This belief ex- 
cited the fears of the king, and he resolved upon leaving the country. Leaving 
behind him a letter, in which he protested against all the measures which had been 
forced from him since October, 1789, he fled with his family from Paris in a large 
carriage, in June, 1791 ; but did not succeed in escaping from the kingdom. Im- 
prudently putting his head out of the window of the carriage, Louis was recognized 
by Drouet, the postmaster of St. Menehould, who immediately rode off" to Varennes, 
to give the alarm. "When the royal family arrived at Varennes, the road was 
barricaded, and the carriage was soon surrounded by a tumultuous mob. At this 
moment, a party of soldiers rode up to the carriage, and asked Louis if they should 
force a passage for him through the crowd. The king asked if it would cost many 
lives, and being told that it probably would, forbade the attempt, and surrendered 
himself a prisoner. The royal family were conducted in triumph to Paris by an 
insolent mob, and again compelled to resume their residence in the palace of the 
Tuileries. 

Adoption of the Constitution — End of the National Assembly. — The 
National Assembly, in obedience to the demands of the French people, temporarily 
suspended the royal authority, until the king should swear to the new constitution, 
which was now almost completed. On the 14th of September, 1789, Louis XVI. 
took an oath to defend the constitution against internal and external enemies, and 
to enforce its provisions to the best of his ability. After the adoption of the con- 
stitution, ihe National Assembly passed an ordinance declaring that none of its 
members should be elected to the next assembly, and then declared itself dissolved. 

PERIOD OF THE FRENCH LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY. 
(OCTOBER 1, 1791-SEPTEMBER 20, 1792.) 

EVENTS OF 1792. 

Jacobins and Girondists. — The elections for representatives in the new assem- 
l)]y, called " The Legislative Assembly," had resulted in the complete success ol 
the Republicans. The Royalists had exercised no influence in the elections what- 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Z^l 



ever. The Assembly was thoroughly democratic. The Repiiblicnns in the Assem- 
tily were, however, divided into two great parties. The party of the most radical 
democratic views was known as " The Jacobin" or " Mountain" party. Its mem- 
bers belonged to the Jacobm club. It was called the Mountain party, because its 
members in the' Assembly occupied seats above the others. This party was headed 
by such bloodthirsty Revolutionists as Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Caniille Des- 
ni ulins, St. Just, Couthon, Duke Philip of Orleans, and others. The more moderate 
party were called "Girondists," I)ecause their chief leaders were from the departmenf 
of the Gironde. The principal leaders of the Girondist party were Brissot, Roland, 
Farbaroux, Condorcet, Vergniaud, Dumourier, and others. This party was opposed 
to unnecessary bloodshed, and in favor of a federal republic, like the United States. 
Doings of the French Legislative Assembly. — The first measures of the 
French Legislative Assembly were directed against the priests wh6 refused to t.ake 
the Revolutionary oath, and against the Emigrants, who had gathered at Coblentz, 
and were making every effort to stir uj) foreign powers to make war on France, 
for the purpose of effecting the restoration of the former despotism. The Assem- 
bly took measures for the arrest of the unsworn priests, and declared the Emigrants 
to be traitors and conspirators, and endeavored to effect the confiscation of their 
estates. These measures were vetoed by the king, and their execution was thus 
prevented. This excited the indignation of the French people, who believed that 
the royal family were plotting with the Emigrants, and with the Emperor of Austria, 
the brother of the queen, for the overthrow of the new system, and for the reestab- 
lishment of the old state of things in France. 

War Declared against Austria and Prussia. — It was now evident that a 
foreign war must soon break out. The Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, 
who were at this time making extensive preparations for war, demanded that the 
French should reform their government upon the plan proposed by their king in 
June, 17S9. The French people were exasperated at this dictation from foreign 
monarchs, and resolved never to submit to such insolence. The King o.^ France 
yielded very reluctantly his assent to a declaration of war against Austria and 
Prussia by the Assembly, on the 20th of April, 1792. * 

Insurrection of June. — To secure the Legislative Assembly against any attack, 
it was determined to call 20.000 of the federates, from the Northern pn^.vinces of 
France, to Paris, with the professed object of celebrating the capture of the Bastile, 
and to entrust the defense of Paris to them. But Louis XVI. refused his ajjproval 
of this measure, whereupon the Girondist ministers, with Roland at their head, 
resigned their offices, and Madame Roland severely censured the king in a letter. 
These proceedings excited the frenzy of the French people, and enabled the Revo- 
lutionists to bring about an insurrection. On the 20th of June, the anniversary of 
the Tennis Court, a furious mob, armed with pikes, and headed l)y the brewer 
Santerre and the butcher Legendre, entered the Tuileries, for the purpose of com- 
pelling the king to approve of the decrees against the unsworn priests and for call- 
ing out the National Guard. For several hours, the king bore the insults of the 
mob, who even went so far as to take off his diadem, and put the ted cap of the 
Jacoljins on his head, until the appearance of the National Guard umler Petion 
freed him from danger. 



3^8 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Austrian and Prussian Invasion of France. — Near the close of July, 1792, 
a combined Austrian and Prussian army, of 140,000 men, under the command of 
Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, the celebrated commander of the English and Hano- 
verian forces iu the Seven Years' War, passed the Eastern frontier of France, and 
marched into Lorraine. Before advancing into France, the Duke of Brunswick, 
at the proposal of one of the Emigrants, had issued a proclamation, which only 
tended to inflame the mad fuiy of the Revolutionists in Paris. He threatened 
snilitary execution against all who supported the Revolution, and demanded the 
restoration of the old despotism in France, under the penalty of giving up Paris 
to i^lunder, and punishing as rebels all who resisted. The insolent tone of this 
proclamation excited, in the French people, the fiercest rage against the Emigrants 
and their foreign allies. 

The loth of August. — In consequence of the proclamation of the Duke of 
Brunswick, the French Legislative Assembly declared the country in danger; and 
such Jacobin leaders as RbbespieiTe, Marat, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins 
harangued the Parisian populace, and inflamed their rage. These demagogues, 
called to Paris from Marseilles, Brest, and other French maritime towns, the very 
dregs of society, and resolved upon a general insurrection in the capital. After mid- 
night, on the loth of August ( 1 792), a frantic mob, led by Danton, appeared before the 
Tuileries, which was defended by 900 Swiss guards and the Parisian National Guard. 
The mob pointed their cannon toward the palace, and the National Guard, unwill- 
ing to fire upon the multitude, dispersed. The mob, gradually becoming bolder, 
finally demanded the dethronement of the king. Hereupon the king and his family 
fled to the hall of the Assembly, where they remained for thirty-six hours. No 
sooner had the king left the Tuileries, than the mob pressed forward and endeav- 
ored to force an entrance into the palace, whereupon the Svifiss guards fired upon 
the multitude, who were driven back vs^ith a loss of 200 men. The indignant 
Assembly, hearing the fire of musketry, required the king to order his guards 
to cease firing upon the people. No sooner was the order carried into execution, 
than the infuriated mob stormed the palace, massacred, without mercy, all whom 
they found in it, and destroyed the furniture. About 5,000 persons, 700 of whom 
were Swiss guards, fell victims to the rage of the mob. 

Fall of the Monarchy in France. — The bloody event of the loth of August 
was the death-blow to the monarchy in France. In the meantime, the Legislative 
Assembly, at the proposal of Vergniaud, the president of that body, suspended the 
royal authority, and issued a call for the assembling of a National Convention on 
the 22d of September, 1792. Soon afterward, the king and his family were im- 
prisoned in the Temple, a gloomy old building, which had once belonged to the 
Knights-Templars. After the king had been deprived of his authority, the Assem- 
bly appointed a new ministiy, with the Girondist Roland at its head. The frightful 
Danton held the office of Minister of Justice. The ministry and the Common 
Council of Paris, which appointed pikemen to the police of the capital, manage*? 
everything their own way. 

Flight and Imprisonment of Lafayette. — Lafayette, who had hastened to 
Paris after the insurrection of June, for the purpose of saving the king, if possible, 
was now ordered to appear before the Assembly, to answer for his conduct. Rightly 
Wieving that the Jacobins were resolved upon his destruction, Lafayette fled into 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 319 

the Austrian Netherlands, with the intention of escaping to America; but he was 
seized by the Austrians, who kept him a prisoner for five years, in the dungeons of 
Magdeburg and Ohnutz. Talleyrand fled to England, and thence to America, 
where he remained until tl;e sanguinaiy period of the Revolution was over, when 
he returned to his native country. 

Massacre of the Prisons. — By the advice of Danton, a court was instituted 
ire the trial of all such persons as were suspected of being hostile to the Revolu- 
tion ; and it was resolved to crush all opposition from within and from without, by 
striking terror into the Royalists at home. The prisons were speedily .llled with 
aristocrats and suspected persons. When intelligence reached Paris of the capture 
of Verdun by the Prussians, the Parisian populace were aroused to the greatest 
fury; and at three o'clock in the morning of the 2d of September (1792), a band of 
300 hired assassins broke open the prisons in Paris, and commenced a frightful 
massacre of the unfortunate persons just arrested. During the massacres, the assas- 
sins established courts for the trial of their victims, and in a few minutes the fate 
of each was decided. The massacres continued until the 7th of September. 
During these six bloody days in Paris, more than 5,000 persons perished in the 
different prisons. Among the murdered was the Princess de Lamballe, the friend 
of the queen, Marie Antoinette. A band of pikemen held the head of the mur- 
dered princess upon a pole before the window of the queen, who fell into fright- 
ful convulsions at the horrid spectacle. The monarchy in France was now com- 
pletely overthrown, and the French Legislative Assembly ended its sittings on the 
20th of September, 1792. 

THE FRENCH REPUBLIC UNDER THE NATIONAL 
CONVENTION (SEPT. 22, 1792-OCT. 26, 1795). 

EVENTS OF 1792. 

First Measures of the French National Convention. — The French Legis- 
lative Assembly was succeeded by a National Convention, which asiiembled at 
Paris on the 22d of September, 1792. On the very first day of its meeting, the 
Convention decreed that royalty was abolished in France, and a Republic was pro- 
claimed. The Convention also enacted that time, instead of being reckoned from 
the birth of the Saviour, should thereafter be reckoned from the 22d of September, 
1792, the birthday of the French Republic. 

Retreat of the Austrians and the Prussians — Battle of Jemappes. — On 
the 20th of September, 1792, the Prussian army, which had advanced into Cham- 
pagne, was defeated by the French, under Dumourier and Kellerman, in the battle 
of Valmy. After this battle, the Prussians agreed to evacuate the French terri- 
tories, and retreated to the Rhine. The French army under Custine then advanced 
into the Prussian territories, and captured the strong fortress of Mayence, and other 
[daces along the Rhine. The Austrians, who had invaded France from the Aus- 
trian Netherlands, were also obliged to retreat, and were pursued by the French 
army under Dumourier, across the frontier, into the Austrian Netherlands. On the 
6th of November, 1792, Dumourier won a decisive victoiy over the Austrians, in the 
battle of Jemappes, which gave the French possession of the Austrian Netherlands. 



32 MODERN HISTORY. 

EVENTS OF 179S. 

Trial and Execution of Louis XVI. — One great object of the Jacobins was to 
lake away the life of the king, or, as he was now called, "Louis Capet." They 
accused him of treason and conspiracy against the French Republic. On the 26th 
of December, 1793, Louis XVL was brought to the bar of the National Convention 
as a criminal. The Girondists vainly endeavored to have the question of the king's 
guilt referred to the French people. The Jacobins prevented it, and caused a reso- 
lution to be passed declaring that a bare majority, and not a two-thirds vote, should 
be necessary for the condemnation of the king. After a trial of twenty days, dur- 
ing which the king's advocates, Deseze, Tronchet, and the venerable Malesherbes, 
displayed the greatest zeal and ability, the unfortunate monarch was declared guilty, 
and condemned to death by a majority of five votes, out of seven hundred and 
twenty-one. Among those who voted for the death of the king was his own cousin, 
Philip Egalite, Duke of Orleans. On the 2 1st of January, 1793, the king was 
taken to the place of execution, in the Square of the Revolution. He ascended the 
scaffold with a firm step. Looking around at the vast multitude, he exclaimed, 
"Frenchmen, I die innocent! I forgive my enemies." He was prevented from 
saying more by the noise of the drums which the brewer Santerre ordered to be 
beaten for the purpose of drowning his voice. The abbe Edgeworth pronounced 
aloud, ".Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven." Three executioners then seized hold 
of the king and tied his hands. Down came the axe of the guillotine, and the head 
that had worn a crown was severed from the body. A few of the multitude cried, 
"Viva la Nation!" "Vive la Republique!" but the greater part of them wept 
at the sad spectacle. The body, without being laid in a cotifin, was thrown nito 
a pl.ain grave, and quicklime was spread over it to hasten the decomposition. Thus 
perished one of the most virtuous and pious monarchs that ever sat on a throne, — 
a monarch who feared God and dearly loved his people. The memory of his in- 
famous murderers will ever be held in detestation. 

War Declared Against England, Spain, and Holland. — The execution of 
Louis XVL, and a proclamation by the French National Convention, offering the 
aid of France to all nations that would overthrow their monarchical governments, 
and establish republican forms in their stead, led to a coalition of almost all the 
crowned heads of Europe against the French Republic. The Convention, how- 
ever, did not wait to be attacked, but, resolving to anticipate the designs of the 
enemies of the Republic by taking the first step, declared war against the Kings 
of England and Spain, and the Stadtholder of Holland. Portugal and the Italian 
and German states joined the coalition against the PVench Republic. England, 
under the direction of her illustrious Prime-Minister, the younger William Pitt, 
furnished her continental allies with large subsidies, and prosecuted the war with 
vigor. 

Battle of Neerwinden — Defection of Dumourier. — The Austrians again 
appeared in force in the Austrian Netherlands; and on the iSth of March, i 7P3, 
the Austrian army, under the Prince of Coburg, defeated the French army undc 
Dumourier, in the battle of Neerwinden. Dumourier ascribed the cause of this 
defeat to the Jacobins, whom he accused of having corrupted the army. Disgusted 
with the condition of affairs, Dumourier determined to attempt the reestablishment 




ROBESPIERRE, 




LOUIS XVI 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



321 



of monarchy in France. When the National Convention heard of .his, that body 
determined upon the destruction of the general; but Dumourier seized the com- 
missioners of the Convention, who had been sent to bring him to Paris, and sent 
them, as prisoners, to the Austrians; and then went over to the enemy with a part 
of his army. 

Fall of the Girondists. — For the purpose of putting a stop to the violence of 
the mob in Paris, and destroying the domination of the capital, the Girondists en 
deavored to erect France into a federal republic. The Jacobins, seeing tl .a< thi; 
scheme, carried into effect, would weaken their power, violently opposed the pro 
ject, and determined to prevent it by the destruction of the Girondist leaders. The 
mob were excited to acts of violence against the Girondists; and finally, the great 
insurrection of the 31st of May and the ist of June broke out, which had been 
brought about by Hebert and the leading Jacobin leaders of the National Con- 
vention, Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, and which deprived the Convention of 
its freedom. Headed by the infamous Henriot, the mob surrounded the Tuileries, 
where the Convention was sitting, and demanded, with menaces, the exclusion of 
the Girondists, and the abolition of the Commission of Twelve, the appointment of 
which the Girondists had obtained for the detection and punishment of those who 
had excited the riots. The Girondists made vain efforts to prevent the Convention 
from complying with the demands of the raging mob. When the majority of the 
Convention, seeing themselves deprived of the freedom of their deliberations, 
attempted to retire from the hall, they were forced back by the mob, and compelled 
to exclude the Girondist deputies. Thirty-four of the Girondists were seized and 
imprisoned; twenty of them escaped to Normandy and Brittany, where they 
aroused their supporters to insuiTCction against the Convention; and the others 
were afterwards guillotined. Shortly afterwards, the bloodthirsty Marat was assas- 
sinated by the heroine, Charlotte Corday. Petion, Roland, and other Girondists 
committed suicide; Madame Roland was brought to the guillotine; and seventy- 
three partisans of the Girondists were expelled from the Convention, which was 
then entirely controlled by the sanguinary Jacobins, with Robesiperre and Danton 
at their head, and nothing was for a time able to withstand their violence. 

The Reign of Terror. — France now felt the terrible consequences of the victory 
of the Jacobins. The Committee of Public Safety in Paris, a formidable Revolu- 
tionaiy Tribunal, under the control of such bloodhounds as Robespierre, Couthon, 
St. Just, Collot d' Herbois, Barrere, and others, filled the countiy with blood and 
terror. The law against the suspected was rigorously executed. In consequence 
of this, and other laws, the prisons were filled with those who were obnoxious to 
the populace and the Convention, and large parties were daily sent to the guillotint,-. 
Wealthy and refined persons were in constant danger of falling victims to the san 
guinary fury and madness of the day. The populace of the capital were formed 
into democratic clubs, which had the power of disposing of the lives of all who 
were opposed to the Revolution. Agriculture was neglected, public credit wa.s 
destroyed and famine was added to the horrors from which the unhappy cmnili-y 
was suffering. Among the distinguished persons who died on the guillotine were 
Bailly, Barnave, the queen Marie Antoinette, the infamous Duke of Orleans, and 
Generals Houchard, Biron, Custine, and Beauharnais. The tombs of the French 
kings were destroyed, in order that the people might forget every vestige of royalty. 
21 



322 



MODERN HISTORY. 



iThe churches were plundered, the Sabbath was abandoned, and finally, on the loth 
'of November, 1793, the Convention decreed the abolition of the Christian religion 
in France, and substituted the worship of " Reason" in its stead. The calendar, 
and the names of the months, had ah^eady been changed, and the year madt to com- 
mence on tte 22d of September, the birth-day of the French Republic. The rule 
of the populace of Paris, and the bloody monsters of the Convention, is knowr ?s 
"The Reign of Terror." During its continuance more than one million of Frencn 
u;en perished. 

Insurrection of La Vendee. — While the most shocking excesses were perpe 
trated by the French Republicans, and while the armies of almost all of the othei 
European nations were on the Fi-ench frontiers, France was distracted by a bloody 
civil war. The seat of this war was the beautiful district of La Vended, in the 
West of France. The inhabitants of La Vendee, who had always been firmly 
attached to their king and their landlords, had opposed the Revolution from the 
beginning. Enraged at the murder of their king and their unsworn priests, the 
peasants of La Vended flew to arms against the National Convention, and under 
iuch brave leaders as Charette, Stofflet, Cathelineau, Laroche-Jaquelein, and others, 
they gained several brilliant victories, and drove the Republican armies out of their 
territory. ' The Convention again sent 200,000 troops, under such bloodthirsty com- 
manders as Ronsin, Rossignol, and Westermann, against the rebellious Vendeans. 
The Republican troops, to their eternal shame, ravaged the fertile district of La 
Vendee with fire and sword. The Vendeans fought with the most determined valor 
to the last, and only submitted when they were perfectly exhausted, and after more 
than 200,000 of their number had perished in the insurrection. 

Insurrection in Brittany and Normandy. — The troops of the National Con- 
vention were also engaged in suppressing other frightful insurrections against the 
Reign of Terror. The inhabitants of Brittany and Normandy had arisen in support 
of the unfortunate Girondist leaders, but were soon subdued by the Republicans led 
by Freron, who filled that beautiful region with slaughter and desolation. 

Insurrection of Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. — When the wealthy peo- 
ple of Lyons, indignant at the conduct of the Jacobin Chalier, who endeavored to 
excite the people of that city to acts of violence, caused that demagogue to be exe- 
cuted, the enraged Convention surrounded Lyons with a powerful army. The 
inhabitants of the city rose in insurrection, and obstinately defended their city to 
the last extremity. After a vigorous siege of four months, Lyons surrendered to 
the Republican troops^ who destroyed a great part of the city, and put to death and 
exiled thousands of the rebellious inhabitants. A formidable insurrection which 
had broken out in Marseilles was also suppressed, and many of the inhabitants ot 
that city fled to Toulon, which had also revolted. The inhabitants of Toulon 
surrendered their city to an English squadron which they had called upon for assist- 
ance. The city was soon besieged by the Republican army, whose artillery was 
directed by the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who now for the first time 
exhibited his great militaiy talents. After a spirited resistance, the English set fire 
to their ships, leaving the unfortunate inhabitants to the mercy of their Republican 
enemies, who put many of them to death. 

Success of the French Arms in the Campaign of 1793. — WTiile the French 
National Convention was engaged in suppressing numerous insurrections against 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



323 



its authority, during the year 1793, the armies of almost all the nations of liurope 
were in the field against the French Republic. The English, Dutch, Hanoverians, 
Hessians, Prussians, and Austrians, were on the northern and eastern frontiers of 
Trance. The Sardinians were on the south-east, and the Spaniards had passed the 
Fyrenees on the south-west. In the beginning of the year, the allies gained some 
successes. The English, under the Duke of York, captured Valenciennes, but were 
afterwards compelled by the French, under General Houchard, to raise the siege vf 
Dunkirk. The Convention caused its generals who were so unfortunate as to be 
defeated to suffer death in consequence. Thus General Custine, who was com- 
pelled to retreat from the Rhine by the Austrians and the Prussians, and General 
Beauhamais, who failed to prevent the recapture of Mayence by the Prussians, 
were guillotined. Houchard met with the same fate, for retreating before the supe- 
rior force of the enemy. Before the end of the year, the French arms were every- 
where triumphant. The invasion on all sides was defeated, and the numerous 
insurrections against the Convention were suppressed. The army of the French 
Republic amounted to more than a million of men, and was inspired with the 
greatest enthusiasm. 

EVENTS OF 1794. 

Fall of the Dantonists. — The atrocities which disgraced the French Republic 
at length excited the disgust of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, who endeavored 
to arrest the Reign of Terror, and to stop the unnecessary shedding of blood. 
Robespierre and his partisans in the National Convention accordingly determined 
upon the destruction of the whole party of Danton, whom they accused of corrup- 
tion. On the nth of March, 1794, eleven of the ultra-revolutionists, among whom 
were Hebert, Chaumette, Clootz, Momoro, and Ronsin, were led to the guillotine. 
Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and their partisans in the Convention, were next 
brought before the Committee of Public Safety. Suppoi'ted by a frantic mob, Dan- 
ton and Desmoulins loudly demanded that their accusers should appear before 
them. For three days, the violent and tumultuous conduct of the mob, and the 
vehemence of Danton before the Revolutionary Tribunal, prevented the condemna- 
tion of the accused. At length, the Convention gave the Tribunal the power of 
condemning, without any further hearing, Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans, 
who were trying to overthrow the Revolutionary power by means of an insurrection. 
Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans were then brought to the guillotine and 
beheaded, in the presence of a vast multitude. On being led to death, Danton 
exclaimed, "Robespierre follows me!" 

Fall of Robespierre. — After the fall of the Dantonists, the Committee of Public 
Safety, entirely controlled by Robespierre and his two chief confederates, St. Juft 
and Couthon, ruled with almost unrestrained power, and the revolutionary excesses 
everywhere increased. In Paris, the aged marshal De Noailles, the venerabk 
Malesherbes and his family, and the Madame Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVI., were 
guillotined. At length, several of the Jacobins, headed by Tallien, Legendi e, 
Freron, Fouche, Barrere, Collot d' Herbois, Billaud-Varennes, and others, whom 
Robespierre had resolved to send to the guillotine, determined to destroy that 
vile monster, and bring the Reign of Terror to a close. On the 9th of Thermidor 
(27th of July), when Robespierre entered the hall of the Convention, with the 



324 



MODERN HISTORY, 



purpose 'f procuring the condemnation of Tallien and his partisans, a stormy scene 
ensued, Robespierre was not allowed to speak. His words were drowned in the 
cries of "Down with the tyrant!" and the noise of the president's bell. The en- 
raged monster, after vainly attempting to make himself heard, cried out, " President 
of assassins, will you not allow me to speak!" Tallien, denouncing him iA a 
usurper and a tyrant, threatened to thrust a poniard into his heart. Robespien-e 
ran from one seat to another, raving and foaming like a maniac. After a slonny 
t.me, Robespierre and his partisans, St. Just, Couthon, and Ilenriot, were denouncel 
and sent as prisoners to the Luxembourg palace. They were released on the wa} 
by a furious mob, and Henriot caused the National Guard to surround the Conven- 
tion, while Robespierre, St. Just, and Couthon sought refuge in the Hotel de Ville. 
When the Convention outlawed Henriot, his troo^ps dispersed, and an armed force 
under Ban-as rallied to the support of the Convention. Henriot fled to the Hotel 
de Ville, where the accused were again secured. Robespierre attempted to commit 
suicide by shooting himself, but only succeeded in breaking his lower jaw, and was 
taken, horribly disfigured, before the Revolutionary Tribunal, amid the curses of 
the populace; and on the following day, loth Thermidor, he was guillotined, amid 
the shouts and exultation of the people. St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot shared his 
fate. On the two following days, seventy-two Jacobins were guillotined, and with 
their death ended the Reign of Terror. 

Campaign of 1794 — Evacuation of Belgium. — The campaign of 1794, like 
that of 1793, was glorious for the French. On the 26th of June, the French army 
under Jourdain, in the Austrian Netherlands, gained the battle of Fleurus over the 
Austrians. The result of this battle was that the French obtained possession of the 
Austrian Netherlands, from which their enemies were compelled to retire. 

EVENTS OF 1795. 

End of Jacobin Rule. — The assemblies of the people were limited by degrees-, 
and the populace were deprived of their weapons. At the call of Freron, who 
now became an aristocrat, many of the young men, called from their clothing " the 
gilded youth," attacked the Jacobins in the streets, and at their clubs. The cloister 
of the Jacobins was at length taken, and its doors were closed, after a desperate 
struggle. The National Convention now recalled the expelled members, and such 
of the Girondists as still remained, rescinded the decrees against the nobles and the 
priests, restored public worship, and sentenced the remaining Terrorists in the Con- 
vention, Lebon, Carrier, Fouquier Tinville, and others, to be executed. When four 
members of the Committee of Public Safety, Barrere, Vadier, Collot d'Herbois, 
and Billaud-Varennes, were condemned, the Jacobins resolved upon a struggle for 
their existence, and drove the people of Paris to an insurrection against the Con 
vention. The mob surrounded the Convention, and made menacing demands foi- 
the release of the accused, and a return to the Reign of Terror. Thf mob wai 
dispersed by General Pichegru, who had hastened to the aid of the distressed Ton- 
vention. 

Insurrection of the ist Prairial. — The formidable insurrection of the isi 
Prairial (May 20th), when the mob, numbering 30,000 persons, held the Convention 
surro?uided for about eighteen hours, was also suppressed, with the aid of some 
battalions of the Sections, and some of the leaders of the tumult, and six Jacobins, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 



325 



were condemned to death; and the power of the Jacobins and the Parisian popu- 
lace terminated. Many of the Jacobins destroyed themselves; others were guillo- 
tined, imprisoned, or banished. 

New Constitution. — A new constiiution was now formed, by which the execu- 
tive power of the French Republic was vested in a Directory of five persons. 
']"h( legislative power was divided between a Council of Five Hundred, which 
had the power of originating laws, and a Council of Ancients, which had the 
lower of approving or rejecting these laws. The members of the Councils were 
ippoint ;d by delegates, elected for that purpose, by the French people. The mem- 
bers of the Directory were to be named by the Council of Five Hundred, and con- 
firmed by the Council of Ancients. 

Insurrection of the Sections. — The Republicans of the National Convention, 
fearing that the reaction in favor of monarchical principles would deprive them of 
political power, decreed that two-thirds of the members of the Legislative Coun- 
cils should be chosen from the members of the Convention. The Royalists, after 
vainly objecting to the decree of the Convention, which limited the freedom of 
election, brought about "The Insurrection of the Sections," on the nth Vende- 
miaire. (3d of October.) The distressed Convention assembled for its defense a 
force of 5,000 troops, under General Barras, who intrusted the arrangements for the 
suppression of the insurrection to his second in command, the young Corsican, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself as an artillery commander at 
the siege of Toulon. Bonaparte set about energetically in making preparations for 
the overthrow of the revolt. The armed insurgents of the Sections, 40,000 in 
number, surrounded the Convention and attacked Bonaparte, who replied by a 
heavy discharge of cannon loaded with grape-shot. The insurgents were subdued 
in a few hours, and quiet was again restored in Paris. The suppression of the in- 
surrection took place on the 13th Vendemiaire; and resulted in giving the suprem- 
acy to the Republicans of the Convention. Bonaparte, who had just married 
Josephine, the widow of General Beauharnais, was rewarded, for his success against 
the insurgents, with the command of the French army in Italy. The Convention 
now closed its sessions, and the new government was organized. 

Holland Erected into the Batavian Republic — Peace of Basle. — Early in 
the year 1795, a French anny under General Pichegru subdued Holland, and com- 
pelled the hereditary Stadtholder of that republic to flee to England. The con- 
quered country was then erected into "The Batavian Republic," in alliance with 
France. On the 5th of April, 1795, Prussia concluded the Peace of Basle with the 
I'Vench Republic. The example of Prussia was followed by Spain and the German 
States ; and England and Austria were the only considerable powers that continued 
the w.ir against revolutionary France. 

THE FRENCH REPUBLIC UNDER THE DIRECTORY. 
(OCTOBER 27, 1795-NOVEMBER 9, 1799.) 

EVENTS OF 1796. 

French Invasion of Germany — Moreau's Masterly Retreat. — Two 
French armies, commanded respectively by Moreau and Jourdain, advanced into 



226 MODERN HISTORY. 

Germany, in 1796. The Austrians, under the command of the Archduke Charles, 
an able general, defeated Jourdain at Wurzburg, on the 3d of September; and 
Moreau only saved his army from total ruin by a masterly retreat, through the Black 
Forest, and across the Rhine. 

Bonaparte in Italy — Battles of Montenotte and Milessimo. — While 
Jourdain and Moreau were so unfortunate in Germany, the French army in Italy, 
under Bonaparte, was winning imperishable renown. In April, 1796, Napoleon 
began his victorious career in Italy by defeating the Austrians under Bcaulieu, ir 
the battles of Montenotte and Milessimo. The King of Sardinia, now greiJ -j 
ilamied, agreed to a humiliating peace with the French, who obtained the cession 
Df Savoy and Nice, and the right to march armies, at any time, through the Sardinian 
territories. 

Terrible Passage of the Bridge of Lodi. — In May, Bonaparte crossed the 
To with his army, and advanced to attack the Austrians. The bridge of Lodi, 
across the river Adda, was strongly guarded by an Austrian force, which opened a 
tremendous discharge of grape-shot upon the French troops when they attempted 
to cross. The advance was checked for a moment, when the French grenadiers 
rushed forward with irresistible impetuosity, drove back the Austrians, and thus 
forced a passage over the bridge. This victory, known as the battle of Lodi, oc- 
curred on the loth of May, 1796, and it gave the French possession of Milan and 
the Lombard towns. 

Passage over the Bridge of Areola. — Beaulieu was superseded in the com- 
mand of the Austrian army in Italy by Wurmser, who immediately threw himself 
Into Mantua. An army of 50,000 Hungarians under Alvinzi was sent to reinforce 
Wurmser, and the French were in danger of being overwhelmed by the superior 
numerical strength of the Austrians. In November, Bonaparte marched to attack 
Alvinzi, at the village of Areola. The narrow causeways leading to the village were 
closely guarded by the Austrians. The French column that attempted to cross the 
bridge of Areola was driven back with terrific slaughter, whereupon Bonaparte, 
seizing a standard, rushed on the bridge and urged on his grenadiers, but they were 
repulsed; and Napoleon was in extreme danger of being made a prisoner, when 
his grenadiers suddenly rushed forward with the cry of " Save the General!" and, 
with resistless fury, forced' a passage over the bridge. This first battle of Areola 
occurred on the 15th of November, 1796. The following day, another battle was 
fought at Areola, and on the 17th, Alvinzi was again defeated, and obliged to retreat 
to Montebello. 

EVENTS OF 1797. 

The War in Italy — Battles of Rivoli and Lafavorita — Fall of Mantua. — 

The Austrian army, under Alvinzi, in Italy, was defeated by Bonaparte, in the battle 
of Rivoli, on the 14th of January, 1797. In the following month^ Alvinzi was 
again defeated, at Lafavorita. These events compelled Wurmser to surrender 
Mant-ua to Bonaparte, on the 19th of February (1797), after a siege of fear months. 
Po{)e Pius VI., greatly frightened, concluded with the French the Peace of Tolen 
tino, in which he made great sacrifices. 

Bonaparte's Invasion of Austria — Preliminary Peace of Leoben. — The 
Archduke Charles was finally placed in command of the Austrian ai'niy in Italy, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. ^27 

but he was also defeated, and finally compelled to retreat toward Vienna, and was 
pursued into the hereditary Austrian States by Bonaparte. The Emperor of Aus- 
tria became alarmed for the safety of his capital, and hastily concluded with the 
victorious French general the Preliminary Peace of Leoben, on the i8th of April. 
1797 

Fall of the Venetian Republic. — After the treaty of Leoben, Bonaparte mad? 
iLo Venetians feel the effects of his vengeance, for turning their arms against the 
Kiench. The Venetian Senate, after humbly imploring the clemency of liie con 
:\ .-jring general, quietly submitted when the French entered Venice ; and, aflt t 
having lasted for more than a thousand years, the Venetian Republic ceased to 
exist as an independent power. 

Definitive Peace of Campo Formio — The Cisalpine and Ligurian 
Republics. — On the 17th of October, 1797, the Definitive Peace of Campo Formio 
was concluded between France and Austria. By this peace, a great part of North- 
ern Italy was formed into " The Cisalpine Republic," and virtually became a 
dependency of France. Venice and Dalmatia were bestowed on the House of 
Austria, in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands, which were ceded to France. 
A short time afterward, Genoa was erected into "The Ligurian Republic," and was 
virtually under the control of France. 

The Eighteenth Fructidor. — France was at this time distracted by the con- 
tests of parties. So great a reaction had taken place among the French people that 
the advocates of monarchy secured the election of their candidates to the Legisla- 
tive Councils by large majorities, in May, 1797. The. Councils immediately de- 
nounced the policy of the Directory, and manifested a disposition to overthrow the 
republican constitution and reestablish monarchy. The Republicans in the Direc- 
tory became alarmed for the security of their power, and applied for assistance to 
Bonaparte, who accoi-dingly sent 12,000 troops under Augereau to Paris. On the 
iStli Fructidor (4th of September), Augereau surrounded the Tuileries with his 
troops, and gave orders for the arrest of the Royalist members of the Councils ; 
whereupon eleven members of the Council of Ancients, and forty-two of the Coun- 
cil of Five Hundred, among whom was Pichegru, and two of the Directors, Carnot 
and Berthelemy, were sentenced to banishment. The Royalist elections were then 
annulled, the returned Emigrants were banished, and many newspapers were sup- 
pressed. Thus the expressed will of the French people was set aside by militarj' 
\isurpation. This is known as " The Revolution of the Eighteenth Fructidor." 

EVENTS OF 1798. 

Establishment of the Roman and Parthenopeian Republics. — Luring 
the supj)ression of a Republican riot in Rome by the papal troops, the French gen- 
eral Duphot was killed. The French Government, seizing upon this as a pretext, 
sent a force under General Berthier to Rome. The Pope was deprived of his tern- 
poiTil power, and a Roman Republic was established, in February, 1798. PVrdi 
nand., King of Naples, persuaded by his wife, Caroline, sent an army vndei the 
Austrian general Mack to Rome, and the French were expelled from that city; but 
a few days afterward, led by General Championnet, they returned, and, after driv- 
ing the Neapolitan troops out of Rome, they marched into Naples. The frightened 



328 MODERN HISTORY. 

Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily; and, in January, 1799, Naples was converted 
into "The Parthenopeian Republic," after a three days' slaughter of the lazzaroni, 
who had resisted the French. 

Switzerland Converted into the Helvetic Republic. — The French inter- 
fered in the dissensions in Switzerland, in 1798. The people of \'aud, who had 
taken up arms for the purpose of liberating themselves from the domination of the 
liornese, called upon the P'rench for assistance, whereupon General Brune, with 
I'rench troops, marched into Berne. Canton after canton was forced \o yield tu 
'.he French; and Switzerland, imder the name of "The Helvetic Republic,'' was; 
virtually placed under the supremacy of P'rance. 

Threatened Invasion of England. — In the beginning of 1798, the P'lcnch 
Directory threatened an invasion of England, the only country then at war with 
P'rance. An army of 150,000 men, under the name of "The Army of England," 
under the command of Bonaparte, the youthful conqueror of Italy, was assembled 
along the Freneh side of the English Channel. 

Bonaparte's Expedition to Eg3^t. — The invasion of England was not at- 
tempted, but an expedition %vas fitted out for the conquest of Egypt, a province of 
the Ottoman Empire, notwithstanding a state of peace existed between France and 
Turkey. The command of this expedition was given to Bonaparte, who intended 
•lo strike at the British possessions in India, after efiecting the conquest of Egypt. 
Bonaparte, with the expedition, consisting of 40,000 land troops and 10,000 seamen, 
sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798; and, after taking the island of Malta 
by treachery from the Knights of St. John, the French landed before Alexandria, 
on the 1st of July. That city was carried by storm and given up to plunder. 

Battle of the Pyramids.— On the 6th of July, Bonaparte left Alexandria, and 
with 30,000 of his troops he advanced toward Cairo, greatly annoyed on the way 
by the Mameluke horsemen. On the 2ist (July, 1798), he arrived before the in- 
trenched camp of 20,000 Mamelukes under Mourad Bey, near the famous Pyramids. 
Eight thousand Mameluke horsemen advanced to attack the French troops, when 
Bonaparte exclaimed, " Soldiers, from yonder Pyramids, forty centuries look down 
upon you !" and the conflict commenced. The P^ench, who were formed into 
squares, easily repulsed the impetuous assaults of the Mamelukes, who rode up to 
the bayonets of their enemies, and threw their pistols at the heads of the French 
grenadiers. \Vlien the Mameluke cavalry were driven back, the French took by 
storm the camp of their enemy, with all their baggage and cannon ; and the battle 
of the Pyramids ended in a complete victory for Bonaparte, who had lost less than 
200 men in the engagement. Hundreds of the enemy perished in the Nile; Mourad 
Bey, and a small remnant of his Mamelukes, fled into Upper Egypt ; Cairo surren- 
dered ; and the conquest of Lower Egypt was accomplished. 

Battle of the Nile. — In the meantime, a powerful English fleet, under Admiral 
Nelson, had been cruising in the Mediterranean sea, in search of tlie French fleet. 
On the 1st of August (1798), Nelson discovered the French fleet, under Admiral 
Brueyes, anchored in the bay of Aboukir. At about sunset. Nelson attacked the 
French ships. A fierce battle ensued, which continued until dawn the next morn- 
ing. The thunders of the explosion of the French ship L'Orient, of 120 guns, which 
occuiTcd about midnight, shook every vessel in both fleets, and for a moment there 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



32^ 



was a pause in the deadly conflict. The French admiral perished with the explo- 
sion. The battle of the Nile, as this engagement is called, was one of the most 
teirific naval engagements on record, and it resulted in a complete victory for the 
English. . Only a few of the French vessels escaped, the rest all being destroyed 
or caken by the English. By this disaster, Napoleon and his army were cut ofT 
from all resources from France. A formidable insurrection in Cairo agninst the 
French, on the 21st of October, was suppressed, after 6,000 Mohammedans had lost 
.heir lives. 

Second Coalition against the French Republic. — The French Republic 
by her victories over her enemies, had established six sister republics. These were 
the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, Ligurian, Roman, and Parthenopeian Republics, 
— all established with forms of government similar to that of France. The aggres- 
sive conduct of the French in Switzerland, Rome, and Naples, induced Austria and 
Russia to unite with England in a coalition against the French Republic. Turkey, 
exasperated at the unprincipled occupation of Egypt, also declared war againsi 
France. 

EVENTS OF 1799. 

Success of the Austrians in Germany. — The coalition commenced hostil- 
ities against the French simultaneously, in the spring of 1799, in Italy, Switzerland, 
Germany, and the Netherlands. In Germany, fortune was averse to the French. 
On the 25th of March, the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, defeated the French 
army at Stockach. On the 28th of April, the French ambassadors, after leaving 
the congress of Rastadt, were attacked and murdered by Austrian hussars. The 
French Directory took advantage of this barbarous deed to excite the French 
people to vengeance, and a new French army of 200,000 men was raised. 

Success of the Austrians and Russians in Italy. — In Italy also, the French 
were unsuccessful. The Russians, under the veteran marshal Suwarrow, defeated 
Moreau at Cassano, and Macdonald at Trebia, celebrated as the place of one of 
Hannibal's victories. Finally .Suwarrow, by the defeat and death of Joubert in the 
three days' bloody battle of Novi, effected the conquest of the Cisalpine Republic. 
The disasters to the French in Northern Italy were followed by the overthrow of 
the Parthenopeian and Roman Republics. After the French had evacuated Naples, 
Cardinal Ruffo, at the head of the enraged lazzaroni, took the city by storm; and 
King Ferdinand and his court returned from Sicily, and resumed their authority in 
Naples. The Republicans of Naples suffered a frightful punishment. Hundreds 
were massacred by the lazzaroni, and many were imprisoned. The Roman Republ.c 
was also subverted, and Pope Pius VI. was restored to his former power. 

The Russians in Switzerland — Battle of Zurich. — After completmg the 
conquest of Italy, Suwarrow crossed the Alps, in the midst of almost insurmount- 
able difficulties, Into Switzerland, for the purpose of expelling the French from 
that country; but, the Austrians failing to properly support their allies, the Russians 
A-^ere I'efeated by the French, under Massena, at Zurich, on the 26th of September, 
after a bloody battle of two days. Zurich was taken by the French; and Suwar- 
row, and the remnant of the defeated Russian army, retired across the icy Grisons, 
and returned to their own country, where the aged marshal soon afterward died. 

Defeat of the English in Holland, — The attempt of the English to drive the 



33° 



MODERN HISTORY. 



French from Hollaud, and restore to the Stadtholder his authority, resulted in a 
disastrous failure. The incompetent English general, the Duke of York, having 
been defeated by the French, under General Brune, at Berghen, concluded with 
the French a disgraceful convention, by which he was allowed to I'ctire, with his 
army, leaving the Russians alone to oppose the French. The selfish conduct of 
the English and the Austrians, so exasperated the Emperor Paul of Russia, that he 
withdrew from the coalition, made peace with France, and became the bitter enemy 
jf Great Britain. 

Bonaparte's Syrian Expedition. — Although cut off from his resources by 
the loss of his fleet, Bonaparte still resolved to pursue his conquests in the East. 
Upper Egypt was conquered by a French division under General Desaix, who 
marched beyond the ruins of Thebes. Leaving 16,000 men to hold that country 
in subjugation, Bonaparte, with 14,000 men, in February, 1799, proceeded to Syria, 
where the Turks were assembling a large army to oppose him. On the 6th of 
March, Jaffa, the ancient Joppa, was taken by Napoleon, after a furious assault, and 
4,000 of its defenders were put to death after they had surrendered. This cruel 
act is an inei-asable stain upon the character of the youthful conqueror of Italy and 
Egypt. 

Siege of Acre. — On the i6th of March (1799), Bonaparte appeared before 
Acre, which was garrisoned by a strong Turkish force, under the Pacha of Syria, 
who was aided in the defense of the city by an English squadron, under Sir Sydney 
Smith. After a siege of two months, during which seventeen desperate attempts 
to take the town by storm were defeated, Bonaparte abandoned the siege, and left 
the town in the possession of its defenders. 

Battle of Mount Tabor. — In the meantime, while the siege of Acre was in 
progress, the Turks were assembling immense hosts for the purpose of overwhelm- 
ing the French. While General Kleber, with a small French force, was on his 
march to attack the enemy's camp on the Jordan, he was met by 30,000 Turks at 
Mount Tabor. Kleber, who had formed his little band into squares, successfully 
held out against the overwhelming numbers of the enemy for six hours, and when 
Bonaparte appeared with his troops for the relief of his subordinate, the Turks fled 
in dismay, and dispersed, leaving their camp and all their baggage and stores in 
the hands of the victorious French. Another Turkish force was defeated and dis- 
persed at Nazareth, by a French force under Junot. 

Napoleon's Return to Egypt — Battle of Aboukir. — Napoleon reached 
Egypt, on his return from Syria, on the 1st of June, 1799. On the nth of July, a 
Turkish army of 18,000 men, landed at Aboukir bay, whither it had been conveyed 
by an English squadron, commanded by Sir Sydney Smith. Napoleon, on hearing 
of this, left Cairo, and on the 25th of July, he attacked and completely destroyed 
the T urkish army, which had already established a strongly-fortified camp at Aboukir. 
The greater portion of the Turkish troops were killed, wounded, drowned in te 
bay of Aboukir, or made prisoners. 

Napoleon's Return to France. — Shortly after his brilliant victory at Abrukir, 
Napoleon received intelligence, through some newspapers, of the disasters to the 
French arms in Italy, and he resolved upon immediately setting out on his return 
to France. Leaving his army in Egypt under the command of Kleber, he secretly 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



%2>^ 



embarked for France. After a long voyage, in which he was in constant danger 
of being captured by British cruisers, Bonaparte arrived at Frejus, on the Southern 
coast of France, on the 9th of October; and on the iSth, he reached Paris, where 
he met with a most enthusiastic reception. 

The Eighteenth Brumaire. — No sooner had Bonapdrte arrived in Paris, than 
he entered into a scheme with Sieyes, one of the Directors, and others, for the 
overthrow of the Directory, which had fallen into contempt. He first secured the 
support of the officers and troops in Paris, and obtained from the Council of Ancients 
the conmiand of the National Guard and all the troops in Paris, and a decree foJ 
the transfer of the sittings of the two Legislative Councils to St. Cloud. The 
Directors and the Council of Ancients were easily induced to resign their authority. 
On the i8th Brumaire (9th of November), Napoleon entered the hall of the Coun- 
cil of Five Hundred, and endeavored to secure the consent of the members of that 
body to his plans, but finding himself threatened and reproached by the members, 
who, seeing the grenadiers at the doors with fixed bayonets, cried, " Outlaw him ! 
Down with the Dictator!" he retired from the hall, where the greatest tumult was 
raging. Napoleon and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, who was president of the 
Council of Five Hundred, harangued the troops; and Joachim Murat, by order of 
Napoleon, entered the hall with his grenadiers, and compelled the members to flee 
out of the doors and windows. Thus the constitution was overthrown, and military 
usurpation triumphant. This is known as " The Revolution of the i8th Brumaire." 
Napoleon Bonaparte now took the government of France into his own hands. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF NAPOLEON 
BONAPARTE (A. D. 1799-1815). 

NAPOLEON FIRST CONSUL OF THE FRENCH RE- 
PUBLIC (DEC. 13, 1799-DEC. 2, 1804). 

EVENTS OF 1800. 

The Consular Constitution. — We have seen that, by the overthrow of the 
Directory, on the l8th Brumaire, Napoleon Bonaparte took the government of 
France into his own hands. On the 13th of December, 1799, a new constitution 
was proclaimed for France, by which the executive power was vested in three con- 
suls, who were to be elected for ten years. "The First Consul," as Napnleon was 
callea, possessed all the powers of a monarch. The other two consuls, I,ebrun and 
Cambaceres, were the advisers of the Plrst Consul. Talleyrand was appointed 
Minister of the Interior, and Fouch6 Minister of Police. There was a Senate, 
whose duty was to select persons for the Legislature. The legislative power was 



332 



MODERN HISTORY. 



entrusted to a Tribunate of one hundred members, who were to discuss the pro- 
posals of the Government, and the Legislative Bodies, which had the right only of 
approving or rejecting these proposals. 

Peace Propositions. — Bonaparte, after securing the chief authority in France, 
prop-.sed peace to England and Austria, the only nations then at war with France. 
Both powers refused to treat until the Bourbons should be restored to the throne of 
France, and the most energetic preparations were made on both sides for a vigor- 
ous prosecution of the war. 

Events in Germany and Italy. — A French army of 130,000 men, under 
Moreau, advanced into Germany, gained several victories, and compelled the Aus- 
trians to a hasty retreat. Another French army in Italy, under Massena, was com- 
pelled to surrender to the Austrians at Genoa. 

Bonaparte's Passage Over the Great St. Bernard. — On hearing of the 
surrender of Messena, Bonaparte started for Italy, at the head of 50,000 troops. 
He crossed the Alps at the difficult pass of Great St. Bernard. Difficulties almost 
insurmountable presented themselves. Precipices, ravines, and eternal snows, 
seemed to forbid a passage; but the army followed a narrow path, known to no 
living creature but the chamois and the hunter. The artillery was taken apart, and 
the pieces were placed in the hollow trunks of trees, which were drawn across the 
mountains by the soldiers. The troops were encouraged by the music of the bands, 
and where the ascent was most difficult the drums beat a charge. The Austrians 
were completely surprised when Napoleon's army suddenly appeared on the Itali.'m 
plains. 

Battles of Montebello and Marengo. — On the 9th of June, 1800, a part of 
the French army, under General Lannes, defeated the Austrians at Montebello; 
and on the 14th (June, 1800), Napoleon, at the head of 20,000 men, encountered 
30,000 Austrians, under General Melas, at the village of Marengo. The French 
were at first driven back, but the obstinate resistance of Desaix, who had just 
arrived from Egypt, and the charge of the bi^ave Kellerman, changed the result, 
and the battle ended in the complete overthrow of the Austrian army. Among the 
killed on the side of the French was the heroic General Desaix. The result of 
the French victory was that hostilities were suspended. 

Macdonald's Passage of the Splugen. — In November, 1800, Marshal 
Macdonald, with 15,000 French troops, crossed the Alps into Italy, at the difficult 
pass of the Splugen, thus increasing the French forces in Italy to 100,000 men. 

Battle of Hohenlinden. — When the negotiations for peace between France 
and England failed, the armistice between France and Austria terminated, and an 
Austrian army of 80,000 men, under the Archduke John, which had advanced into 
Bavaria, was defeated by the French army under Moreau, in the celebrated battle 
of Hohenlinden, on the night of the 3d of December, 1800, and driven toward 
V'enna. On the 25th, an armistice was concluded. 

Attempted Assassination of Bonaparte. — Plots for the assassination of 
Bonaparte were undertaken, both by the Republicans and by the Royalists. On the 
25th of December, 1800, while he was crossing a narrow street in Paris, a cask, 
filled with powder, called "The Infernal Machine," exploded, and killed several 
persons, but the First Consul escaped unhurt. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^^^-^ 

EVENTS OF 1801. 

Peace of Luneville. — The battles of Marengo and Hohenlinrkn completely 
i)r)ke the power of Austria, so that nothing remained for the Emperor but to accept 
such terms as France chose to dictate; and on the 9th of February, 1801, a treaty 
of peace, signed at Luneville, put an end to the war between P~rance and Austria; 
and England was the only country that remained at war with France. 

Maritime League against England. — Through the influence of Napcleoii, 
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia, had been induced, late in the year iSoOj 
to enter into a league against the maritime power of England. The Emperor Paul 
of Russia, the bitter enemy of England, was the head and soul of this league. Paul 
had already laid an embargo on British vessels in Russian ports, while the Danish 
Government had ordered its vessels to resist "the right of search" claimed by llie 
English. 

Battle of Copenhagen. — After unsuccessful attempts at negotiation with the 
hostile powers which formed the league, the English Government sent a powerful 
naval expedition, under Lord Nelson and Sir Hyde Parker, to the Baltic. On the 
2d of April, 180I, the British fleet appeared before Copenhagen, when it was furi- 
ously attacked by the Danish fleet. A bloody naval battle of four hours ensued, 
resulting in the defeat of the Danes, with the loss of 6,000 men, while the English 
lost only 1,200. In speaking of this battle, Nelson said, "I have been in one hun- 
dred and one engagements, but the battle of Copenhagen was the most terrible of 
them all." 

Dissolution of the Maritime League. — Nelson was preparing to attack the 
Russian fleet, when he received intelligence that the Emperor Paul had been assas- 
sinated at St. Petersburg, on the night of the 24th of March, 1801, by a band of 
Russian nobles, who had entered into a conspiracy for the purpose. Paul's son, 
Alexander I., who was immediately proclaimed Emperor, declared himself the 
friend of Great Britain, and abandoned the hostile league. Prussia, Denmark, and 
Sweden, followed the example of Russia, and thus the league fell to pieces. 

Threatened Invasion of England. — Bonaparte now threatened an invasion 
of England from Boulogne. Large bodies of troops were moved to this point, with 
the ostensible object of being transported to the English coast. The British Gov- 
ernment made energetic preparations to resist the threatened invasion. Lord Nelson 
was sent with a powerful fleet against Boulogne. Bonaparte, convinced of the 
hopelessness of success, abandoned the enterprise. 

Expulsion of the French from Egypt. — General Kleber, whom Napoleon 
had left in command of the French army in Egypt, was assassinated by a fanatical 
Mohammedan, and his army M'as defeated, on the 21st of March, 1801, by the Eng- 
lish force under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who lost his life in the moment of victory. 
The French surrendered on condition of being allowed to return home, and their 
whole force was conveyed to France in English vessels. 

EVENTS OF 1802. 

Peace of Amiens. — As the French were now driven out of Eg)'pt, and the 
island of ^L^lta had been recaptured by a British squadron, nothing remained to 
contend for between England and France; and, to the great joy of both nations, a 



334 



MODERN HISTORY. 



treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, on the 27th of March, 1802. By the terms 
of this treaty, England was required to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, 
and the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch. 

Bonaparte's Reforms — The Concordat — The Legion of Honor, — Ail 
Europe now enjoyed a short interval of peace, and Napoleon directed his attention 
to the establishment of order and the security of his authority in France. On the 
l8th of September, 1801, he had made a treaty, called " The Concordat," with the 
Pope, for the reestablishment of religion in France. He established a Polytechnic 
School, for the education of young men in the sciences. He summoned the most 
eminent lawyers in France to arrange the Code Napoleon. The construction of 
roads, bridges, and canals, was commenced, and the Emigrants were invited to 
return to their native land. In 1802, Napoleon was elected First Consul of the 
French Republic for life. A new order of nobility, founded on individual merit, 
and known as " The Legion of Honor," was instituted. 

Bonaparte's Conduct toward Holland and. Switzerland. — The conduct 
of Napoleon toward the weaker powers of Europe was extremely arbitrary and 
unjust. The Batavian and Helvetic Republics were entirely under his control. 
He effected a political change in the Helvetic Republic, and when the Swiss peo- 
ple opposed his usurpation, he sent Ney with an army of 20,000 men against them, 
and all resistance was soon at an end. England vainly remonstrated against this 
outrage. 

Revolt of St. Domingo. — The island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, the largest 
and most important of the French possessions in the West Indies, was in a state of 
rebellion. The negroes, headed by Toussaint Louverture, had taken up arms 
against their white masters, massacred many of them, and established the independ- 
ence of the island. Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Leclerc, with an army of 
35,000 men, to restore the French authority in the island. Toussaint Louverture 
was treacherously seized, and carried a prisoner to France, where he died. The 
insurrection was then quelled, but when the French attempted to reestablish slavery, 
the negroes again rebelled, killed nearly all the French troops, and established 
themselves as an independent nation, adopting a republican form of government. 
France acknowledged the independence of St. Domingo in 1825. 

EVKNTS OF 1803. 

Renewal of the War between England and France. — The Peace of 
Amiens proved to be nothing more than a mere suspension of arms. The arbitrary 
conduct of Bonaparte toward Holland, Switzerland, and Italy, aroused the jealousy 
of the English, who accordingly refused to give up Malta, Egxpt, and the Cape of 
Good Hope, as stipulated by the treaty of Amiens. The violent denunciations of 
Bonaparte by the English press, and the insulting treatment of Lord Whitworth.. 
the British ambassador at Paris, widened the breach between England and France. 
In May, 1803, the English cabinet issued letters of marque, and decreed an embargo 
on all French vessels in British ports. Napoleon retaliated by ordering all British 
subjects then in France, between the ages of sixteen and sixty years, to be seized and 
imprisoned. 

Conquest of Hanover. — A French force under Mortier soon overran and 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 335 

conquered Hanover, the hereditary possession of the King of Great Britain ; and, 
in utter disregard of neutral rights, all Northern Germany was occupied by French 
troops. A French army was also sent against the kingdom of Naples. 

Threatened Invasion of England. — Napoleon was again making immense 
preparaiions for an invasion of England. The French, Dutch, and Spanish fleet* 
were to assist in the project; and large bodies of land troops were again assembled 
at Boulogne, for the ostensible purpose of making a descent upon the English coast. 
After considerable boasting, the project entertained was abandoned. 

EVKNTS OF 1804. 

Conspiracies against Bonaparte — Execution of the Duke d' Enghien. 
— In the early part of 1804, a conspiracy against the authority of Bonaparte, in 
which Generals Moreau and Pichegru, and George Cadoudal, a Vendean chief, 
were implicated, was discovered. Moreau was allowed to retire into voluntary 
exile in America; Pichegru died a violent death in prison; and George Cadoudal 
was guillotined. Napoleon, suspecting that the young Duke d' Enghien, a kinsman 
of the late royal family of France, was engaged in a plot for his assassination, caused 
the young prince, who was then living in the neutral territory of Baden, to be 
arrested and brought to Vincennes. After a trial by a court-martial, in which all 
the forms of justice were disregarded, the Duke was sentenced to death in the night, 
and immediately shot in the ditches of the castle-yard of Vincennes. This horrible 
crime is the greatest blot upon the character of Bonaparte. 

War between England and Spain. — The British Government, believing 
that Spain had secretly united with France, in hostility to England, caused several 
of the Spanish treasure ships, while on their home voyage from South America, to 
be seized, in the fall of 1804, without a previous declaration of war. The Spanish 
Government, upon hearing of this hasty and unjustifiable act, was so exasperated 
that it immediately declared war against England, and entered into a close alliance 
with France. (December, 1804.) 

NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. 
(DECEMBER 2, 1804-APRIL 6, 1814.) 

EVENTS OF 1804. 

• Napoleon, "Emperor of the French." — On the i8th of May, 1804, the 
servile French Senate created Napoleon "Emperor of the French;" and on the 2d 
of December of the same year, he was crowned in the Church of Notre Dame, in 
Paris, l;j- Pope Pius VII., who had been induced to come to the French capital for 
that purpose. 

EVENTS OF 1805. 

Napoleon, King of Italy. — On the 26th of May, 1805, Napoleon was crcwned 
King of Italy at Milan. The iron crown of Charlemagne was brought forwai-d for 
the occasion ; and Napoleon, placing it on his head, uttered the words, " God has 
given it to me ; beware of touching it." Eugene Beauhamais, Napoleon's step-son, 
was appointed viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy. 



336 



MODERN HISTORY. 



New Coalition Against France. — The alarm created by the usurpations of 
Napoleon in Germany, Holland, Italy, and Switzerland, and the influence of Eng- 
lish gold, induced Austria, Russia, and Sweden, to unite in a coalition with England 
against France. 

Capitulation of Ulm. — With the greatest promptitude, Napoleon assembled 
a:j irry on the Rhine, marched eastward for the purpose of driving the Austrians 
out of Bavaria, which they had invaded in utter disregard of neutral rights. On 
the 20th of October (1805), he compelled General Mack and 35,000 Austiian 
Hoops, who composed the garrison of Ulm, to lay down their arms. Mack was 
afterwards court-martialed, and deprived of his command, by order of the Austrian 
Government. 

Battle of Trafalgar. — On the day after Mack's disgi-aceful capitulation at Ulm 
(October 21, 1S05), a bloody naval battle occurred ofT Cape Trafalgar, on the 
South-western coast of Spain, in which the combined French and Spanish fleets, 
under Villeneuve and Gravina, were annihilated by the English fleet, under Lord 
Nelson and Admiral Collingwood. Most of the French and Spanish vessels were 
captured by the English. The victory of the English was dearly purchased, as the 
heroic Lord Nelson, their greatest naval commander, was slain in the engagement. 

Battles of Dirnstein and Austerlitz. — Proceeding in his victorious career, 
Napoleon defeated the Russians, imder KutusofFand Bagration, at Dirnstein, on the 
nth of November, and on the 13th he entered Vienna. He then pursued the 
Austrian forces into the province of Moravia; and on the 2d of December, he 
defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies, in the celebrated battle of 
Austerlitz. This was the most brilliant of all Napoleon's victories. The Austrian 
and Russian Emperors, who had witnessed the battle from a neighboring eminence, 
fled in consternation when they saw that their armies were beaten. 

Peace of Presburg. ^Nothing now remained for the Emperor of Austria but 
to accept such terms of peace as Napoleon chose to dictate ; and on the 26th of 
December, 1805, the Peace of Presburg was signed, by which the war between 
P'rance and Austria was terminated. The Emperor of Russia immediately retired 
with his army to his own dominions. Hanover was bestowed on the King of 
Prussia, as a reward for his neutrality in the war. The failure of the coalition against 
France produced such effect upon the mind of Mr. Pitt, the English Prime-Minister, 
as to hurry him to an early grave. 

I 

EVENTS OF 1806. 

Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland. — In 

February, 1806, Napoleon sent an army to take possession of Naples, because the 
Neapolitan king, Ferdinand, and his queen, Caroline, had received a force of Eng- 
lish and Russians in their capital. Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily, ani 
Napoleon conferred the crown of Naples on his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Louia 
Boiuparte, another of Napoleon's brothers, was made King of Holland. 

The Confederation of the Rhine — End of the German Empire. — Napo- 
leon formed various territories in Germany into dukedoms, which he bestowed on 
his leadin'T marshals ; and fourteen princes in Southern and Western Germany 
formed " The Confederation of the Rhine," and acknowledged Napoleon as their 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^7 

head, with the title of "Protector." Francis II. now renounced the title of Emperor 
of Germany, and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria. This was the end of the 
German Empire, which had existed for 1006 years. 

War with Prussia. — Causes were now at work which soon ripened into a war 
hetween France and Prussia. The Prussian king was exasperated at the violation 
of Prussian territoiy by the French during their war with Austria, and was deeply 
mortified when Napoleon prevented the forming of a North German Conlcderaticm 
in opposition to the Confederation of the Rhine. When Napoleon, who was at Ih'i 
time negotiating for peace with Great Britain, proposed to restore Hanover to tl^e 
King of that country, the indignation of the Prussian cabinet was aroused to such a 
degree that war with France was resolved upon immediately. (August, 1806 ) 

Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, and Auerstadt.— The Prussians ?oon pouretl nito 
Saxony. Napoleon, with his usual promptitude, marched against the Prussians 
with a gigantic force. The first engagement occurred at Saalfeld, where Prince 
Louis of Prussia was defeated and killed, on the loth of October (1806). On the 
14th of the same month (October, 1806), Napoleon, with ioo,cxx) men, annihilated 
100,000 Prussians in the great battle of Jena. On the same day, a French for;e, 
under Marshal Davoust, wasted a Prussian force in the battle of Auerstadt. In 
these two battles, the French lost 20,000 men, and the Prussians 40,000. The 
gallant Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, was mortally wounded at 
Auerstadt. 

Surrender of Prussian Fortresses. — The battles of Jena and Auerstadt 
placed the Prussian monarchy prostrate before the power of Napoleon. On the 
25th of October, 1806, Marshal Davoust, with a portion of the French army, entered 
Berlin, the Prussian capital, in triumph. The Prussian fortresses quickly fell into 
the hands of the French. The Prince of Hohenlohe, with 17,000 men, surrendered 
to the French at Prenzlow. King Frederic William III. fled to Konigsburg, whence 
he vainly endeavored to obtain peace. 

"The Continental System."— In November, 1806, Napoleon issued a srries 
of decrees at Berlin, declaring all the ports of the British Islands to be in a stal; of 
blockade, and excluding British manufactures from the ports of Continental Eur^jpe; 
thus establishing what was known as "The Continental System." 

Movements against the Russians — Battle of Pultusk. — The Kirg of 
Prussia in his distress solicited the aid of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, who 
sent a powerful army under Benningsen to unite with the Prussians. The region 
of the Vistula and Oder was deluged with blood ; and the Russians were driven 
irio Poland by the French, who occupied Warsaw on the 30th of November; but 
the Russians had the advantage in the battle of Pultusk, on the 26th of Decem]/er. 

EVENTS OF 1807. 

Battle of Eylau. — On the 8th of February, 1807, a sanguinary, but indec5;:i\e 
battle was fought at Eylau, in East Prussia, between 100,000 French troops under 
Napoleon, and the same number of Russians under Benningsen. Eai'h army lost 
20,000 men, and both were so weakened that military operations were suspended 
for several months. 

Fall of Dantzic. — On- the 24th of May (1807), the strongly-fortified Prussian 
22 



338 



MODERN HISTORY. 



town of Uantzic, on the Baltic coast, was surrendered, with its garrison of i7,OCX) 
men under Kalkreuth, and 900 cannon, to the French under Marshal Lefebvre, after 
a vigorous siege. 

Battles of Hielsberg and Friedland. — At length the campaign betweon the 
main armies opened; and on the 5th of June, 30,000 French troops were disas- 
trously repulsed in an attack upon the strong Russian position at Hielsberg. On 
the 14th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Marengo, the Russian army undei 
IJenningsen was severely defeated by Napoleon, in the great battle of FriedLand, 
and compelled to retreat to the banks of the Niemen. 

Peace of Tilsit. — Hostilities were now suspended, and the French and Russian 
Emperors met on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, where negotiations were 
opened, which ended in the Peace of Tilsit, signed on the 7th of July, 1807. Prussia 
was partitioned : the Eastern portion, which had-once formed a part of the kingdom 
of Poland, was erected into the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, and bestowed on the 
Elector of Saxony, who was in alliance with Napoleon; out of the Western portion 
was formed the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was conferred on Jerome Bonaparte, 
Napoleon's brother. The King of Prussia was left in possession of scarcely half 
his dominions, and even these would have Ijeen taken from him had it not been for 
the generous intercession of the Emperor Alexander in his behalf. The Emperor 
of Russia agreed to aid Napoleon in his designs for the destruction of the com- 
merce of Great Britain, by the exclusion of British manufactures from the Russian 
dominions. 

The Swedish War. — Although Russia and Prussia concluded peace with 
France, the eccentric Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, obstinately continued the 
war, and held fast to his alliance with Great Britain. Russia, which by the Peace 
of Tilsit became the ally of France, now declared war against Sweden; and a 
Russian army invaded the Swedish province of Finland, and captured the towns of 
Helsingfors and Sweaborg, while the French captured Stralsund and the island 
of Rugen. This war continued for several years. 

England and Denmark — Bombardment of Copenhagen. — England, 
alarmed at the united efforts of France and Russia against her commerce, and fear- 
ing that Napoleon would compel Denmark to aid in shutting up the Baltic against 
British vessels, sent a powerful fleet under Admiral Lord Gambler, conveying 20,000 
land troops, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, to Copenhagen, for the purpose of obtain- 
ing possession of the Danish fleet as a pledge until the close of the war. As the 
Danish Government refused to surrender its fleet, a four days' bombardment of 
Copenhagen by the British army and navy followed (September 2-5, 1807), re- 
ducing a great part of the town to ashes, when the Danish fleet was surrendered. 
TTiis outrageous and unprovoked attack of a strong power upon a weaker one ex- 
cited universal indignation throughout Europe. Denmark, greatly exasperated, 
formed an alliance with Russia and France, and declared war against England and 
Widen. 

Usurpation of the Throne of Portugal. — Napoleon was now determined to 
deprive England of her commerce with Portugal, and, for the accomplishment 
of this object, he negotiated with the weak and disssolute court of Spain. The 
ignorant and wicked Godoy, who was the Prime-Minister of Spain, and who had 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ,39 

received the title of "Prince of Peace," was promised a principality in Portugal, as 
Iiis reward for his aid in the unprincipled scheme of the French Emperor. When 
I he Prince-Regent of Portugal refused to renounce his alliance with England and 
close the Portuguese ports against British vessels, Napoleon published a decres 
declaring that "the House of Braganza had ceased to reign;" and a French army 
under Junot was sent to take possession of Portugal. The cowardly royal family 
)f Portugal, instead of offering any resistance to the invaders of their dominions, 
lied in English vessels to Rio Janiero, the capital of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, 
in S-Juth America. On the 30th of November (1S07), three days after the Por- 
tuguese court had left the shores of their European dominions, the French army 
occupied Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, without resistance. 

EVENTS OF 1808. 

Dethronement of the King of Spain. — The wretched condition of Spain 
under the weak monarch, Charles IV., and his wicked queen and her unprincipled 
and ignorant favorite, Godoy, "The Prince of Peace," had made that kingdom con- 
temptible in the eyes of all nations. Godoy, as well as the king and the queen, 
was unpopular with the Spanish people, and when he proposed to remove the royal 
family to South America, a violent insurrection broke out, which deprived Godoy 
of his power, and compelled Charles IV. to abdicate his throne in favor of his son 
Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, who was immediately hailed as king by the Spanish 
people. The weak Charles invoked the aid of the French Emperor in his behalf, 
and declared that his abdication was an involuntary act. By a series of intrigues, 
Napoleon induced Charles and Ferdinand to refer their disputes to his decision, 
and enticed them along with Godoy and the queen to Bayonne. Napoleon having 
the whole royal family of Spain in his power, kept them close prisoners, compelled 
both Charles and Ferdinand to abdicate, and declared that the dynasty of the Bour- 
bons should no longer reign in Spain. Napoleon named his brother, Joseph Bona- 
parte, King of Spain, while Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, received tlie crown 
of the kingdom of Naples. 

Beginning of the Peninsular War. — The Spanish people arose almost unani- 
1 lously against the usurpation of Napoleon, and resolved that none but their lawful 
sovereign should reign over them. A fierce insurrection against the French broke 
out in Madrid, and 600 of Murat's troops were put to death. Mura;t succeeded in 
quelling the insurrection, but disgraced his name by a bloody massacre of the insur- 
gents. Provisional juntas were formed in many of the chief cities of the Spanish 
kingdom, for the purpose of conducting affairs ; armies were raised for the defense 
of the country; and a fierce guerrilla war M^as commenced against the French 
invaders. 

Spanish Successes — Dupont's Capitulation of Baylen. — The Spanish 
patriots were at first victorious in their struggle against the usurpers of their govern- 
ment. A French fleet at Cadiz, blockaded by a Brtiish fleet, was compelkd to 
surrender, Marshal Moncey, with S,ooo French troops, was repulsed in an assault 
upon Valencia ; Saragossa was bravely defended by a Spanish force under the gal- 
lant Palafox; and finally, on the 20th of July (i8o8), the French general Dupont 
and 20,000 men were compelled to lay down their arms at Baylen, to the Spaniards 
under the brave Castanos; and Joseph Bonaparte, who had entered Madrid on that 



340 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



very day, was soon obliged to flee, and the French were driven across the Ebro, 
into the North-eastern part of the Spanish peninsula. 

Events in Portugal — Battle of Vimiera — Convention of Cintra. — The 
Portuf^uese people also rose in insurrection against the French invaders of their coun- 
tiy, and a Provisional Junta was established at Oporto. An English army, under 
Sir Arthur Wellesley, which had been sent to assist the Portuguese, defeated tte 
French army under Junot at Vimiera, on the 2ist of August, 1808. On the f( How- 
ing day (August 22, 1808), the Convention of Cintra was concluded between Junot 
and the English general Dalrymple, by which the French agreed to evacuate Por- 
tugal, on condition of being conveyed to France in English vessels. 

Napoleon in Spain — Defeats of the Spaniards. — The many reverses of the 
French arms in the Spanish peninsula induced Napoleon to cross the Pyrenees at 
the head of 180,000 men, in the early part of November, 1808, to recover what had 
been lost. The Spanish patriots now suffered several disasters: at Reynosa, the 
French under Marshal Victor defeated the Spaniards under Blake ; at Burgos, 
Marshal Soult, with French troops, overthrew the Spanish Count de Belvedere; and 
at Tudela, Marshal Lannes, with another French force, beat the Spaniards under 
Palafox and Castanos. On the 4th of December, Napoleon entered Madrid in 
triumph. 

EVENTS OF 1809. 

Battle of Corunna. — A British army, under Sir John Moore, which was march- 
ing to the aid of the Spaniards, was compelled to make a hasty retreat to Corunna, 
on the North-eastern coast of Spain, where, while preparing to embark, it was 
attacked, on the l6th of January, 1809, by the French under Marshal Soult. The 
French were repulsed and compelled to retreat; but the gallant Sir John Moore 
fell mortally wounded by a cannon-ball from the enemy while animating his troops. 
He soon expired, and was buried by torchlight, on the ramparts of Corunna. 

Fall of Saragossa — Battle of Talavera. — On the 20th of February (1809), 
the city of Saragossa, almost reduced to a heap of ruins, fell into the hands of the 
French, and Palafox, the heroic commander of the Spanish force which had garri- 
soned the city, was conveyed a prisoner to France. At length, the English army 
under Sir Arthur Wellesley, after driving the French from Portugal, advanced into 
Spain, and, on the 26th of July, gained a glorious victory over the French, in the 
battle of Talavera. Seville was taken by the French, but Cadiz, the seat of the 
Grand National Junta, was successfully defended against every attack. > 

War with Austria — Battles of Eckmuhl and Aspern. — The Emperor of 
Austria, subsidized by British gold, and encouraged by the military ardor of his 
subjects, began a war against France in the beginning of April, 1S09. Large 
bodies of Austrian troops, which were marched into Bavaria and Italy, threatened 
to overwhelm the scattered detachments of Napoleon's army. Napoleon suddenly 
appeared in Bavaria, on the 1 7th of April, and assumed the command of the French 
forces assembled there. On the 22d of April (1809), after four days of sanguinary 
encounters at Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Napoleon totally annihilated the Austrian 
army under the Archduke Charles. Napoleon entered Vienna on the 13th of May, 
but he was repulsed in the battles of Aspern and Eslingen, on the 21st and 22d of 
of May (1809.) During these two days the French lost 12,000 men in killed and 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. -41 

wounded. Amcmg the mortally wounded on the side of the French was tlie brave 
Marshal Lannes, who had both legs shot off. 

Battle of Wagram — Peace of Vienna. — On the 5th of July (1809), Napo- 
leon gained a victory in the battle of Wagram, not far from Vienna, which placed 
the Austrian Empire at his mercy. The truce of Znaym soon followed; and on 
the 14th of October (1809), the Peace of Vienna was concluded, at t^ie palace of 
S hoeiibrunn, by which Austria was obliged to relinquish territory containing 
3,000,000 inhabitants. 

Tyrolese Revolt. — While the war between the French and the Austrians, of 
which we have just spoken, was in progress, the brave mhabitants of the mountain- 
ous country called the Tyrol, rose in insurrection against the King of Bavaria, 
under whose dominion their country had been placed by the Peace of Presburg, in 
1805. The Tyrolese mountaineers, headed by Andreas Hofer, resisted the Bavar- 
ians successfully; and it was only after two large French armies had been sent 
against the insurgents that the revolt was suppressed, and the Tyrol again brought 
under the authority of Bavaria. The gallant Hofer was afterwards shot in Mantua, 
for attempting to excite a second revolt. 

Napoleon's Quarrel with Pope Pius VII. — A quarrel now arose between 
Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. When the Pope refused to lay an embargo on British 
vessels in the ports of the States of the Church, and form an alliance with France, 
Napoleon annexed a part of the papal territoiy to the French Empire. When, during 
the last war between France and Austria, the Pope sided with the Austrians, Napo- 
leon declared the Pope's temporal power at an end. The Holy Father, intensely 
exasperated, fulminated an excommunication against the French Emperor, where- 
upon he was seized and carried to France, where he remained a prisoner until the 
beginning of 18 14. 

Revolution in Sweden. — In the North of Europe, the Swedish war still con- 
tinued, and the forces of Denmark, France, and Russia, reduced the Swedish king- 
dom to great distress. The Swedish people were anxious for peace, and as their 
eccentric king, Gustavus IV., obstinately persisted in his determination to continue 
the war, he was dethroned by the Swedish Diet, and his uncle, the Duke of Suder- 
mania, was raised to the Swedish throne, with the title of Charles XIII. The 
Peace of Frederickshamn was then concluded, by vk'hich Sweden ceded the province 
of Finland to Russia. 

EVENTS OF 1810. 

Napoleon Marries Maria Louisa. — For reasons of state. Napoleon was now 
to ally himself with one of the oldest and most illustrious of the royal families of 
Europe. After having, on the 15th of December, 1809, obtained a divorce from 
Josephine, to whom he was tenderly attached, he married the Archduchess Maria 
Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis of Austria, early in 18 10. The nuptials 
were celebrated,with great pomp, on the 22d of April, 1810. Napoleon's marriage 
B'itli Maria Louisa seemed to strengthen his power, but it was really the cause of 
hi? fall, as the other powers of Europe feared that, secured by the Austrian alliance, 
he would attempt to bring all Europe under his sway. 

Holland Annexed to the French Empire. — WTien Louis Bonaparte, King 
of Holland, relaxed the severity of the blockade of the ports of his dominions, and 



342 



MODERN HISTORY. 



permitted the importation of English goods, he was deprived of his crown by his 
brother, the Empero'", and his kingdom, together with the greater part of Northern 
Germany, was annexed to the French Empire. 

Bernadotte Elected Crown Prince of Sweden. — The Prince of Augusten- 
burg, the heir of Charles XIII. of Sweden, suddenly died, whereupon the Swedish 
Diet choice Charles John Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals. Crown Prince of 
Sweden, and successor of Charles XIII. to the Swedish throne. NapfiJeon very 
f :luctantly yielded his consent to this choice. On the death of Charles XIII., in 
1818, Bernadotte ascended the throne of Sweden, which he held until his death, in 
the year 1844. 

The War in the Spanish Peninsula — Retreat to Torres Vedras. — The 
war was still raging in the Spanish peninsula, and Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had 
just been created Lord Wellington, was in chief command of the English, Spanish, 
and Portuguese armies. On the loth of July, 1810, the Spaniards were compelled 
to surrender the strong fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo to the French army under Mar- 
shal Massena; but the English under Wellington repulsed an attack by Massenaat 
Busaco, on the 27th of September (l8lo). Wellington, acting on the defensive, 
then retreated to the strong lines of Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon. Mas- 
sena, wasting some time in useless assaults upon these impregnable lines, was at 
length obliged to retrace his steps. (November, 1810.) 

EVENTS OF 1811. 

The Peninsular War — Spanish Guerrilla Parties. — The Peninsular War 
was continued with vigor on both sides throughout the year 181 1, and the French 
forces were greatly harassed by the Spanish guerrilla parties. On the loth of March 
{181 1 ), the strong Spanish fortress of Badajoz surrendered to the French under 
Marshal Soult ; but on the i6th of May, Soult was defeated in the battle of Albuera, 
by the allied English, Spanish, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Mar- 
shal Beresford. The future of Napoleon's great empire seemed to be secured by 
the birth, in March, 1811, of a son, who received the title of "King of Rome." 

EVENTS OF 1812. 

The Peninsular War — Battle of Salamanca — Wellington's Retreat. — 

The events in the Spanish peninsula during the year 181 2 were generally unfavor- 
able to the French arms. The last important French victory in the peninsula was 
the capture of the city of Valencia by Marshal Suchet, on the 9th of Januaiy, 1812. 
The English army under Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, early 
in the year. At length, on the 22d of June (lSi2),was fought the important battle 
of Salamanca, in which the English, commanded by Wellington, gained a brilliant 
victory over the French army under Marshal Marmont ; and Joseph Bonaparte fled 
from Madrid, which was then occupied by the British army; but when the Prencb 
frr:es in the peninsula were concentrated, Wellington again retreated to Portugal, 
wheie he remained until the following year. 

Causes which Led to a War with Russia. — We have already seen that, riy 
the Peace of Tilsit, in 1807, the French and Russian Emperors became friends and 
allies, and that they united in the maritime war against England. It soon became 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 04^ 

evident that this friendship could not be permanent, and the unconcern which 
Alexander exhibited in the war against Austria, in 1809, increased the growing 
coldness between him and Napoleon. From the moment of Napoleon's alliance 
with the House of Austria, Alexander perceived that it would be impossible lo 
avoid hostilities with Napoleon; and in l8ll,the diplomacy between the French 
and Kussian cabinets began to assume a most angiy character. The measures of 
Napjleon for destroying the trade of Great Britain, and the closing of the Russian 
ports against British vessels, had inflicted great injury upon Russian commeicc. 
The complaints of the Russian merchants induced Alexander to open the port^ o' 
ills dominions to British vessels upon certain conditions; and a heavy lariff was 
laid upon French goods. These proceedings provoked the anger of the French 
Emperor. The aggrandizement of Napoleon in Central Europe, and the annexa- 
tion of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of Alexander, to 
the French Empire, destroyed the last tie of friendship between the two Emperors, 
and, in the spring of 181 2, both began to prepare earnestly for war. 

Preparations of Russia. — The Russian Emperor formed alliances with Eng- 
land and Sweden, and, through the mediation of the British Government, he con 
eluded the Peace of Bucharest with the Turks, with whom the Russians had been 
at war almost constantly since the year 1806. The Russian forces, under Barclay 
de Tolly, Prince Bagration, and other generals, which were assembled in Poland 
and the Western Russian provinces, amounted to 300,000 men; but the mighty 
army which Napoleon assembled for the subjugation of the Russian Empire was 
almost twice as large. 

Princely Assemblage at Dresden — Napoleon's " Grand Army." — On the 
1 6th of May, 181 2, Napoleon held a meeting with the Emperor of Austria, the 
Kings of Prussia, Naples, Westphalia, and Wurtemburg, and the Princes of the 
Confederation of the Rhine, at Dresden. After this grand assemblage of princes 
had lasted ten days. Napoleon went to assume the command of " The Grand Army," 
which he had assembled in Poland for the invasion of Russia. Napoleon had 
concluded a treaty with Austria, by which that power agreed to furnish him with 
30,000 men, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, and Prussia, by a sim- 
ilar treaty, agreed to furnish him with 20,000 men. "The Grand Army" now 
numbered more than 500,000 men, and was composed of French, Austrians, Prus- 
sians, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Of this immense host, 80,000 were cavalry. 
The whole number of horses belonging to the army amounted to almost 190,000. 

Invasion of Russia. — On the 22d of June, 1812, Napoleon issued a declara- 
iion of war against Russia; and on the 24th, he crossed the Niemen, and invaded 
tlie Russian dominions. The Russians, in accordance with Ihe plan of their gen- 
erals, avoided battles, retreated before the advancing French forces, and laid waste 
die country through which they passed, so that the French army might find no sub- 
sistence from it. Napoleon, with the main body of the Grand Army, pursued the 
retreating Russians, and reached Wilna on the 28th, where he remained until tl t 
middle of August, when he continued his advance toward Moscow, in pursuit nl 
the retreating Russians. Already the effects of the destructive policy of the Rub 
siai s began to be felt in the French army, as 25,000 sick and dying men filled the 
hospitals, and 10,000 dead horses strewed the road to Wilna, and 125 pieces of 
artillerj' had been abandoned. 



244 MODERN HISTORY. 

Battle of Smolensko. — At Smolensko, on the 17th of August, 30,000 Russians 
made a stand against the French. Three furious assaults upon this strongly-forti- 
fied town were repulsed by the Russians; but during the night, the inhabitants set 
fire to the town, which was soon reduced to ashes, and fled with the army. 

Barclay de Tolly and Kutusoff. — The Russians continued to retreat toward 
Moscow, pursued by the French. , The mode of warfare pursued by the Russian 
c^L-neral, Carclay de Tolly, was not approved by his soldiers, who were anxious foi 
-. ba-tle with the invaders of their country. For this reason, the Emperor Alexand( 1 
rem )ved Barclay de Tolly, and appointed General Kutusoff, who had distinguished 
himself in the war with Turkey which had just closed, to the chief command of the 
Russian army. 

Battle of Borodino. — On the 7th of September, Kutusoff risked a battle with 
Napoleon at Borodino, on the Moskwa, in the hope of saving Moscow. In the 
morning when this sanguinary engagement began, each army numbered 130,000 
men. The battle had commenced at six o'clock in the morning, and when nighty 
put an end to its horrors, 90,000 men lay dead and wounded on the field. The 
result of the battle was that the Russians were obliged to resume their retreat, and 
the French were enabled to continue their advance in the direction of Moscow. 

Napoleon's Entry into Moscow. — At length, on the 14th of September 
(1812), the French army came in sight of the great city of Moscow, and beheld its 
lofty steeples and copper domes glittering in the sun. When the city burst upon 
his gaze. Napoleon exclaimed, " Behold ! yonder is the celebrated city of the Czars !" 
The French troops rushed forward, and entered Moscow on the same day, but they 
were astonished to find it deserted by its 300,000 inhabitants. Only a few of the 
rabble remained in the city. Napoleon took up his residence in the Kremlin, or 
ancient palace of the Czars. 

Burning of Moscow. — Before Moscow had been abandoned by its inhabitants, 
Count Rostopschin, the Russian governor, had taken measures to burn the city after 
the French should enter. Accordingly, on the night of the i6th (September, 1812), 
a vast fire was seen to emanate from the eastern part of the city. Fires soon broke 
out in all quarters of the city ; and in a few hours the holy city of the Russians was 
wrapt in flames. The city had been set on fire by the 20,000 convicts whom Ros- 
topschin, before leaving the city, had liberated for the purpose. No means were at 
hand for extinguishing the fire, as the fountains had been destroyed, the fire-engines 
carried off, and the water-pipes cut, before the inhabitants had left the city. Foi 
four days, the fire continued to rage unabated, reducing the greater part of the city 
to ashes. When the fire had reached the Kremlin, Napoleon abandoned that edifice, 
and took up his abode in the imperial castle of Petrowski, three miles from the city. 
He returned on the 19th, and took up his quarters in that part of the Kremlin which 
had escaped the ravages of the fire. 

Napoleon's Evacuation of Moscow — Destruction of the Kremlin. — 
The destruction of Moscow deprived the P'rench army of winter-quarters; the Rus- 
sian armies, which were now vastly superior to the French, Ihreatened to cut oflf 
all communication with France; and the Russian Emperor rejected all Napoleon's 
proposals for peace. In this critical situation. Napoleon found himself obliged to 
order a r<i(j-eat to Poland; and on the 19th of October (181 2), Mosrow was evacu- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



345 



ated by the Frencn army. Napoleon, however, left a division of 8,000 men under 
Marshal Mortier to superintend the evacuation of the city. For several days, Mor- 
tier and his brave little band defended themselves in the Kremlin against their 
Russian assailants, when, on the 22d, they abandoned the city to join Napoleon. 
Before leaving Moscow, barrels of gunpowder had been placed under various parts 
of the Kremlin, which were lighted by means of a fuse. No sooner had the Rus- 
sians entered the Kremlin, than that venerable edifice was blown into the air, and 
pieces of timber, rocks, broken weapons, pieces of cannon, and mutilated bodie? 
were thrown in every direction. The thunders of the explosion awoke Napolcoc 
and his troops, thirty miles distant. Mortier and his little band reached the main 
army in safety. 

Battle of Malo-Yaraslevetz. — On the 24th of October, a portion of the 
French army, under Murat, after a succession of stubborn engagements, defeated 
the Russians at Malo-Yaraslevetz, and remained masters of the town. This was a 
useless victory for the French, who soon found themselves obliged to retreat as 
rapidly as possible, by the very route which their advance had exhausted. 

Disastrous Retreat of the French Army. — The horrors of this retreat ot 
the French army exceeded anything recorded in the annals of war. The Russians 
sent out their Cossacks, under Platoff, who greatly annoyed the French rear, and 
cut off French straggling parties, while the main divisions of the Russian army 
pursued the retreating French troops, and forced them to contest every inch of 
ground. The French army was encumbered with its sick and dying. On the 6th 
of November, an enemy far more terrible than the bullets of the Russians, 
or the lances of the Cossacks, made its appearance. This enemy was a Russian 
winter of unusual severity. The themiometer sank to eighteen degrees below 
zero, and the cold wind howled furiously over the vast steppes. The French 
army was becoming weaker and weaker by the casualities of battle, and by fatigue, 
hunger, and cold. The roads were strewed with dead and dying men and horses. 
The starving troops fell upon the dead and dying horses, and devoured their flesh 
like famished dogs; and many who had remained with the dying embers of the 
bivouac fire, fell asleep to wake no more. All discipline was gone, and all the heavy 
artillery was abandoned to the pursuing Russians. 

The Pursuing Russian Armies. — The main Russian army, under Kutusoff, 
numbering 100,000 men, advanced by a route parallel to that of the French army, 
while another army, under Wittgenstein, pressed upon the French rear, and Flatoff's 
Cossacks hanassed the retreating troops, and cut off such as were so unfortunate as 
to stray from their ranks. On the 9th of November, Napoleon and his wearied 
troops reached Smolensko, where they rested until the 15th, when the disastrous 
retreat was renewed. The French rear-guard, under Mai-shal Ney, was almost 
totally destroyed. 

Battles of Krasnoi — Ney's Passage of the Dnieper. — In the battles oj 
Krasnoi, on the i6th, 17th, and iSth of November, the French lost 30,000 men in 
killed, w ounded, and prisoners. Ney's fortunate, but dangerous, passage of the 
frozen Dnieper, was one of the most daring feats recorded in history. The troops 
crossed the thin ice in safety, but the wagons containing the sick and wounded sa)ik, 
amid the shrieks of the unfortunate sufferers. 



346 MODERN HISTORY. 

The Terrible Passage of the Beresina. — The most honible of this series 
of horrors was the passage of the Beresina. While the French were passing over 
the bridges, the enemy under Wittgenstein and Platoff appeared, and opened a 
heavy Titack upon them. One of the bridges, unable to bear the weight of the 
crowd upon it, broke, thus precipitating into the stream thousands, whose dying 
shrieks were heard loud above the roar of the Russian cannon and the cheer.s of ihe 
Cossacks. Many who attempted to cross over the other bridge were swept ofl" y 
;h(: Russian artillery, or thrown over in the confusion by their comrades. The 
ioUowing spring, when the ice melted, 36,000 dead bodies were found in the cnan 
nel of the Beresina. 

Destruction of the Grand Army. — The mournful disaster just related com- 
pleted the destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army. When the remnants of the 
French army reached the Niemen, the rear guard, under Marshal Ney, was reduced 
to thirty men. The veteran marshal, bearing a musket, and pointing it at the pur- 
suing enemy, was the last of the Grand Army that left the Russian territory. Napo- 
leon had already left the army on the 5th of December, and started in a sledge for 
Paris, where he arrived on the l8lh. In this disastrous campaign, the losses of 
Napoleon were as follows: 125,000 men killed in battle; 132,000 died from cold, 
hunger, and fatigue; and 193,000 made prisoners by the Russians. The total loss 
was 450,000 men. 

EVKNTS OF 181S. 

The Peninsular War — Battle of Vittoria — Expulsion of the French. — 
Late in May, 1813, Lord Wellington reentered Spain, and, on the 21st of June, 
he annihilated the French forces, under Marshal Jourdain and Joseph Bonaparte, in 
the decisive battle of Vittoria. The result of this battle was that the French were 
compelled to evacuate the entire Spanish peninsula, and to retire into their own 
temtories, before the close of the year. After reducing the strong fortresses of St. 
Sebastian and Pampeluna, Wellington pursued the retreating French across the 
Pyrenees, into their own territoiy; and on the loth of November (1813), he de- 
feated the French forces, commanded by Marshal Soult, on the Nivelle. 

Moral Effect of the Russian Disaster. — The moral effect of the Russian 
disaster was a far more serious misfortune to Napoleon than the loss of his great 
aiTiiy; as it destroyed the belief in his^invincibility, and consequently encouraged 
the subject nations to throw off the supremacy before which they had been com- 
pelled to bow, and to assert their former dignity and independence. It proved to 
be, as Talleyrand called it, "The beginning of the end." 

War Spirit of Prussia — Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Sweden. — 
Prussia was the first of the powers which had suffered from the insolence of the 
great conqueror, to take advantage of the great misfortune which had befallen him. 
As eaily as December, 1812, the Prussian general Yorck, who had commanded 
under the Frencn marshal Macdonald in the Russian campaign, had entered ir..o 
an agreement witn the Russian marshal Diebitsch to cease from hostilities against 
Russia. Although the conduct of Yorck was at first disapproved by the Prussian 
Government, the patriotic war spirit of the Prussian people was every day becoming 
more manifest. At length, on the 3d of February, 1813, Prussia concluded an 
alliance with Russia and Sweden, and declared war against the French Emperor- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 34 y 

The greatest enthusiasm pervaded all classes of the Prussian peoj'le on I his action 
of their government, and noble .and peasant offered their services in the cause of 
their country's liberation from foreign domination. 

Invasion of Germany by Napoleon. — In the meantime, Napoleon had raised 
a new army of 350,000 men, and in the month of April, 1813, he marched this 
immense force into Germany. Frederic Augustus, King of Saxony, through fear 
of the French Emperor, held fast to his alliance with France, and Sa.xony became 
he theatre of hostilities. 

Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. — On the 2d of May, 1S13, Napoleon gained 
o. victory over the allied Russian and Prussian armies at Lutzen, after a terrific con- 
flict, in which the Prussian general Scharnhorst, and the French marshal Bessieres, 
were slain. After a desperate engagement at Bautzen, on the 20th (May, 1813), 
Napoleon was again victorious, but the brave French marshal Duroc? was killed. 

Congress at Prague — Austria Joins the Allies. — Through the mediation of 
Austria, an armistice was soon agreed upon between the belligerent parties, and a 
Congress composed of ambassadors of the several powers was convened at Prague, 
to consider terms of peace. As Napoleon absolutely refused to restore the inde- 
pendence of Germany, the armistice terminated on the loth of August, when the 
Emperor of Austria jomed the allies, and declared war against his son-in-law. 

Battle of Dresden. — Hostilities were now resumed with vigor; and on the 
26th and 27th of August, Napoleon defeated the combined Austrian, Russian, and 
Prussian forces in the battle of Dresden. In this battle, General Moreau, who had 
been called from America by the Emperor of Russia, was mortally wounded. 

Battles of Katzbach, Culm, Gros-Beeren, and Dennewitz. — The advan- 
tages which Napoleon might have secured by his victory at Dresden were lost by 
the defeats sustained by his generals at other points. On the 26th of August, the 
Prussians under Blucher defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, in Silesia. On the 
30th of the same month, Vandamme, with 10,000 French troops, finding himself 
surrounded by the allied Austrian, Russian and Prussian armies, was compelled to 
surrender at Culm, in North-western Bohemia, after a bloody battle of two days. 
On the 23d of August, a French division, under General Oudinot, was defeated at 
Gros-Beeren, near Berlin, by the Prussians and Swedes under the command of the 
Crown Prince of Sweden. On the 6th of September, Marshal Ney was badly beaten 
at Dennewitz, not far from Wittenberg, by tRe Prussian and Swedish forces. 

Concentration of the Allied Armies. — Bavaria now concluded the Treaty of 
Ried with Austria, and the princes of the Confederation >of the E.hine were begin- 
ning to join the allies. In the beginning of October, the Russians under Barclay 
de Tolly and Benningsen, the Prussians under Blucher, the Swedes under Berna- 
dotte, and the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, were concentrated in the 
vicinity of Leipsic. The allied armies, thus united, numbered 300,000 men, and 
were all placed under the command of the Austrian general. Prince Schwartzen- 
'.lerg. To oppose this immense host. Napoleon had only 200,000 troops. 

Battle of Leipsic. — On the i6th, 17th and iSthof October, 18 13, was fought the 
teirible battle of Leipsic, in which half a million of men were engaged in the work 
of death. The carnage was frightful. The French troops resisted the assaults of 
the enemy with great bravery, but the superiority of the allies in numerical strength 



348 MODERN HISTORY. 

prevailed, and Napoleon was in the end defeated with heavy loss. Napoleon was 
obliged to order a retreat; and on the morning of the 19th, the French army aban- 
doned Leipsio, which was then taken possession of by the allies. The Saxon troops 
now turned their artillery against the retreating French army, and joined the allies. 
The order for the destruction of the Elster bridge, over the Elbe, at Leipsic, had 
been executed so hastily that 30,000 French troops, unable to cross, were compelled 
to surrender to the enemy. The brave Pole, Poniatowski, who had fought bravely 
in the French army, was drowned while attempting to cross. 

Hasty Retreat of the French to the Rhine. — The French now made a 
hasty retreat toward the Rhine. The Austro-Bavarian army under General Wredc, 
attempting to intercept the retreat of the French army, met with a defeat at Hanau ; 
but the retreat now became a rapid flight, and it was with great difficulty that 
Napoleon was enabled to cross the Rhine with his shattered army. 

Consequences of Napoleon's Defeat. — The consequences of the battle of 
Leipsic, and the defeat of Napoleon, were the dissolution of the Confederation of 
tlie Rhine, the restoration of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, and the Dukes of Bruns- 
wick and Oldenburg to their governments, and the downfall of the Kingdom of 
Westphalia, — events which followed in rapid succession. Baden and Wurtemburg 
entered into treaties with Austria, and joined their forces to those of the allies. 
Holland also revolted against the French Emperor, and reestablished its independ- 
ence. The King of Denmark, who had firmly adhered to his alliance with Napo- 
leon, was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, early in 
January, 18 14. 

Misfortunes to the French in Italy. — Fortune was also averse to the French 
in Italy, where the viceroy, Eugene Beauharnais, was defeated by the Austrians 
under General Hiller. Murat, King of Naples, and brother-in-law to Napoleon, 
entered into a secret alliance with Austria, early in 1814, for the expulsion of the 
French from Italy. Early in 1814, Pope Pius VII. was restored to his authority in 
Rome. 

EVENTS OF 1814. 

Invasion of France by the Allies, — As Napoleon refused to agree to a peace 
by surrendering any of the countries which he had conquered, and had raised a new 
army of 300,000 men, the allied monaa:hs determined upon his dethronement, and 
with this view they ordered their armies to cross the Rhine. France was now to 
be invaded on all sides, and the evils and humiliations which she had inflicted upon 
other nations were to be retaliated upon herself. On the 1st of January, 1814, 
Blucher, with the Silesian army, consisting of Prussians and Russians, crossed the 
Rhine, between Manheim and Coblentz; while Prince Schwartzenberg, with the 
Allied Grand Army of 100,000 men, composed chiefly of Austrians, advanced intc 
France through Switzerland. Another army, consisting of Prussians under Bulow, 
and Russians under Winzengerode, invaded France by way of Holland, and soon 
united with the Silesian army. Wellington, with the English army, after driving 
the French from the Spanish peninsula, pursued them across the Pyrenees, into th<;ir 
own territories, captured Bayonne, and a portion of his forces under Marshal Beres- 
ford took Bordeaux, where the Bourbons were proclaimed by the people. 

Battles >3f Brienne and La Rothiere — Victories of Napoleon.- -Blucher 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^49 

and Schwartzenberg united their armies in Champagne, and, after fighting with 
Napoleon the indecisive battle of Brienne, on the 27th of January, 1S14, gained a 
victory in the battle of La Rothiere, on the 1st of February. But the allied armies 
again sejxirated; and the French Emperor, whose great military talents again shone 
foith in all their brilliancy, inflicted severe defeats upon Blucher at Champaubert> 
Montmirail, Chateau-Thierr}', and Vauchamps. He then suddenly fell upon and 
defeated Schwartzenberg at Montereau; and on the night of the 23d of Febiuary, 
the French bombarded Troyes, and compelled the Allies to evacuate the town. 
N^apoleon afterwards unsuccessfully attacked Soissons. Blucher fought with tht, 
French the battle of Craonne, on the 7th of March, and the battle of Laon, on the 
9th of the same month. Napoleon afterwards attacked Rheims, which he com- 
pelled the Russians to evacuate. The French were defeated in the battle of Arcis, 
on the 20th of March. 

Unsuccessful Negotiations for Peace. — Flushed with his successes, Napo- 
leon suddenly broke off the negotiations for peace, which had just been opened at 
Chatillon, and thus hastened his speedy ruin. Had he listened to the reasonable 
terms offered by the allied powers, he might have remained on the throne of 
France. 

Capture of Paris by the Allies. — For the purpose of frightening the allies 
into a retreat into Germany, Napoleon, by a bold march, placed his army in their 
rear. The allies, seeing the way to Paris open, marched upon the city and took 
the heights of Montma1"tre, which covered the capital. Joseph Bonaparte, to whom 
Napoleon had entrusted the defense of the capital, retired with the Empress Maria 
Louisa and the regency to Blois; and on the 31st of March, 1814, Marshals Mor- 
tier and Marmont, perceiving the folly of any further resistance, surrendered Paris 
to the enemy; and on the same day, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia 
entered that proud capital. A provisional government was now formed, at the head 
of which was Talleyrand, who had deserted the cause of Napoleon, and who now 
devoted himself to the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. 

Abdication of Napoleon — Battle of Toulouse. — On the 2d of April, 1S14, 
Napoleon was formally deposed by the French Senate, and, after vainly endeavor- 
ing to secure the crown of France to his son, he signed, on the 6th of April, 18 14, 
the unconditional abdication of the thrones of France and Italy. On the loth of 
April, 18 14, a few days after the abdication of Napoleon, the English army, under 
Wellington, won a brilliant victory at Toulouse, over the French army commanded 
by Marshal Soult. A few days after the battle, news of the capture of Paris and 
the fall of Napoleon reached l)oth armies, and hostilities were suspended. 

Napoleon sent to Elba. — On the nth of April, 1814, Napoleon agreed to a 
treaty with the allies at Fontainbleau, by which he received the sovereignty of the 
little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean sea, and an income of 2,000,000 francs. 
On the 20th of April (1814), Napoleon ordered the Imperial Guard to be assem- 
oled in the court-yard of Fontainbleau, and, amid the tears of the gallant veterans, 
he took leave of them with a sad heart. He then started for Elba, where he 
anived on the 4th of May, 1 8 14. 

Louis XVIII. — First Peace of Paris. — The Count of Provence, brother (if 
l^juis XVI., returning from his long exile, entered Paris on the 3d of May, 1814, 



35° 



MODERN HISTORY. 



and was received with demonstrations of joy by the inhabitants. He was now 
seated on the throne of France, with the title of Louis XVIII. He was required 
to govern according to a constitution, called " The Charter," by which the powers 
of the king were limited, and the rights of the French people defined and secured. 
On the 30th of May, 18 14, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between 
Fiance and the allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were restric*:ed 
to what they had been in 1792; and the general tranquillity of Europe appeared to 
be secured. 

THE RESTORED BOURBONS AND THE HUNDRED 
DAYS (1S14-1815). 

Impolitic Conduct of the Bourbons. — The Bourbons were no sooner restored 
to the throne of France, than they endeavored to reestablish the state of things which 
existed before the Revolution, and their imprudent and impolitic conduct excited 
the Bonapartists and the Republicans against them. The tri-colored cockade was 
displaced by the white ensign of the Bourbons, and the memo.i'y of the Republic 
and of the Empire was, as much as possible, obliterated. The stipulated pension 
which was to be paid to Napoleon was also withheld. These and other causes led 
to the formation of plots for the restoration of Napoleon to power. The majority 
of the French people felt deeply the humiliation of living under a king forced upon 
them by foreign bayonets, and longed for that Emperor under whose banners their 
armies had so often been led to battle and to victory. 

Congress at Vienna. — A Congress composed of ambassadors of the allied 
powers had assembled at Vienna, on the 25th of September, 1814, for the settle- 
ment of European affairs. Divisions arose in the Congress on the question of the 
rearrangement of the conquered countries ; but when the astounding intelligence 
that Napoleon had left Elba, and had landed on the southern coast of France, 
reached the Congress, all divisions were cast aside; and the Congress unanimously 
agreed to take vigorous measures for the overthrow of the man whose ambition 
troubled the world. 

Return of Napoleon. — Encouraged by the discontent of the French people 
with the r.ulc of the Bourbons, Napoleon left Elba; and on the 1st of March, 1815, 
he landed at Cannes, near Frejus, on the southern coast of France. He was accom- 
panied by only 1,000 men; but he trusted that the prestige of his name, and the 
zealous attachment of the troops whom he had so often led to victory, would restore 
nmi to power. The troops that had been sent against him joined his standard with 
the wildest enthusiasm. The tri-color was again displayed everywhere. The citi- 
zens of Grenoble opened their gates to him, and Colonel Labedoyere joined him 
with the garrison of the town. The Count of Artois, brother to King Louis XVIIL, 
vainly endeavored to keep the ti-oops at Lyons firm in their allegiance to their king, 
rhey unanimously declared for Napoleon, crying "Vive P Empereur!" and Marshal 
Ney, who had been sent against Napoleon, and who had sworn that he would bring 
the ex-emperor to Paris in chains, joined him with the troops. All the old mar- 
shals, except Marmont, Macdonald and Augereau, espoused the cause of Napoleon, 
who entered Paris on the evening of the 20th of March, 1815, Louis XVIII. having 
left the city on the morning of the same day. Thus, in the course of three weeks, 




NAPOLEON BONAPARTH. 




DUKE OF WELLINGTON. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 2^1 

without one drop of bloodshed, Napoleon was again master of all France. Then 
began the period historica|Jly known as "The Hundred Days." 

Murat's Fall. — On the landing of Napoleon at Cannes, Murat broke off his 
alliance with Austria, and summoned the Italian people to arms against that power. 
Advancing northward, at the head of the Neapolitan army, Murat was defeated by 
the Austrians, in the battle of Tolentino, on the 23d of May, 1815. He then fled 
to France, and his kingdom of Naples reverted to its former sovereign, Ferdinand, 
Napoleon, indignant because of Murat's desertion of his cause in 1814, refused to 
receive him in Paris. After remaining for some time in Southern France, Murai 
sailed for Corsica, whence he made a descent on the Italian coast, for the purpose 
of recovering his lost kingdom, but he was taken prisoner, and shot in accordance 
with the sentence of a military commission. 

The War Renewed — The Armies in Belgium. — The Congress of Vienna, 
when informed of the events which had just transpired in France, declared that 
#" The Emperor Napoleon had placed himself beyond the pale of society, and that, 
as an enemy and a disturber of the peace of Europe, he had made himself liable to 
public vengeance." At the same time, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, 
entered into a treaty, by which they agi-eed to raise an army of 600,000 men, to crush 
the man whom no treaties could bind. Napoleon raised a new army of 120,000 
men. In the meantime, the allies were preparing to invade France from all sides. 
The English under Wellington, and the Prussians under Blucher, were concentrat- 
ing in Belgium. The Austrians were advancing through Northern Italy, and the 
Russians were rapidly hastening to the theatre of action. For the purpose of pi-e- 
venting France from again becoming the seat of war. Napoleon, with 120,000 men, 
advanced into Belgium, about the middle of June, 1815, with the view of annihil- . 
ating the armies of Wellington and Blucher. 

Battles of Ligny, Quatre-Bras, and Waterloo. — On the 15th of June, 1815, 
Napoleon assaulted Charleroi, and compelled the Prussians, under Ziethen, to 
evacuate the town. At about noon, on the 16th (June, 1815), Napoleon, at the 
head of 80,000 men, attacked 60,000 Prussians, under Blucher, at Ligny ; while, at 
the same time. Marshal Ney, with 30,000, assailed the English, under Wellington, 
at Quatre-Bras. The battle of Ligny was long and bloody, and ended in the defeat 
of the Prussians, who retired, and left the field in possession of Napoleon. After a 
desperate engagement at Quatre-Bras, in which the gallant Duke William of Bruns- 
wick was mortally wounded, the English were victorious, and Napoleon was obliged 
to retire from the bloody field. Napoleon's victory at Ligny rendered the English 
victory at Quatre-Bras useless; and on the following day (June 17, 1815), WellingtoQ 
fell back to the village of Waterloo, about nine miles from Brussels. On the morn- 
ing of the 1 8th, Napoleon appeared at Waterloo, with 80,000 men. Wellington 
had 70,000. The chateau of Hougoumont and the farm-house of La Haye Sainte 
were strongly garrisoned with English troops. The great battle of Waterloo began at 
about noon, when the French opened a heavy artillery fire on the British lines, r nd 
assaulted Hougoumont, but were repulsed. A concentrated attack on the British 
right also failed. The French cuirassiers afterwards vainly attempted to break the 
English centre, but they drove back the English troops who had followed them. 
La Haye Sainte was captured and lost by the French infantry. The P'rench cuiras- 
siers next made a furious assault on the British right, only to be disastrously repulsed. 



352 MODERN HISTORY. 

Three tremendous assaults had ah^eady failed to break the Encjlish lines, when, at 
seven in the evening, Marshal Ney, by direction of Napoleon, led the Imperial 
Guard in a furious charge upon the English troops, while, in the meantime, the 
British line was fiercely cannonaded. The Imperial Guards reeled before the heavy 
musketry fire which the English opened upon them, and Wellington, observing the 
confusion, ordered a bayonet charge, and the result was the complete route of these 
favorite veterans of Napoleon. Blucher, with 50,000 Prussians, now came to the 
assistance of Wellington, who immediately assumed the offensive, and Napoleon, see- 
ing that his Empire was lost by the fatal result of the day, left the field, and hastened 
to Paris, where lie arrived on the 20th. The shattered remnants of the French army 
fled in confusion, and were pursued by the Prussians; the English, fatigued by the 
long and fierce contest, resting for the night on the field. The English had won a 
great victory, but at the cost of 15,000 men in killed and wounded. Among the 
killed was the gallant Sir Thomas Picton. The French had lost 40,000 men and all 
their cannon. 

Second Capture of Paris — Louis XVIII. Restored to the Throne. — " 

After some hesitation, Napoleon yielded to the proposal of the Chambers in Paris, 
and abdicated the throne of France in favor of his son; whereupon a provisional 
government, under the direction of Fouche, was formed. After the battle of 
Waterloo, the English and Prussian armies marched upon Paris, which was sur- 
rendered by Fouche to Wellington and Blucher, on condition that no individual was 
to be punished for his political opinions. King Louis XVIII. reentered his capital 
on the 8th of July, and was again seated on the throne of France. 

Napoleon made a Prisoner and banished to St. Helena. — In the mean- 
time. Napoleon had fled to Rochefort with the intention of escaping to America, 
but he found the harbor closely guarded by English war-vessels. Thus foiled, 
Napoleon embraced the determination of throwing himself upon the generosity of 
the English nation; and accordingly, on the 15th of July (i8i5),he went on board 
the British frigate Bellerophon, and surrendered himself a prisoner to Captain 
Maitland, the commander of the vessel, who took him to the coast of England, but 
refused to allow him to land, or to have any communication with the people on the 
shore. After some delay, the illustrious prisoner was informed that the allied mon- 
archs had resolved to banish him to the small rocky island of St. Helena, in the 
South Atlantic Ocean, where he was to be kept a close prisoner for the rest of his 
life. Napoleon vainly protested; and on the i8th of October, 1815, he arrived at 
the place of his banishment. Here he lived under the charge,of the brutal gov 
emor and jailor. Sir Hudson Lowe. The unhealthy climate and the merciless 
treatment which he received hastened his death, which occurred on the 5th of May, 
1821. In 1840, his remains were brought to Paris and interred in the Hotel des 
Invalides. 

Proscription of Napoleon's Adherents. — A proscription of the family and 
he adherents of Napoleon followed the second abdication of the Emperor and the 
second restoration of the Bourbons. All the members of Napoleon's family, all the 
marshals and statesmen who had adhered to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, 
and all the regicides who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., were banished; 
and, in violation of the terms of the second capitulation of Paris, Marshal Ney and 
Colonel Labedoydre were condemned and shot for treason, in joining Napoleon 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



353 



oil his return from Elba with the troops with which they had been sent against 
hun. 

Second Peace of Paris. — The battle of Waterloo put an end to the long wars 
which the French Revolution and the ambition of Napoleon had kindled, and 
which had convulsed Europe for a period of twenty-three years. On the 20th of 
November, 1815, the second Peace of Paris was concluded between France and 
the allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were limited to what they 
iiad been in 1790; France was required to pay 700,000,000 francs for the expenses 
of the war; the works of art and literature which the French had taken from other 
nations were to be restored to their rightful owners; and an allied army of 150,000 
men was to garrison the frontier fortresses of France for three years, for the purpose 
of insuring peace by putting down any attempted rising of the French people. The 
military power of France was thoroughly broken, her pride was lowered, and her 
humiliation was complete. 

POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE. 

CONDITION OF EUROPE AFTER BONAPARTE'S FALL. 

THE HOLY ALLIANCE (1815). 

Object of the Holy Alliance. — On the 25th of September, 1815, the three 
sovereigns, Alexander I. of Russia, Frederic William III. of Prussia, and Francis 
I. of Austria, signed, in the city of Paris, the famous compact known as "The 
Holy Alliance," by which they swore, " That, in accordance with the principles of 
Holy Scripture, they would, as brothers, render each other all the assistance in theii 
power, on every occasion." 

The Holy Alliance an Instrument of Oppression. — The Holy Alliance 
was at length joined by all the sovereigns of Europe, except the Pope and the Brit- 
ish monarch. This powerful league of princes was made, as we shall presently 
see, an instrument for the suppression of all democratic and liberal tendencies, and 
the strengthening of monarchical power, under the mask of piety and religion. In 
a few years, popular insurrections that broke out in Italy and Spain were suppressed 
by the formidable league of crowned heads. 

Efforts of the People of Europe. — While princes were seeking to establish 
absolute governments, the people of Europe were striving for constitutional forms. 
A free government, like that enjoyed by the people of Great Britain, was what seemed 
most desirable to the oppressed masses of Europe. 

THE ROYALIST REACTIO^f IN FRANCE. 

Contests of Parties in France — Hatred of Bonapartists and Republi- 
cans. — After the restoration of the Bourbons, in the person of lyouis XVIII., Franc?" 
was dir>:racted by the contests of parties. A reaction in favor of the Royalists ha ! 
taken place among the French people. The Royalists manifested the most intenst-: 
hatred against the Bonapartists and the Republicans, who were charged with the 
authorship of all the misery which had been brought upon the country by twenty- 
three years of revolution and war. 

23 



354 



MODERN HISTOR V. 



Zeal of the Royalists — Massacre of Bonapartists and Republicans. — 
The zealous Royalists, not satisfied with the moderation of the king, who tried to 
steer between the two extremes, demanded punishment of the Bonapartists and 
Republicans; and Louis XVIII., although disposed to be moderate, found himselt 
obliged to banish all those who had caused the execution of his brother, Louis XVI. 
The Royalists (called White Jacobins), disgraced themselves by the bloody massa- 
cre of Bonapartists and Republicans in Marseilles, Nismes, Toulon, Toulouse, 
A /igD jn, and Lyons. 

Restriction .of the Liberties of the People — Death of Louis XVIIL — 
To gratify the reactionary party, which desired the reestablishment of the ancient 
despotism, the king was forced to violate, in many instances, the constitutional 
charter, which he had sworn to observe. He was urged, against his own will, to 
place restrictions upon the liberties of the people in various ways, and to increase 
the royal power. The influence of the Royalists prevailed to some extent ; and 
the liberty of the press and other privileges were in a great measure restricted. In 
1823, at the command of the Holy Alliance, a French army of 100,000 men, under 
the command of the Duke of Angouleme, was sent into Spain, to crush a revolution 
there. On the death of Louis XVIIL, in 1824, his brother, the Count of Artois, 
became King of France, with the title of Charles X. 

THE SOCIAL STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND. 

The Extent, Pov^er, and Glory of the British Empire. — Great Britain 
emerged from the long contest with France with increased power and national 
glory. Her empire was greatly extended in all parts of the world; her supremacy 
on the sea was undisputed; her wealth and commerce were increased; and her 
people enjoyed more civil and political liberty than any other in Europe. But 
with all this national prosperity, the lower classes of the English people were sunk 
in extreme wretchedness and poverty. 

Caoises of Distress among Workingmen. — The long wars with France, and 
the immense subsidies with which Great Britain had furnished her Continental allies, 
raised her national debt to an enormous amount, and her people were borne down 
with the most oppressive taxes. During the European wars, the English manufac- 
turers were enabled to carry on their business very successfully, because then the 
people of Continental Europe had been compelled to relinquish all peaceful pur- 
suits. When peace returned, the people of the Continent were enabled to return to 
their former occupations, and to compete successfully with the English manufac- 
turers. The result was the decline of the prosperity of English manufactures, and 
the want of employment for the English workingmen, who were in consequence 
reduced to great distress. 

Conspiracy for the Overthrow of the Monarchy. — The English people 
were gi-eatly discontented with the existing state of things; and, in 1817, the 
Ct'tish Government discovered that an extensive conspiracy existed throughout 
the kingdom for the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of an Eng- 
lish republic in its stead. The Government thwarted the plot by suspending the 
writ of habeas corpus, and caused the leading conspirators to be arrested, tried, 
condemned, and executed. 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 



355 



Lord Exmouth's Expedition against Algiers — Battle of Algiers. — For 
several centuries, the Barbary powers of Northern Africa had committed piracies 
on people of Christian countries. The commanders of vessels were kept as pVis- 
oners for ransom, and the crews were reduced to slavery. It had long been the 
custom of Christian nations to pay tribute to the pirates, as a bribe for the safety of 
their commerce; but the insolence of the corsairs induced the United States Gov- 
ernment, in 1815, to send a squadron under Commodore Decatur to humble them. 
Decatur compelled the Dey of Algiers to accept very humiliating conditions. The 
English Government followed the example of America. In 1816, a British squad- 
ron under I>ord Exmouth was sent against Algiers. Lord Exmouth appeared 
before the city of Algiers, in May (1816), and demanded the release of all Chris- 
tians whom the Dey held in slavery. As Lord Exmouth received no answer to his 
demand, he opened a hea%7^ cannonade upon the city, which was returned by the 
\lgerine batteries; and, after several hours' fighting, the Dey's fleet and a great 
part of the city were destroyed. The following morning, the Dey informed Lord 
Exmouth that he would set his Christian slaves and captives at liberty, and the 
firing ceased. Twelve hundred Christians were then released, and allowed to 
return to their homes. 

Disturbance at Manchester^Death of George III. — In August, 1819, a 
meeting of 80,000 persons, ass^nbled at Manchester, to discuss the question of 
parliamentary reform, was attacked by the military, and many victims fell. On the 
death of King George III., in January, 1820, his son ascended the British thi^one, 
with the title of George IV. 

EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1820 AND 1821. 

REVOLUTION IN SPAIN (1820-1823). 

Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII. — After Lord Wellington's expulsion of 
the French from Spain, in 1813, Ferdinand VII. came into quiet possession of the 
Spanish throne. He began his reign with the most unrelenting tyranny over 
his subjects. The Inquisition was reestablished with all its horrors; the liberal 
Cortes Constitution of 181 2 was suppressed; and thousands who had exposed 
their lives in the cause of Ferdinand against the French invaders of Spain, were 
persecuted in the most unrelenting manner. 

Popular Insurrection — Reestablishment of the Cortes Constitution. — 
The tyrannical rule of Ferdinand VII. roused the Sprnish Liberals against him; 
and, on the ist of January, 1820, a mutiny broke out among the troops at Cadiz, 
who were to be sent to crush the revolution against Spanish authority in South 
America; and very soon the whole Spanish kingdom was in insurrection against 
the tyrannical king. In order to retain his crown, Ferdinand was forced to grant 
his subjects the Constitution of 1812. The Liberals abused their power by hasty 
innovations, and by persecutions of the priests and the supporters of the Apostolic 
party. 

Overthrow of the Cortes Constitution by a French Army. — It was re- 
solved by the members of the Holy Alliance, in a Congress at Verona, to suppress 
the Spanish Constitution by violence; and in 1823, a French army of 100,000 men, 



356 MODERN HISTORY. 

under the Duke of Angouleme, entered Spain. The French invaders marched 
through the country to Cadiz, overcame all opposition on the part of the Spanish Lib- 
erals, and effected the overthrow of the Cortes Constitution, aud the reestablishment 
of the absolute pow^er of the king. From this time, until his death, in 1833, Ferdi 
nand VII. governed despotically. 

REVOLUTION IN PORTUGAL (1821-1884). 

Popular Insurrection — Establishment of a Liberal Constitution.-^ Poi 
tugal, as well as Spain, was torn by internal commotions. The Portuguese peopli 
were dissatisfied because the royal family did not return from Brazil after the ter- 
mination of the Peninsular War ; and popular insurrections in Lisbon and Oporto, 
in August, 1820, resulted in the establishment of a liberal constitution, modeled 
after that of Spain. In 1822, the Portuguese colony of Brazil became an inde- 
pendent Empire. 

Overthrow of the Portuguese Constitution — Donna Maria da Gloria. — 
The Portuguese Constitution was overthrown in 1823, by the Apostolic party, which 
was composed of the clergy and the aristocracy, with the supporters of Don Miguel, 
the king's brother, at their head. King John VI. died in 1826, and was succeeded 
on the throne of Portugal by his son, Don Pedro^ Emperor of Brazil. Don Pedro, 
however, soon resigned the crown of Portugal to his infant daughter. Donna Maria 
da Gloria, appointed his brother, Don Miguel, regent of the kingdom, and granted 
the Portuguese a liberal constitution. 

Usurpation of Don Miguel — Civil War — Defeat of Don Miguel.— In 
.1829, Don Miguel, with the support of the Apostolic party, suppressed the Portu- 
guese Constitution, and caused himself to be proclaimed King of Portugal. In 1832, 
Don Pedro, who had been compelled, the previous year, to abdicate his crown in 
Brazil, in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., returned to Portugal, to defend the rights of 
his daughter. The constitutional party rallied to the support of Don Pedro; and, in 
1834, after a bloody civil war of two years, during which Don Pedro was aided by 
England and France, the usurper, Don Miguel, was forced to renounce his preten- 
sions, and to leave the kingdom ; whereupon the constitution, which had been sup- 
pressed by the usurper, was reestablished. 

REVOLUTION IN NAPLES (1820). 

Tyranny of King Ferdinand of Naples. — After the fall of Napoleon I. 
and Ihe expulsion of the French from Italy, Ferdinand, the former King of Naples, 
was restored to his throne. From the time of his restoration to the Neapolitan 
throne, Ferdinand exercised a most unmitigated oppression over his subjects. 

Popular Insurrection in Naples — A Liberal Constitution Granted. — At 
length, in July, 1820, the Carbonari, an influential political society, excif^d a popu- 
lar insuiTCction in the Kingdom of Naples; and the tyrannical Feramand was 
compelled to grant his subjects a constitution similar in its character to the Spanish 
Cortes Constitution of 18 1 2. 

Intervention of the Holy Alliance — Overthrow of the Constitution.— 

In October of the same year (1820), the three crowned heads who formed the Holy 
Alliance held a conference at Troppau, in Austrian Silesia, where, at the instiga- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. -57 

tion of Prince Metternich, the Ausbian Prime-Minister, they resolved to suppress 
the Neapolitan constitution by force of arms. King Ferdinand, of Naples, who, 
by invitation, met the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, at Laybach, ir 
January, 182 1, agreed to the proposal; and accordingly, an Austrian anny of 43,<X>C5 
men marched into Naples, and, after several insignificant conflicts, dispersed the 
revolutionary forces; vv^hereupon King Ferdinand abolished the constitution which 
he hac' granted, and resumed his former despotic power. 

REVOLUTION IN PIEDMONT (1821). 

Insurrection in Piedmont — Abdication of Victor Emmanuel. — In March, 
1821, a military and popular insurrection broke out in Piedmont, against the absolute 
rule of King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. On the 13th (March, 1821), Victor 
Emmanuel abdicated the throne of Sardinia, in favor of his brother,' Charles Felix; 
and a liberal constitution was also established in Sardinia. 

End of the Piedmontese Constitution. — An Austrian army soon entered 
Piedmont to suppress the constitution. The revolutionists were defeated at Novara, 
and the Austrian forces occupied the cities of Turin and Alessandria. The Pied- 
montese constitution was overthronw, and absolute monarchy was reestablished in 
the kingdom of Sardinia. 



THE GREEK REVOLUTION (1821-1829). 

EVENTS OF 1821. 

Proclamation of Alexander Ypsilanti. — Greece had been conquered by the 
Turks in 1481. For three centuries and a half, the tyrannical rule of the Turks had 
been quietly submitted to by the Greeks; but on the 7th of March, 1821, Alexander 
Ypsilanti, a Greek, then serving as a general in the Russian army, proclaimed, 
from Moldavia, the independence of Greece, and, at the same time, assured his coun- 
trymen of the assistance of Russia, in their approaching struggle for liberty. But 
the influence of Prince Metternich, who, at the Congress of Laybach, opposed giving 
countenance to any revolt against legitimate authority, prevented the Czar Alexan- 
der from giving any support to the Greeks, -although he was at heart in sympathy 
with them. 

Revolution in the Morea. — Soon after the proclamation of Ypsilanti, an insur- 
rection against Turkish authority broke out in the village of Suda, in the Morea. 
The movement rapidly spread over the whole peninsula; and the insurgents declared 
that their purpose was to defend Christianity and civilization against Mohamme- 
danism and barbarism. 

Cruelty of the Turks — Murder of the Patriarch of Constantinople. — 
The rage of the Turks against the insurgent Greeks knew no bounds ; and many 
of the Greek clergy, including the gray -haired Patriarch of Constantinople, the 
iu^jreme head of the Greek Church, were put to death. Most of the Greek families 
in Constantinople fell victims to the savage rage of the infuriated Turks, and other? 
were driven into exile. 

Annihilation of the Sacred Band, and Flight of Alexander Ypsilanti. 

— The Liacred Band of the Greeks in Wallachia, under the leadership of Alexander 



358 MODERN HISTORY. 

Ypsilanti, was annihilated by the Turks, in the sanguinary battle of Dragaschan, on 
the 19th of June, 1 82 1. The Greeks, like their ancestors at Thermopylae, fought 
with the courage of desperation. Ypsilanti fled into the Austrian dominions, where 
he was seized and kept a prisoner for years. 

Capture of Tripolitza by the Greeks — Cassandra taken by the Turks. 
— In August, 1821, the Greeks captured Navarino; and in October following, the 
str.mg fortress of Tripolitza, where they put Sooo Turks to the sword. On the 5lh 
ind 6lh of September (1821), the Greek general Ulysses defeated a large Tuikifh 
foj'ce, near the famous pass of Thermopylae. The peninsula of Cassandra was after- 
wards taken by the Turks, who put 3000 Greeks to the sword, and carried many, 
women and children into slavery. 

EVENTS OF 1822. 

Greek Congress at Epidaurus — A Provisional Government. — In the 

beginning of 1822, a Greek Congress assembled at Epidaurus. On the 13th of 
January, a provisional constitution was proclaimed; and on the 27th of the same 
n'Cinth, a manifesto was issued, announcing the union of the Greeks under a central 
government, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato. The Greek leaders 
often quarreled among themselves, but, notwithstanding this, fortune was, in general, 
on the side of the struggling patriots, until the summer of 1825. 

Desolation of Scio by the Turks. r^In March, 1822, the inhabitants of the 
beautiful island of Scio rose in revolt, and put the Turkish garrison to the sword. 
In April, a force of Asiatic Turks spread over Scio, plundering and massacring the 
inhabitants, and reducing the beautiful island to a desert. Thirty thousand Sciots 
were put to the sword; and many women and children were sold into slavery. 
Soon afterward, 1 50 Greek villages in Macedonia were destroyed, and many of the 
inhabitants were put to the sword. 

Barbarous Warfare — Success of the Greek Fire-ships. — The war was 
carried on by both parties in the most barbarous manner. Thousands of Greeks 
were put to the sword by the enraged Turks, and when the Greeks had the oppor- 
tunity, they took a bloody revenge on their cruel foes. Many of the Turkish vessels 
were blown up by the Greek fire-ships. On the 12th of December, 1822, the strong 
Turkish fortress of Napoli de Romania surrendered to the Greeks, after a furious 
assault. 

EVENTS OF 1823. 

Victory and Death of Marco Bozzaris — Lord Byron. — On the 20th of 
August, 1823, a Turkish army of 100,000 men was met and defeated by 500 
Greeks, under the heroic Suliot leader, Marco Bozzaris, who was killed in the 
moment of victory. The last words of this valiant patriot were, " Could a Suliot 
lea i?." die a nobler death?" Popular sympathy for the struggling Greeks was 
5tr I'.gly manifested in France, England, and the United States; and many private 
individuals went from those countries to aid the patriots in their struggle for free 
dom. Among those who went to Greece from England was the illustrious poel, 
Lord Byron, wl.o died at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April, 1824. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^cp 

EVENTS OF 1824 AND 182S. 

Fall of Ipsara — Desolation of the Morea by Ibrahim Pacha. — Durirg 
tl>e year 1824, the Turks reduced tlie strongly-fortified rocl^y island of Ipsara; but 
after 2,000 Turks had entered the last fort, the Greeks blew it up, and perished 
with their foes. In 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, son of the celebrated Mehemet All, 
Pacha of Egypt, whom the Sultan had induced to assist in the suppression of the 
Grecian rebellion, landed in the Morea, with 25,000 Egyptian troops, and spreafi 
aesolation throughout the whole peninsula. Ibrahim Pacha captured Navariiu. ; 
ijut the Turks were defeated, for the third time, at Missolonghi. 

EVENTS OF 1826. 

Siege and Fall of Missolonghi. — In the latter part of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, 
with 25,000 men, laid siege to Missolonghi. After many fierce absaults had been 
gallantly repulsed by the Greeks, Missolonghi fell into the hands of Ibrahim Pacha, 
on the 22d of April, 1S26. The Greek gan-ison of 1,800 men cut their way through 
the lines of the besiegers, and fled to Athens, Many of the inhabitants fled froir 
the city when the victorious foe entered, but some were pursued and captured; 
and those who remained in the city, about 1,000 in number, mostly old men, 
women, and children, blew themselves up in the mines, rather than fall into the 
hands of the enemy. 

EVENTS OF 1827. 

Intervention of England, France, and Russia — Battle of Navarino. — ■ 

The heroic conduct of those Greeks who voluntarily perished at Missolonghi, and 
the continued devastations of Ibrahim Pacha in the Morea, aroused the European 
governments from their lethargy ; and, at the proposal of the great statesman. Can- 
ning, who then wielded the destinies of Great Britain, a treaty of alliance was con- 
cluded, at London, on the 6th of July, 1827, between England, France, and Russia, 
by which these three powers agreed to secure for the Greeks their liberty. To 
enforce this treaty, a combined English, French, and Russian fleet, under the com- 
mand of the English admiral. Sir Edward Codrington, was sent to the Grecian 
waters. The refusal of Ibrahim Pacha to evacuate the Morea occasioned the battle 
of Navarino, on the 20th of October, 1827, in which the allied fleet totally anni 
hila'ed the Turko-Egyptian fleet. 

EVENTS OF 1828. 

War between Russia and Turkey — Evacuation of the Morea. — The 

destruction of his fleet enraged more than it alarmed the Sultan, who still obsti- 
nately refused to give the Greeks their liberty, and who behaved in so insolent a 
manner toward the allied powers that Russia declared war against him. In May, 
1828, a Russian army of 150,000 men, under Count Wittgenstein, invaded the Otto- 
m.in dominions in Europe, and by the early part of July, had taken seven strong 
fortresses, among which were Brahilov, Silistria, and Varna; while in Asiatic . 
Turkey, the Russians under General Paskiewitsch were everywhere victori ms. In 
the meantime, Ibrahiin Pacha had been compelled by the French fleet to evacuate 
the Morea, and to restore to his Greek prisoners their freedom; and Count John 
Capo d'lstria was chosen President of the Grecian States. 



360 MODERN HISTORY. 

EVENTS OF 1829. 

Declaration of the Allied Powers — Advance of the Russians— Peace 
of Adrianople. — In January, 1829, the Sultan received a protocol from the three 
allied powers, declaring that they took Greece under their own protection, and 
tiiat they would consider another Turkish invasion of Greece as an attack upon 
themselves. This declaration, together with the rapid progress of the Russian 
(<'.roes, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, who had forced the passes 
:>f ihe Balkan mountains, and, on the 20th of August, 1829, captured Adrianople, 
ihe second city of the Turkish Empire, seriously alarmed the Sultan; and, on the 
24lli of September, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was concluded between Russia 
and Turkey, by which the Ottoman Porte acknowledged the independence of 
Greece, and agreed to indemnify Russia for her expenses in the war. 

EVENTS OF 18S1-1S33. 

Assassination of Count John Capo d' Istria — Otho, King of Greece. — 

During the Revolution, the Greek leaders often quarrelled among themselves; and 
in 1 83 1, the Greek President, Count John Capo d'lstria, who, by his selection of bad 
advisers, had made himself unpopular, was assassinated, as he was about to enter a 
church. The three allied powers, England, France, and Russia, having determined 
to erect Greece into a constitutional monarchy, the crown was bestowed on Otho, a 
prince of the royal house of Bavaria, who arrived at Nauplia in 1833, and reigned 
as King of Greece, until he was hurled from the throne by the Revolution of 1862. 

EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 AND 1831. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 

Charles X. — Charles X., on his accession to the throne of France, in 1824 
declared his intention of confirming the constitutional charter that had been granted 
to the French people at the time of the First Bourbon Restoration, in 18 14. But 
Charles, entertaining a bitter hatred against the principles of the Revolution, and 
under the influence of the most bigoted priests, labored for the establishment of an 
absolute monarchy, on the principles of the ancient despotism. Of the Bourbons, 
it was said, that during their long exile, " they had learned nothing and forgotten 
nothing;" and Charles soon proved that he had not forgotten that his ancestors had 
exercised absolute power, nor had he learned that such power was dauigerous to 
exercise. Unpopular Ministers were appointed, the freedom of the press %vas re- 
stricted, the National Guard was dissolved, and severe measures were adopted for 
dispersing popular assemblies. 

Ultr. -Royalist Ministry of Polignac. — In August, 1829, the Liberal Minis- 
try, which had been forccii upon the king by the voice of public opinion, was dis- 
missed; and an Ultra- Royalist Cabinet, with Prince Jules de Polignac at its head, 
♦'as appointed. This new ilinistry endeavored to strengthen the royal power, and 
5^ as extremely unpopular with the French people, who accused Polignac and hi9 
colleagues of a design for the subversion of popular liberty, and the reestablishmeut 
of the ancient despotism; but Polignac blindly persevered in his aibitrary schemes. 

The Slpeech from the Throne, March 2d, 1830 — Dissolution of the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 361 

Chambers. — At the opening of the French Chambers, on the 2d of March, 1830, 
the speech from the throne clearly announced the king's determination to overcome 
by force any obstacles that might be thrown in the way of his government, and 
contained a threat to deprive the French people of the .lights granted them by the 
Charter. There was a large majority against the Ministry in the Chamber of Depu- 
tie?, and that body returned a frank reply to the royal speech, declaring that a con- 
currence did not exist between the views of the Government and the wishes of the 
people. The king, declaring his intention to support his Ministers, prorogued the 
Chambers; and on the 17th of May, a royal ordinance declared them dissolved, and 
ordered elections for a new Chamber. 

War with Algiers — Capture of Algiers. — In the meantime, the king and 
bis Ministers, with the view of overcoming their unpopularity by gratifying the pas- 
sion of the French people for military glory, declared war against Algiers, the Dey 
having refused to pay long-standing claims of French citizens, and' having insulted 
the honor of France by striking the French Consul. A naval expedition, consisting 
of ninety-seven vessels, carrying more than 40,000 troops, sailed from Toulon, on 
the loth of May, 1830, and on the 14th reached the African shores. The city of 
Algiers was captured on the 5th of July (1830), with trifling loss on the part of the 
French. The Dey fled to Italy, and his treasures fell into the hands of the con- 
querors. 

Increase of the Liberal Majority in the Chamber of Deputies. — The news 
of the capture of Algiers occasioned much rejoicing in France, but did nothing toward 
gaining popularity for the Ministry, public feeling being too decided to be thus easily 
affected. The elections for a new Chamber of Deputies resulted in giving the 
Liberals a much larger majority than they had in the Chamber lately dissolved 

The Three Royal Ordinances of July 26th, 1830 — Disturbances in Paris. 
— The Ministry now resolved to set the popular will at defiance by measures directly 
subversive of the constitutional charter; and, on the morning of the 26th of July, 
1830, three royal ordinances were issued; — the first dissolving the newly-elected 
Chamber of Deputies, the second arbitrarily altering the mode of election, and the 
third suspending the freedom of the press. To all who were acquainted with the 
popular feeling, it was apparent that these arbitraiy measures, so subversive of 
popular rights, could only be executed by force, and yet no preparations had been 
made for this. So blind and infatuated were the king and his Minister.'^, that they 
did not dream of any resistance on the part of the people. The king went on a 
hunting excursion, and the Prince de Polignac gave a splendid dinner to his col- 
leagues. In the evening, mobs collected in Paris, lamps were demolished, the 
windows of Prince de Polignac's hotel were broken, and cries of " Down with the 
Ministry!" and "The Charter forever!" were heard. 

Commencement of the Revolution, July 27th, 1830. — On the morning of 
the 27th (July, 1830), in defiance of the royal ordinance suspending the liberty of 
tl E press, the conductors of the Liberal journals in Paris printed and distributed 
their papers as usual ; but their types were soon seized and their presses broken by 
the police. Marshal Marmont, who was placed in chief command of the Govern- 
ment troops, endeavored to assist the police in preserving order, and the Ministry 
declared Paris in a state of siege. The streets were kept clear by the guards for 
the greater part of the day; and Marshal Marmont wrote to the king that quiet was 



362 MODERN HISTORY. 

restored; but during the night, the citizens demolished the lamps, procured arms, 
and barricaded the streets with paving stones torn up for tlie purpose. 

Street Fighting on July 28th — Appearance of the Tri-color. — On the 
morning of July 28th, the streets of Paris were filled with armed citizens, who raised 
the glorious tri-colored flag in every direction. Tliey carried with trifling loss the 
detached guard-houses, the arsenal, and the powder magazine. At nine o'clock, 
the tricolor was seeen to wave from the spire of the Church of Notre Dame, and 
tX eleven from the central tower of the Hotel de Ville. Carriages and omnibuses 
were thrown on the sides of the streets, to obstruct the passage of the troops. The 
troops were exposed to a severe fire from the windows, barricades, and street cor- 
ners. Tiles and stones were hurled upon them from the tops of houses; while oil 
and boiling water were showered upon them from the windows. The king and, his 
Ministers and Marshal Marmont were greatly surprised when they discovered that 
what they had at first considered merely a riot had assumed the formidable aspect 
of a revolution. During the night, the pavements were torn up, and the trees in 
the Boulevards cut down, to raise obstructions for the passage of the troops. 

July 29th — General Lafayette and the National Guard — Triumph of 
the People. — The contest was renewed with terrible fury on the morning of July 
29th; and General Lafayette appeared among the insurgents, and assumed the 
command of the National Guard. At noon, several regiments of the line deserted 
to the people. Thus reinforced, the mob stormed the Louvre and the Tuileries, 
from the windows of which they opened a tremendous fire upon the Swiss and 
royal guards. The brave defenders of the throne, unable to make any further 
resistance to the populace, succeeded only with great difficulty in effecting a retreat ; 
and, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the Paris Revolution of July ended in the 
complete triumph of the people. The Ministers now resigned their offices, and the 
king signed an order for the repeal of the obnoxious ordinances ; but it was too 
late. The Parisians had already resolved that Charles X. should no longer reign. 
The Deputies to the new Chambers in Paris organized a provisional government, 
and decreed that the National Guard sliould be reorganized, and placed under the 
command of that consistent friend of rational freedom, the Marquis de Lafayette. 

Abdication and Flight of Charles X. — On the 31st of July (1830), Louis 
Philippe, Duke of Orleans, son of Philip Egalite, accepted the office of Lieutenant- 
General of the French kingdom. On the 2d of August, Charles X. fonnally abdi- 
cated the throne of France, and his son, the Dauphin, resigned his rights in favor 
of the king's infant grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. No attention was paid to 
these proceedings. The Paris mob prepared to march in thousands to Rambouillet, 
to which place Charles had retired ; but he did not wait for their coming. Recol- 
lecting too well the awful period of 17S9, when another Paris mob marched to 
Versailles, he fled to England, and for a time took up his residence in llolyrood 
palace, near Edinburgh. He afterwards went to Germany, and died at Goritz, in 
Austria, in November, 1836. 

Louis Philippe, " King of the French." — In the meantime, the newly electftd 
French Chambers assembled in Paris, and, after some debate, it was determined 
that the Government of France should remain a limited monarchy; and the crown 
was conferred on the Duke of Orleans, who, on the 9th of August, 1830, took the 
oath to support the constitutional charter, and ascended the throne of France, with 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



363 



the title of " Louis Philippe I., King of the French." Louis Philippe owed his 
elevation chiefly to the venerable Lafayette, who, believing the French people still 
unfit for a republic, preferred "a throne surrounded with republican institutions." 
Presenting the new citizen-king to the people, in front of the Chambers, Lafayette 
exclaimed, " Now we have the best of republics!" 

THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION (ISSO). 

Consequences of the Paris Revolution of July. — The Paris Revolution 
of July, 1S30, occasioned a violent shock throughout Europe, and gave the death- 
blow to the Holy Alliance. Revolutionary movements occurred in Belgium, Poland, 
Germany, and Italy, which alarmed absolute monarchs, and threatened consequences 
fatal to the general tranquillity of Europe. 

The Union of Holland and Belgium— Dutch Oppression of the Bel- 
gians. — The effects of the July Revolution of Paris first displayed* themselves in 
Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, in utter disregard of differences in 
language, religion, and interests, had united Holland and Belgium into one mon- 
archy, designated "The Kingdom of the Netherlands," under the government of a 
prince of the House of Orange or Nassau. From the time of the incorporation of 
Belgium with Holland, the Belgians sufiered the most unmitigated oppression from 
the Dutch king; and the Hollanders endeavored to force their own language, laws, 
and religion upon the Belgians. The Protestant courts were entrusted with the 
supervision of the education of the Catholic youth in Belgium. When the Belgian 
press denounced the conduct of the Dutch Government, the writers were fined, im- 
prisoned, or banished from the country. The alliance of the Belgian Liberal party 
with the Catholic Ultramontane party was designated by the Dutch king, in his 
speech from the throne, as " infamous." 

Insurrection of Brussels — Declaration of Belgian Independence. — 
Thinking the opportunity favorable, and encouraged by the success of the Paris 
Revolution of July, the people of Brussels rose in insurrection, on the 25th of August, 
1830, and, after an obstinate struggle of four days, expelled the Dutch authorities 
and garrison from the city. The movement spread rapidly, and in a short time, the 
whole of Belgimn was in revolt against the authority of the King of Holland. The 
Dutch were repulsed in an attack upon Brussels, and the Belgian insurgents pro- 
ceeded against Antwerp, to drive the Dutch from that city. Thereupon the Dutch 
general Chasse retired into the citadel with his troops, and cannonaded the town for 
several hours, thus destroying an immense amount of valuable property. Tl: is pro- 
ceeding caused much exasperation in Belgium; and, on the 14th of October ( 1830), 
the Belgian National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the 
exclusion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. 

European Conference in London — Separation of Belgium from Ilol- 
and. — While the war between the Dutch and the Belgians was in progress, (lie 
fepi ssentatives of the five great powers — Great Britain, France, Austria, Prusiia 
and Russia — held a conference in London, where, after long diplomatic negotial ion. 
tl was determined to separate Belgium from Holland. 

Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, " King of the Belgians." — Prince I<eo- 
pold of Saxe-Coburg, a relative of the English royal family, and who was shortly 



364 MODERN HISTORY. 

afterwards married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French, received 
the crown of Belgium, with the title of " Leopold L, King of the Belgians." The 
King of Holland vainly attempted to subdue the Belgians, who were now aided by 
England and France. On the 24th of December, 1S32, the Dutch army which had 
held possession of Antwerp was compelled to surrender to the French army under 
Marshal Gerard. Leopold granted his subjects a liberal constitution, and the sepa- 
ration of the Chtlrch from the State. Since her separation from Holland, Belgium 
has prospereed wonderfully in every branch of industry and social improvement 

POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1S80, 1831. 

TTie Kingdom of Poland — The Archduke Constantine— Russian Ty- 
ranny. — The Congress of Vienna, in 1S15, erected Poland into a kingdom, with a 
Diet and a constitution of its own ; but the sovereign power of the kingdom was 
vested in the Czar of Russia, under the title of " King of Poland." The Poles were 
soon disappointed in the hopes which they had entertained that the Emperor Alex- 
ander would protect them in the enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted 
ihem by the new constitution. Before long, the principal offices in Poland were 
filled with Russians ; the article of the new constitution granting freedom of the 
press was annulled; and publicity of debate in the Polish Diet was abolished. On 
the death of the Emperor Alexander I., in 1825, and the accession of his brother 
Nicholas to the throne of Russia, the nominal administration of affairs in Poland 
was intrusted to a Pole ; but all the real power was invested in the Archduke Con- 
stantine, the brother of the emperor-king. Constantine was an unscrupulous tyrant. 
His despotic and cruel course revived the old spirit of Polish freedom and nation- 
ality; and the successful revolutions in France and Belgium, in 1830, urged the 
Poles to a rebellion against the Russian power. Secret organizations were formed, 
whose object was to bring about the restoration of Polish independence, and the re- 
union, under one government, of those portions of Poland which had been absorbed 
by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 

Insurrection at Warsaw, — On the evening of the 29th of November, 1830, 
the students of the Cadet School, at Warsaw, attempted to seize Constantine, while 
another party summoned tlie people to arms. Constantine escaped from Poland, 
after a severe conflict, in which several hundred of his guards were killed. The 
insurgents forced the arsenal at Warsaw, and before the close of the day, 40,000 
men were in arms. The insurgent Poles established a provisional government, with 
Adam Czartoryski, General Chlopiki,and others, at its head; and great enthusiasm 
prevailed in the Polish capital. 

Russian Invasion of Poland — Polish Successes. — The provisional govern 
ment at Warsaw appointed Chlopiki dictator, and the Polish Diet, which was hastily 
assembled, invested Prince Radzivil with absolute power; but the Polish aristocracy, 
alarmed at the violence of the republican and democratic clubs at Warsaw, opposed 
I'veiy attempt to excite a popular war. The Diet pronounced the deposition of the 
[rincely House of Romanoff m Poland; and, on the 5th of P'ebruary, 1831, after 
two mrnths of unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the Czar Nicholas rejecting rill 
terms but unconditional submission on the part of the Poles, a Russian army of 
200,000 men, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, appeared in Poland, 
An indecisive action occurred on the 5th (February, 1831); and on the 25(h, ades- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^ge 

perate engagement occurred between 40,000 Poles, under Prince Ridzivil, and 
100,000 Russians, and when the shades of night closed the combat, the dead bodies 
of 10,000 Russians covered the sanguinary field. On the night of the 31st of March 
(1S31), the Polish army, under General Slvrzynecki, fought and routed 20,000 Rus- 
sians. The Poles rapidly followed up their advantages, and before the close of 
April, the Russian forces were driven out of Poland. 

Battle of Ostrolenka. — After concentrating his forces at Minsk, Skrzynecki 
crossed the Bug, and advanced to Ostrolenka, where his army, led by CIcneral Bern, 
encountered an army of 60,000 Russians, on the 26th of May. The carnage was 
frightful. No quarter was given by either party. The Poles were defeated with 
the loss of 5000 men. The victorious Russians also lost heavily, and three of theii 
generals were among the slain. 

Dissensions among the Poles. — Owing to the dissensions among the Polish 
leaders, the insurrection rapidly declined in strength after the battle of Ostrolenka. 
In June, both Field-MarRhal Diebitsch and the Archduke Constantine met with 
sudden deaths. The populace of Warsaw ascribed the failure of the revolution to 
treachery on the part of the aristocracy, thirty of whom were sacrificed to the popular 
fury. The Polish dictator, Czartoryski, the successor of Chlopiki, fled in terror to 
General Dembinski's camp, whereupon the Polish Diet invested Krukowiecki with 
the supreme power. 

Fall of Warsaw. — At length, a Russian army of 100,000 men, under the com- 
mand of General Paskiewitsch, advanced on Warsaw. At Wola, the ancient place 
of the election of the Polish kings, the attacks of the Russians were repulsed. On 
the 6th of September, 1831, after two days of furious assaults, during which 20,000 
Russians and 10,000 Poles laid down their lives, the cowardly dictator, Kruko- 
wiecki, surrendered Warsaw and Praga to Paskiewitsch. The main body of the 
Polish army retreated from Warsaw, and soon afterward dispersed. 

Submission of Poland — Flight and Exile of Polish Leaders. — The fall 
of Warsaw was the death-blow to the insurrection, and unfortunate Poland again 
groaned under the iron heel of Russian despotism. Many of the Polish insurgents 
retired into voluntaiy exile in foreign lands; and thousands of those who remained 
and fell into the hands of the Russians, including generals, soldiers, and nobles, were 
consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia. 

Incorporation of Poland with the Russian Empire. — Poland was deprived 
of her Constitution, her Diet, and her State Council, by the "Organic Statute," and 
Incoqiorated with the Russian Empire, with a separate government and adminis- 
tration of justice; and Polish nationality and independence seemed extinguished. 

INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY AND ITALY (1831). 

The Germanic Confederation — Insurrections in Hanover, Saxony, and 
Hesse-Cassel. — The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, united the Germanic state:s 
into one league entitled "The Germanic Confederation." The German portions of 
the gjTat Austrian and Prussian monarchies were embraced in this confederation. 
The affairs of the confederation were managed by a Diet composed of representa 
lives of the states of Germany. In this Diet the representaiive of Austria presided. 
The Paris revolution of July also occasioned some revolutionary movements \% 



366 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

Germany. The insurrections which took place in Hanover, Saxony, and Ilesse- 
Cassel, in 1831, resulted in the establishment of liberal constitutions in those states. 
In Brunswick, the constitution was improved, after the expulsion of the despotic 
Duke Charles, and the assumption of the government of the Duchy by his brother. 
Insurrections in Italy Suppressed by the Austrians — French Coup 
de Main. — The success of the July Revolution of Paris roused the hberals in Italy 
to action, but their efforts resulted in defeat. Insurrections which broke out in 
Hologna, Parma, and Modena, were suppressed by Austrian troops, and the regent? 
who had been expelled from the latter two states were restored to their governmenli. 
In the Papal States, the bandits and convicts who were employed in keeping down 
the revolutionists, conducted themselves in so shameful a manner, that the Austrian 
troops marched into that section to protect the country against its own soldiers. To 
prevent the Austrians from establishing their own supremacy in the Papal territory 
the French, by a " Coup de Main," seized upon Ancona, which they held for several 
years. A band of refugees, under the Polish general Ramorino, made an unsuc- 
cessful attempt upon Sardinia, from Switzerland, with the view of exciting all Italy 
to revolution. 

ENGLISH REFORMS (1828-1832). 

Reign of George IV. — Abolition of the Test Act — Catholic Emancipa- 
tion Act. — King George III., who during the last ten years of his life was an 
imbecile, died in January, 1S20, after a reign of sixty years, — the longest reign in 
the annals of England, — and left his crown to his profligate son, George IV., who 
had acted as Prince Regent during his father's imbecility. During the whole of 
the reign of George IV., the British nation was agitated by the question of reform 
in the representation in Parliament. The then-nominal disabilities imposed 
upon Non-conformists, were removed by the abolition of the Test Act by Parlia- 
ment, in 1828. The Catholic Emancipation Act, which allowed Roman Catholics, 
to sit in Parliament, was passed in 1829. 

Accession of William IV. — The Wellington Ministry — The Grey Min- 
istry. — King George IV. died in June, 1830; and his brother, the Duke of 
Clarence, succeeded to the throne of Great Britain, with the title of William IV. 
On the accession of William IV. the British Government was in the hands of the 
T<3ry party, with the great Duke of Wellington as Prime-Minister. As public sen- 
timent in Great Britain was in favor of reform in the constitution of Parliament 
the Tory Ministry of Lord Wellington was obliged to resign, the same year, and a 
Whig Ministry, under Lord Grey, came into power. 

Defeat of Lord John Russell's Reform Bill — Dissolution of Parlia- 
ment. — On the 1st of March, 1831, Lord John Russell presented a measure of 
reform in Parliament. After some stormy debates, the bill passed the House 
of Commons on a second reading, but was lost on a third reading. The Ministry 
then dissolved Parliament, and ordered new elections to better ascertain the 
sense of the nation. The result of the elections was that the friends if reform were 
returned to seats in Parliament by all the large constituencies. 

First Rejection of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords— Great 
Riots. — The new Parliament was opened on the 14th of June, 1831. The reform 




QUEEN VICTORIA. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



367 



bill was passed by the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. 
The consequences of this action of the House of Lords were great riots in London, 
Nottingham, Derby, and Bristol. In Bristol, much property was destroyed, and 
many lives were sacrificed ; but the chief rioters were arrested, tried, convicted, aniJ 
executed. 

Second Rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords — Course of the 
People, — Lord John Russell again brought forward a reform bill in Parliament, 
on the 1 2th of December, 1831. The bill passed the House of Commons, on the 
23d of March, 1832, but was again defeated in the House of Lords. On tiiC refusal 
of the king to create a number of peers sufficient to secure the passage cf the mea- 
sure, the Ministry of Earl Grey resigned. The people formed political unions, 
refused payment of taxes, and demanded the reinstatement of Earl Grey's Cabinet;. 
The king accordingly reinstated Earl Grey's Ministry, and creatpd enough new 
peers to insure the passage of the Reform Bill through the House of Lords. 

Passage of the Reform Bill — Triumph of the Cause of Freedom. — The 
Lords who were opposed to the Reform Bill, left their seats in Parliament when 
the measure was again introduced. The bill was passed through both Houses, and 
received the royal assent on the 7th of June, 1832. By this bloodless revolution 
and triumph of the cause of popular freedom, the right of suffrage was extended to 
half a million additional voters; and the middle classes of English society were 
invested with supreme political power in the British Empire. In 1833, Parlia- 
ment passed an act abolishing slaveiy in the British West-India Islands. 

Accession of Queen Victoria — England and Hanover — Victoria's Mar- 
riage. — In June, 1837, King William IV. died, and was succeed-ed on the British 
throne by his niece, Alexandra Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and grand- 
daughter of George HI. One result of the accession of a female to the throne of 
Great Britain was the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover, after a 
union of more than a century. The Salic Law prevailing in Hanover, the Duke 
of Cumberland, Queen Victoria's uncle, ascended the throne of that German king- 
dom. In February, 1 840, her majesty, Queen Victoria, was married to a Germafr 
prince, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Since the accession of Queen Victoria, 
the British Empire has enjoyed unrivaled prosperity. 

SPANISH CIVIL WAR OF 1833-39. 

Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII. — Abolition of the Salic Law in 
Spain. — King Ferdinand VII. of Spain, during whose reign the Spanish-American 
colonies erected themselves Into independent republics, after a long and bloody 
struggle with the mother country, ruled in the most despotic manner, suppressing 
every germ of constitutional freedom. For the purpose Of securing the succession 
to the Spanish throne to his daughter Isabella, to the exclusion of his younger 
brother, Don Carlos, Ferdinand VII., abolished the Salic Law, which had prevaildl 
in all Bourbon kingdoms. 

Civil War in Spain — Restoration of the Cortes Constitution of 1812.— 
When I-erdinand VII. died, in 1833, and his daughter, Isabella II., succeeded to 
the throne of Spain, the Carlists, as the adherents of Don Carlos were called, who 
were numerous in the North of Spain, took up arms, and involved the Spanish king- 



,68 MODERN HISTORY. 

•a 

dom in civil war. For the purpose of securing the liberal party in Spain to the 
support of the young queen, the queen-mother, Maria Christina, who acted as regent 
during her daughter's minority, restored the Cortes Constitution of 1812. 

Defeat of the Carlists — Capitulation of Moreto and End of the Civil 
War. — The friends of absolute monarchy sided with Don Carlos. Many bloody 
battles were fought; and the queen-mother received aid from England an-, f ranee. 
A fter the civil war had lasted six years, and about 300,000 lives had bee r. sacrificed, 
the Carlists were subdued. In August, 1840, General Espartero compelled the 
Carlist general Maroto to lay down his arms by capitulation ; and thus broutrht 
about the general pacification of the Spanish kingdom. 

Espartero and the Queen-Mother — Insurrections in Spain. — General 
Espartero quarrelled with the queen-mother soon after the close of the civil war, 
and after removing her from the regency, in 1841, he obtained control of the Gov- 
ernment; but vv^as overthrown in 1843, by General Narvaez, and obliged to seek 
refuge in England, whereupon the queen-mother recovered her lost authority. In 
1853, a rebellion broke out in Spain in consequence of the despotic measures of the 
Government; and in 1854, an insurrection in Madrid compelled the queen-mother 
to flee, whereupon a provisional government under Espartero was formed; but 
Queen Isabella II. afterwards secured control of the Government. 

DISSENSIONS IN THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. 

Mehemet AH, Pacha of Egypt — Massacre of the Mamelukes — Con- 
quests of Mehemet Ali. — Mehemet Ali, who became Pacha of Egypt in 1805, 
and who fully established his power by his treacherous massacre of the Mameluke 
chiefs in 181 1, did much for the advancement and prosperity of Egypt. In 1818, 
Mehemet Ali subdued the Wahawbees, a Mohammedan sect in Arabia; in 1819 
and 1820, he conquered Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Dongola; and in 1824, 
he sent his son, Ibrahim Pacha, with an army to aid the Sultan, his master, in 
suppressing the Greek Revolution. 

Mehemet Ali's First Rebellion against the Sultan — Russian Inter- 
vention. — In 1 83 1, Mehemet Ali rebelled against his master, the Sultan of Turkey ; 
and his son, Ibrahim Pacha, invaded Syria, took Acre by siege, and marched in a 
rapid course of victories toward Constantinople; and the Ottoman Empire was only 
saved from destruction by the timely intervention of the Czar Nicholas of Russia in 
behalf of the Sultan, in 183 1. 

Mehemet Ali's Second Rebellion — ^European Aid to the Sultan. — In 
1839, Mehemet Ali again took up arms against the Sultan. Ibrahim Pacha again in- 
vaded Syria and defeated the Ottoman forces; but England, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia came to the Sultan's rescue. The British navy bombarded and took Beyrout 
and Acre; and in 1841, the rebellious Pacha of Egypt was forced to accept a rea-e 
•yWch left the province of Syria in the Sultan's possession. 

GROWTH OF THE ANGLO-INDIAN EMPIRE. 

England's Opium War v^ith China — Treaty of Nankin. — The seizure and 
destruction, by the Chinese authorities, of large quantities of opium smuggled into 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^gp 

Cl.inese cities by British merchants, led to a war between England and China, at 
the close of 1839. The Chinese were thoroughly humbled; their great cities, Amoy, 
Canton, and Ningpo, were taken; and by the treaty of Nankin, on the 29th of 
August, 1842, China was required to pay to England twenty- one million pounds 
steiling for the expenses of the war; to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great 
Dritain; and to open five of her principal ports to the commerce of Christendom. 
The Afghanistan War — Disastrous Retreat of the Anglo-Indian Army, 
'•-The British Empire in India has been greatly enlarged during the present ecu 
Uiiy. The English East-India Company acquired additional territories by a suc- 
cessful war against the Burmese, in 1824 and 1825; and in 1839, under the 
erroneous impression that Russia intended to attack England's Indian Empire, an 
Anglo-Indian army was marched into Afghanistan. The invading army took Can- 
dahar, entered Cabul, the Afghan capital, deposed Dost Mohampied, the reigning 
Afghan sovereign, and raised Shah Soojah to the Afghan throne. On the 2d of 
November, 1841, a fierce rebellion, headed by Akbar Khan, son of the deposed 
Dost Mohammed, broke out at Cabul. The British ministers and many of the 
military commanders were put to death. Shah Soojah was dethroned, and Dost 
Mohammed was raised to the Afghan throne.. Finding themselves in the midst of 
a hostile people, the English made a disastrous retreat. The British troops and 
camp-followers, women and children, numbering 26,000 persons, were nearly all 
killed, or made captives. In the following year (1842), an Anglo-Indian army, 
under General Pollock, marched into Afghanistan, gained some victories, and then 
retired. 

War with the Ameers of Scinde — Battle of Hyderabad — Annexation 
of Scinde. — The treacherous conduct of the Ameers of Scinde toward the Eng- 
lish, brought an Anglo-Indian army, under Sir Charles Napier, into their territory. 
The Ameers were defeated in the bloody battle of Hyderabad; and the result of 
the short contest was the annexation of their territory, Scinde, to the British Empire 
in India. 

Mahratta War — Battles of Maharajpore and Punniar — Annexation of 
Gwalior. — During the year 1843, the Mahrattas, who had also taken up arms 
against the English, were defeated in the battles of Maharajpore and Punniar, and 
their territory, Gwalior, was annexed to the English-Indian territories. 

First Sikh War — Battle of Moodkee — Battles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, 
and Sobraon. — In 1844, the Sikhs in the Punjab began a war against the East- 
India Company. The English defeated the Sikhs in the bloody battles of Feroz- 
eshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon. In the battle of Sobraon, the Sikhs lost 10,000 men 
in killed and wounded, and the English over 2,000 men. Peace was made in 
December, 1846. 

Second Sikh War— Battles of Chenah, ChilHanwallah, and Goojerat— 
Annexation of the Punjab. — Another war broke out between the English and 
fehe Sikhs in 1848. The Sikhs were defeated in the battles of Chenah, ChilHan- 
wallah, and Goojerat, in consequence of which their territory, the Punjab, was 
annexed to the British-Indian Empire, in 1849. 
24 



jyo MODERN HISTORY. 

EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-49. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. 

Peaceful Reign of Louis Philippe— Attempts of Louis Napoleon Bona- 
parte. — Under Louis Philippe, the Citizen- King, the P^-ench nation prospered, and, 
with the exception of the seventeen years' war with the Arab tribes of Algiers, 
remained at peace with all the world. Insurrections which broke out in Paris and 
LyDn.«, in the early part of this reign, were easily suppressed. In October, 1836, 
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the great Emperor Napoleon I., 
attempted to raise an insurrection at .Strasburg, to overthrow the government of 
Louis Philippe. In August, 1840, Louis Napoleon landed at Boulogne, and made 
another attempt to excite an insurrection in France, but he was seized and impris- 
oned for several years. In 1840, the remains of the great Napoleon were brought 
from St. Helena to Paris, and placed in the Hotel des Invalides. By the surrender 
of the indefatigable Arab chieftain, Abdel-Kader, in 1847, ^^e conquest of Algiers 
by the French was accomplished. 

Character of Louis Philippe's Government. — Louis Philippe received his 
main support from the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and was opposed by the Ultra- 
Republicans, and also by the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the 
Bourbons. As Louis Philippe grew old, he became ambitious, and set about schemes 
for the aggrandizement of his family, and the establishment of a dynasty founded 
upon the principles of the ancient despotism. He practically ignored the constitu- 
tional charter by corrupting both branches of the French legislature. With won- 
derful good fortune, Louis Philippe escaped eight attempts at assassination ; that 
by means of the "infernal machine," contrived by the Corsican Fieschi, resulting 
in the death of forty-two persons near the king. 

The Ministry of M. Guizot. — In 1840, the Ministry of M. Thiers gave place 
to a new Cabinet, at the head of which was M. Guizot. The government of M. 
Guizot was characterized by pride, tyranny, and a series of encroachments on the 
liberties of the French people. The efforts of M. Guizot were directed chiefly to 
the strengthening of the royal prerogative. Guizot persevered in his despotic policy, 
until the latent fires of popular disaffection broke forth in the Paris Revolution of 
February, 1848, which cost Louis Philippe his throne. 

Reform Banquets Forbidden by the Government. — During the latter part 
of 1847, ^"^^ ii^ the beginning of 1848, numerous reform banquets were held in 
different parts of France. Arrangements were made for the holding of one in one of 
the arrondissements of Paris, on the 22d of February, 1848, Washington's birth-day; 
but the Ministry issued a proclamation forbidding it, and made preparations to sup- 
press it by military force if it were attempted. The Chambers of Deputies, then in 
session, warmly discussed the arbitrary measures of the Government, and the oppo- 
sition members resolved upon the impeachment of the Ministers. 

Commencement of the Revolution, February 22d, 1848. — The reform 
banquet arranged for the 22d of Februaiy, 1848, was not held ; but, on the morning 
of that day, large crowds collected in Paris, blocked up the avenues leading to tlio 
legislative Chambers, and made offensive demonstrations before the house of M. 
Guizot. About noon, a large crowd assembled in front of the Church of the Made- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 371 

Jeine, but were easily dispersed by the troops. In the evening, disturbances began 
in the French capital: gunsmiths' shops were broken open; lamps were extin- 
guished; barricades were erected ; guards were attacked ; and the streets were filled 
with soldiers. In the Chambers, Odillon Barrot moved an impeachment of the 
Prime-Minister. 

Street Fighting on February 23d — Dismissal of the Guizot Cabinet. — 
On the morning of February 23d, the streets of Paris were filled with large cniwds 
,*f people, barricades were erected, and some fighting occurred between the people 
.in.l the troops, in which several persons were killed. In obedience to the request 
of the National Guards, who fraternized with the people, the king dismissed the 
Ministry of M. Guizot, and called on Count Mole to fonn a new Cabinet. This 
artion of the king produced a lull; but the wanton discharge of musketry upon a 
large crowd, by the guards assembled before M. Guizot's hotel, by which fifty-two 
persons were killed and wounded, again excited the fury of tlie populace, vv'ho 
paraded through the streets with a bier covered with dead bodies, crying " To arms !" 
"Down with the assassins!" "Down with Louis Philippe!" "Down with the 
Bourbons !" 

February 24th— Abdication of Louis Philippe — France a Republic. — 
On the morning of February 24th, the whole city of Paris was in possession of the 
people. At the Chateau d' Eau, a large stone building in front of the Palais Royal, 
a severe fight occurred between the people and the municipal guards, and the 
chateau was demolished by fire. The mob then marched to the Tuileries, 
and demanded the abdication of the king. Louis Philippe signed an abdication 
in favor of his grandson, the young Count of Paris, but the Chambers would not 
accept the young prince, and Louis Philippe and his family fled to Neuilly, from 
which place they made their escape to England. The royal furniture was thrown 
out of the windows of the Tuileries and burned, the wines in the royal cellars were 
distributed among the multitude, the throne was carried through the streets, and 
finally burned on the Place de la Bastile, and the royal carriages were burned at 
the Chateau d' Eau. Overwhelmed by the mob, and amid the greatest confusion 
and shouts of " Vive la Republique !" the sturdy republican, Dupont de 1' Eure, was 
carried to the chair in the Chamber of Deputies, where a provisional government 
was proclaimed, consisting of the following persons: M. Lamartine, Emanuel Arago, 
Ledru Rollin. Garnier Pages, Dupont de 1' Eure, Lamoriciere, Cavaignac, and De- 
coutrias. The Provisional Government was installed at the Hotel de Ville, and 
proclaimed The Second French Republic. The Chamber of Peers was immedi- 
ately abolished. The poet, M. Lamartine, was the master-spirit of the new govern- 
ment. Every citizen of France was made an elector, and twenty-five years of age 
constituted elegibility for office ; the penalty of death for political offences was im- 
mediately abolished; and all slaves on territory subject to France were declared free. 

Doings of France's New Rulers — National Workshops. — On the 4th of 
March, 1848, the victims of the Revolution of February were solemnly interred, in 
!he presence of nearly half a million of people, at the foot of a monument erected 
to the memory of the victims of the Revolution of July, 1830. France's new rulers 
directed their first efforts to the reestablishment of order ; and many grievences of 
which the people complained were removed. Fetes, parades, and illununations 
were given daily for the public amusement. But the spirit of anarchy an^' restless- 



-73 



MODERN HISTORY. 



ness was uow rife for another insurrection. As the Revolution had been the work 
of the laboring classes, efforts were now taken by the Provisional Government to 
better their condition. National workshops were established in Paris, wtere the 
idle could find employment. 

Attempted Revolutionary Risings. — The Moderate and Red Republicans 
had united to overturn the throne of Louis Philippe, but no sooner had the Repub 
lie been proclaimed than the animosity between those two parties broke forth anew 
and when the Reds perceived that the control of public affairs was in the hands of 
the Moderate party, they began to conspire for another revolution. The first open 
opposition to the Provisional Government was made on the l6th of April (184S), 
the object of the movement being the overthrow of the Provisional Government, 
and the establishment of a Committee of Safety for the direction of public affairs. 
This movement, and a rising of the various clubs df Paris, were easily suppressed. 
Bloody riots occurred on the 23d and 24th of April (1848), the days for the election 
of members for a permanent National Assembly. 

A French National Assembly. — The elections throughout France resulted in 
large majoritii^s for the Moderate Republicans; and on the 5th of May (1S48), 
the newly-elected National Assembly met in Paris, and organized with the election 
of M. Buchez as president. On the following day (May 6, 1848), the members of 
the Provisional Government submitted their reports to the National Assembly and 
resigned their powers. On the loth, the National Assembly appointed M. Eman- 
uel Arago, Gamier Pages, M. Marie, M. Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin, an execu- 
tive committee to act in place of the Provincial Government. 

Communist Insurrection of May 15th. — On the 15th of May, 1848, an 
immense mob assembled in the streets of Paris, proceeded to the hall of the National 
Assembly, drove out the members, and proclaimed Socialism and Communism, the 
imposition of taxes upon the rich for the benefit of the poor, and the restoration of 
the guillotine. The mob also declared that France should send an army to Poland to 
drive the Russian troops from that country, and a heavy tax was levied on the rich 
to carry on the war for Poland. The mob also appointed an executive government 
composed of the Communist leaders, M. Barbes, Blanqui, Flocon, Cabet, Albert, 
Raspail, and Louis Blanc. This movement would doubtless have resulted in the 
most serious consequences, had not the National Guard declared for the National 
Assembly, dispersed the mob at the point of the bayonet, and restored order. The 
Communist leaders, Blanqui, Barbes, Raspail, Sobrier, and Albert, were arrested 
and imprisoned. 

The Great Communist Rebellion of June. — The insurrection of May 15th 
was only a prelude to the great Communist Rebellion of June. Fearing another 
demonstration on an extensive scale, the Government made the necessary prepara- 
tions to meet it. Finding the burdens imposed upon the national treasuiy too heavy 
to be borne, the Government, in June, resolved upon the discharge of the immense 
army of workmen, more than 100,000 in number, uselessly employed in Paiis a<. 
the public expense. This alarmed the workmen, who immediately organized foi 
another desperate struggle, for the purpose of bringing about the realization ir 
practice of the absurd theory of Communism and Socialism, — a community of goods 
and mannars. The party of law and order, which controlled the National Assem- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



373 



bly, were resolved upon the complete annihilation of the Communist faction in the 
event of another appeal to arms. On the 27d of June (1848), a deputation of five 
delegates, appointed by the workmen, called on M. Marie, the Prime-Minister of 
the Republic. After a short conference, the deputation returned to the workmen, 
assuring them that they had nothing to expect from the Government. This was the 
signal lor riotous demonstrations. Large crowds collected, in the evening, at the 
Hotel de Ville, the Place de la Bastile, and other important points, crying f jr the 
Juwnl ill of the Republic, and the elevation of Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparlr 
to the thione of France. On the following morning, June 23d, it was found that 
the rioters had made considerable progress, and thrown up barricades in various 
portions of the city. The principal insurgent barricades were in the Rue St. Denis, 
Rue du Faubourg St. Denis, Rue Villeneuve Bourbon, Rue de Clery, and near 
the Porte St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin. The Government.appointed General 
Cavaignac, then Minister of Wa"", commander-in-chief of all the troops in Paris. 
The barricades near the Porte St. Denis were carried at the point of the bayonet. 
The insurgents there were aided by boys, and even by women, who appeared on the 
barricades, waving flags and other emblems. On the 24th, the National Assembly 
declared Paris in a state of siege, and appointed General Cavaignac dictator. A 
heavy musketry and artillery fire continued during the greater part of the day, and 
before evening, the rebellion was suppressed on the left bank of the Seine, but a 
sanguinary struggle took place at the Clos St. Lazarre, on the right bank. The con- 
fiict raged with great fury during the 25th. The Government troops numbered 
300,000 men, and the insurgents 120,000. A terrible struggle raged at the Pantheon, 
where the rebel barricades were captured, after frightful carnage. In the evening 
of this day, occuired one of the saddest events in this unhappy civil war. Monseig- 
neur Affre, Archbishop of Paris, appeared at the Place de la Bastile, for the lauda- 
ble purpose of bringing about a pacification. On the appearance of the noble 
prelate, both parties, for a while, ceased firing, but suddenly recommenced, and 
the venerable Archbishop received a mortal wound, and expired on the morning 
of the 27th. On the morning of the 26th, the struggle was renewed with terrible 
fierceness, the principal scenes of action being the Faubourg St. Antoine, the Place 
Maubert, and the vicinity of the Pantheon. At noon, the insurgents at the Faubourg 
St. Antoine surrendered, but the other places were stormed, and the insurgent gar- 
risons of each were killed or captured. The insurgent barricade at the corner of 
the Rue de la Roquette was attacked by the Government troops, under General 
Lamoriciere, after having carried all the rebel barricades in the Faubourg du Tem- 
ple. From the Place de le Bastile, Lamoriciere's troops bombarded and cannon- 
aded the insurgent works, when the falling of shells on some of the adjoining houses, 
several of which were set on fire, so frightened the insurgents that they fled out ol 
the city. Thus ended the great Rebellion of the Paris Communists, in June, 1848 
Never before had Paris witnessed such slaughter as during these four sanguinary days. 
The number of killed and wounded is not definitely known, but 25,000 is noi 
probably a very high estimate. One-fourth of the city was ruined. Several days 
were occupied in burying the dead, and in repairing the damage inflicted on the 
city. On the 29th (June, 1848), General Cavaignac resigned his dictatorship into 
the 1 lands of the National Assembly, and that body then appointed him Chief- 
Executive of France. 



374 



MODERN HISTORY. 



A New Constitution — Louis Napoleon Elected President of France.— 

On the 4th of November, 184S, the French National Assembly, by a vote of 739 
in favor, lud 30 in opposition, adopted a Constitution, giving France a republican 
form of government, with one Legislative Assembly, and vesting the executive 
])0\ver in a President, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. 
The candidates for the Presidency were General Cavaignac, General Changarnier, 
M. '^imartine, Raspail, Ledru Rollin, Louis Blanc, and Charles Louis Napoleon 
ti n i-'uarte. To the surprise of all, the Presidential election resulted in the choice 
ol Louis Napoleon, by a clear majority of 3,556,400 against all the othei candidarc.'i 
combined. The President-elect was sworn into office on the 20th of December^ 
1 8-] 8, in the presence of the Assembly, by M. Marrast, President of that body. 

REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND PRUSSIA. 

Consequences of the Paris Revolution of February. — The Revolution uf 
February, 1848, in Paris, was the signal for general popular risings in Germany, 
Italy, and Hungary, which countries had long been disturbed by political and social 
agitation; and concessions which had been vainly demanded for thirty years by the 
Liberal party in Germany, were now extorted from every German ruler within three 
weeks. 

Popular Movements in Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wur- 
temberg. — On the 29th of February, 1848, deputations from every town in the 
Grand-Duchy of Baden demanded of the Grand-Duke freedom of the press, trial 
by jury, the right of the people to bear arms and to meet in public, and a popular 
legislative assembly for all Germany, by the side of the Federal Diet at Frankfort-on- 
tne-Main. On the 2d of March, the Grand-Duke yielded to all these demands, ap- 
pomted a Ministry from the Liberal party, and adopted other conciliatory measures. 
Popular movements of a similar character took place in other parts of Germany. 
King Louis of Bavaria, after being forced to grant to his subjects the reforms which 
they had demanded, abdicated his throne in favor of the Crown- Prince Maximilian. 
The Kings of Hanover, Saxony, and Wurtemburg, granted to their subjects the 
concessions which they had demanded. In Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and other 
German States, the leaders of the popular party were called to the Ministry, and 
many beneficent reforms were introduced; but the popular movement assumed such 
formidable proportions that insurrection and revolution were entered upon in many 
portions of Germany. In many localities, the peasants drove away the stewards, 
and destroyed the land and tithe registers, and the seats of the landlords. 

The Vienna Revolution of March. — When the Diet of Lower Austria was 
opened at Vienna, on the 13th of March, 1848, a large concourse of people, headed 
by the students of the University, proceeded to the hall in which the Diet assembled, 
and demanded a constitution, liberty of the press, a National Guard, trial by jury, and 
religi'ius liberty. The order for the people to disperse not being obeyed, the Arch- 
duke Albert ordered the troops to fire into the crowd. A great number were kil.'"l 
and i/ounded, and the exasperation of the excited populace obliged the Austrian 
Eniperor to order the soldiers to withdraw. The arsenal was opened to the people 
by the city guards, who declared for the popular cause. The Ministry of Prince 
Metternich was overthrown, and in a few days the Emperor Ferdinand yielded tr. 
all the demands of the people. Lawlessness soon prevailed in the Austrian caplL-.l, 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 3 7 c 

and the result of the Hberty of the press was a disgraceful daily literature. Riots and 
irsurrections were of frequent occurrence. On the i8th of May, the Emperor and 
his court retired to Innspruck, in the Tyrol, but, at the request of the people, he 
returned to the capital in August, when the students and the democratic clubs ruled 
Vienna in the most despotic manner. 

The March Revolution of Berlin. — On the 17th of March, 1848, the King 
ol Prussia granted freedom of the press, but the people of Berlin also demanded 
die withdrawal of the soldiers from the capital, and the formation of a Natiunu' 
Guaid Crowds assembled in the streets, in front of the royal palace, where, on 
the 1 8th of March, a terrible conflict commenced, and only terminated on the after 
noon of the 19th, after having raged for fourteen hours. The barricades M'hich had 
been erected by the people were removed by the troops, who were then ordered by 
the king to withdraw. The Ministry was dismissed, a militia and guard for the 
palace were formed, and an unconditional amnesty was granted by the king, Pred- 
eric William IV., who now placed himself at the head of the popular movement in 
Germany. A few weeks later, a constituent National Assembly, elected by universal 
suffrage, undertook the task of framing a representative constitution for the Prussian 
kingdom. 

Revolt of Schlesv/ig-Holstein against Denmark. — \\Tren, in consequence 
of the Paris Februaiy Revolution, a powerful movement was communicated to the 
other European States, the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were 
under the government of the King of Denmark, resolved to assert their independ- 
ence by force of arms. The Duchies established a provisional government, and, 
on the 26th of March, 1848, declared their independence of the King of Denmark. 
A bloody war ensued between the King of Denmark and the Duchies. The Schles- 
wig-Holsteiners were aided by Prussian and other German volunteers, and the 
Danes were driven from Schleswig. The threatening attitude assumed by England 
and Russia, in consequence of the distressing effect of this war upon the maritime 
trade of Northern Europe, induced Prussia to conclude the Truce of Malmo with 
the King of Denmark, and hostilities were for some time suspended. 

The German Parliament. — In the beginning of April (1848), the German 
Parliament assembled by its own authority, in the Free City of Frankfort-ou-the- 
Main. This Parliament laid down the principle of popular sovereignty, and pre- 
pared the way for the convocation of a freely-elected National Assembly, whicli 
should be charged with the task of framing a constitution for a free and united 
Germany. 

Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A party headed by Hecker, Struve, 
.\nd others, was striving for a German republic; and a republican insurrection broke 
out in Baden, but the movement was speedily crushed, and the leaders were obliged 
to flee. 

The German National Assembly. — On the i8th of May, 1848, the German 
National Assembly, which was chosen to frame a constitution for the German nation, 
convened in the Church of St. Paul, in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The Assembly 
immediately set aside the Diet, and established a new central power, and resolved 
upon the choice of an irresponsible regent, who was to surround himself with a 
responsible ministry. 



;76 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Slavic Insurrection in Prague — Siege and Fall of Prague. — The Bohe- 
mians, a Slavic race, had applied to the Emperor of Austria for a constitution which 
would render their relations with the Austrian Empire the same as those of the 
Hungarians. Representatives from all the Slavic nations of the Empire assembled 
in a Congress at Prague, in June, 1848. During the session of this G ngress, the 
{?txp".e of Prague demanded of Prince Windischgratz the removal of the 1 loops 
fron- th:j city, and the furnishing of anus to the people; and when this demand 
\ IS not complied with, the people rose in insurrection. After dreadful fighting in 
.he streets of Prague, for a whole week, during which the city was also bombanleii 
from the neighboring heights, the city suixendered to Prince Windischgratz, on th<} 
17th of June. The Slavic Congress was broken up, and the insurrection was 
quelled. 

Archduke John of Austria Chosen Regent of Germany. — On the 29th of 
Tune, 1848, the Archduke John of Austria was chosen Regent of Germany, by the 
National Assembly, at Frankfort-on-the-Main; and, on the I ith of July, he received 
from the hands of the president of the Federal Diet, the power exercised by that 
body. 

Republican Insurrection at Frankfort-on-the-Main. — On the i8th of 
September, 1848, a revolutionary rising occurred at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the 
object of which was to disperse the German National Assembly, and to bring about 
the establishment of a German republic. After a bloody street-fight, the insurrec- 
tion was crushed by the Federal troops ; but two members of the National Assem- 
bly, Auerswald and Lichnowsky, were murdered by the mob in the Bornheimer 
wood. 

The October Revolution of Vienna — Siege and Fall of Vienna. — The 
Croats and other Slavonic races of Hungary had taken up arms against the Mag- 
yars, and were supported in their revolt by the Austrian Government. The 
Magyars were highly incensed at the course of the Imperial Government; and, 
on the 3d of October, 1848, the imperial commissioner, Lamberg, was murdered 
by an enraged mob, on the bridge of Buda-Pesth. The Austrian troops were im- 
mediately ordered to march into Hungary; but the democrats of Vienna, who were 
in sympathy with the Magyars, excited another revolution in the Austrian capital. 
Count Latour, Minister of War, was murdered by the excited. mob, and the Minis- 
try was overthrown. (October 6, 1848.) The Emperor of Austria fled to Olmutz, 
in Moravia; and at his command. Prince Windischgratz marched against the rebel- 
lious capital. After besieging Vienna for three weeks, the imperial army, under 
Windischgratz, opened a furious assault on the city, on the 29th of October; and, 
after a heroic defence, the city surrendered on the 31st. The conquered capital 
was placed under martial law; and several of the revolutionary leaders, among 
whom was Robert Blum, a member of the German National Assemlily, were pun- 
ished vs'ith death. The Imperial Government then adopted a conciliatory course; 
and, on the 2d of December, 1848, the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne, 
and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. 

Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly. — For some time, the 
popular unions ruled in Berlin; and noisy rioters, excited by public orators, and 
by placards on the walls, constantly surrounded the Prussian constituent National 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 377 

Assembly, and exercised an influence upon the deliberations of that body by intimi- 
dation. The King of Prussia resolved to put an end to such proceedings, and the 
new Ministry of Count Brandenburg adjourned the sitting of the Assembly to the 
tow n of Brandenburg. Some of the members continued their sittings in Berlin, but 
were soon driven out by the troops ; and when the Assembly declared the levying 
of taxes illegal it was dissolved. At the same time, the Prussian Government pro- 
claimed a liberal constitution, which was to be submitted for ratification to a new 
elective assembly with two chambers. 

Rejection of the New Imperial Constitution by the King of Prussia.- 
lu March, 1849, the German constituent National Assembly adopted a constitution 
which united the German States into a confederacy, with an hereditary emperor, 
and a legislative assembly consisting of two branches, one of which should be com- 
posed of representatives of the Government, and the other of deputies chosen by 
the German people. The Assembly, by a large vote, offered the dignity of " Em- 
peror of Germany" to the King of Prussia, upon condition of his accepting the 
new imperial constitution in all its details ; but Frederic William IV. decisively 
rejected the new constitution and the imperial dignity. "When the Prussian Assem- 
bly of Estates recommended the acceptance of the constitution and the imperial 
dignity by the king, as the desire of the German people, the first chamber was pro- 
rogued, and the second dissolved; and the elective law was so changed that the 
right of universal suffrage was to give place to an election arranged upon the three 
tax-paying classes. 

Revolutionary Risings in Germany. — The consequences of the Prussian 
king's rejection of the imperial constitution were fresh commotions in various 
parts of Germany; and formidable insurrections and bloody street-fights occurred 
in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia. The republican party was 
gradually gaining power in the German National Assembly ; but the revolution- 
ary movement in Germany was speedily suppressed by the Prussian army. Prussian 
troops crushed the popular risings in Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, and other places ; 
and, after a barricade street-fight of six days in Dresden, Prussian troops restored 
the authority of the King of Saxony. 

Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A mutiny of the garrison in the fortress 
of Rastadt, and an insurrection at Carlesruhe, compelled the Grand-Duke of Baden 
to take flight, whereupon the control of public affairs in the Grand-Duchy came 
into the hands of the democrats and republicans. At the Grand-Duke's call for 
assistance, Prussian troops marched into Baden ; and, after several engagements, 
in which the insurgent troops, under the Polish adventurer, Mierolawski, were 
defeated, the insurrection was thoroughly crushed, and the Grand-Duke's authority 
was fully restored. Some of the revolutionary leaders were shot, but others saved 
themselves by fleeing into republican countries. In the meantime, the German 
National Assembly, which was now entirely controlled by the republicans, the con- 
servative members -having resigned their seats, had removed its sittings to Stuttgart, 
ill the kingdom of Wurtemburg, but the Wurtemburg Government soon forced the 
members to leave the kingdom. 

Renevsral of the War in Schleswig-Holstein. — Hostilities between the 
King of Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein broke out afresh in 



378 



MODERN HISTORY. 



March, 1849. On the 5th of April, the Danish ship-of-the-line, "Christian VIII.," 
was sunk by German troops, and the Danish frigate " Gefion" was compelled to 
surrender. The triumphant Germans soon laid siege to Frederica, but they were 
afterwards driven back by the Danes. An armistice was concluded in July, 1849, 
an i in the following year (1850), a treaty of peace was signed by whicb the sove 
reignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Ilolstein remained in ,;.e hands 
oi the King of Denmark. 

Austrian and Prussian Constitutions.— We have already alluded .0 he 
judication of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and the accession of his nephew. 
The new Emperor, Francis Joseph, dissolved the Austrian constituent Diet j.t 
Kremsier; and, on the 4th of March, 1849, he proclaimed a constitution for the 
Austrian Empire. A new constitution went into operation in Prussia, on the 6th 
of Februaiy, 1850, since which time Prussia has been a constitutional monarchy. 

REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. 

Revolt of Sicily Against Naples. — For many years, there had existed in Italy 
a party seeking to secure to Italy national unity, independence, and a constitutional 
government; and the Paris February Revolution was the signal for the leaders of this 
party to attempt to carry out their schemes. In January, 1848, the people of the island 
of Sicily rose in revolt against their sovereign, Ferdinand, King of Naples, established 
a provisional government, and asserted their independence. A bloody war ensued 
between the Sicilians and the Neapolitans. Ferdinand was forced to grant the 
people of Naples a liberal constitution; but, in consequence of Ferdinand's viola- 
tion of his liberal promises, an insurrection broke out in the city of Naples, in May, 
1848, and the king gave up his capital to be plundered and sacked by the lazzaroni, 
who brutally massacred many of the inhabitants. Ferdinand vigorously prosecuted 
the war against the revolted Sicilians. Messina surrendered to the Neapolitans, 
after a fierce bombardment of two days; the Sicilians were defeated in a furious 
battle at Catania; and Palermo yielded to the arms of the Neapolitans, after a short 
resistance. With the fall of Palermo, King Ferdinand of Naples recovered his 
authority throughout Sicily, after which he overthrew by violence the constitution in 
Naples, which he had granted in a moment of necessity. 

Popular Insurrections in Austrian Italy. — For several years, there had been 
much political agitation in those portions of Italy subject to Austria, — namely, Lom- 
bardy and Venetia. The Paris Revolution of February aroused the Italians, and finally, 
the Vienna Revolution of March precipitated the climax in Austrian Italy. On 
the 1 8th of March, 1848, the people of Milan, on receiving intelligence of the 
March Revolution of Vienna, flocked to the government-house, and demanded the 
release of all political prisoners, and the formation of a National Guard. The 
Austrian troops fired, whereupon the mob raised the cry of "Evviva Italia!'' and 
rushing forward, overpowered the guard. A discharge of musketry on the pec pie, 
by the military, occasioned a general rising; and, after a barricade street-fight of five 
days, the Austrian troops were driven from the city. At the same time, populai 
risings occurred at Parma and Pavia, and resulted in the expulsion of the Austrian 
garrisons from those places ; and all Lombardy and Venetia was in open rebellion 
agamst the Austrian power. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



379 



War Between Austria and Sardinia — An Armistice. — On the 23d ol 
March, 1848, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, issued a proclamation in favor of 
Italian nationality, and marched with an army into Lombardy, to assist the insurgents 
there to drive out the Austrians. The delays of Charles Albert gave the Austrian 
Field-Marshal, Radetzky, time to concentrate his forces and to receive reinforce- 
ments. The Sardinian king gained victories over the Austrians at Peschiera and 
Goito, and captured Rivoli; but, while he was employed in the siege of Mantuj, 
;he Austrians, under Radetzky, defeated the Sardinians at La Corona, after a des- 
perate confiic'. After defeating the King of Sardinia in a bloody battle at Custozza, 
on the 25th of July, and in another at Bussolongo, on the 26th, Field-Marshal 
Radetzky soon reconquered Milan, and reduced the whole of Lombardy to submis- 
sion. King Charles Albert concluded an armistice with the Austrians, and then 
retired into his own dominions. , 

Revolution in Rome and Flight of Pope Pius IX. — A Roman Republic. 
— In June, 1846, Cardinal Mastai was chosen to fill the chair of St. Peter, with the 
title of Pius IX. The new Pope was at first a zealous political reformer, and the 
liberal course pursued by him at once aroused a spirit of republicanism and nation- 
ality throughout the whole of Italy. Pius IX. granted his subjects freedom of the 
press, improved the administration of justice, and gave the city of Rome a liberal 
municipal government ; but the liberal movement soon became too powerful for 
the weak Pontiff to control. The Roman people at length outstripped Pius IX. in 
the matter of reform ; and the promise of the Pope to grant a constitutional govern- 
ment to the Pontifical State did not satisfy his subjects. The appointment of Count 
Rossi, an avowed antagonist of the liberal movement, to the head of the Ministry, 
excited the indignation of the Roman people, who thus became convinced that a 
reaction had taken place in the mind of the Pope. On the 15th of November, i848» 
Rossi was assassinated on the steps of the Assembly House. A popular rising en- 
sued ; a mob proceeded to the Pope's palace, and, after a short conflict with the 
Papal-guards, forced the Pope to appoint a popular Ministry. On the 23d (Novem- 
ber, 1848), the Pope fled from Rome, and retired to Gaeta, in the kingdom of 
Naples. On the 9th of February, 1849, ^ popularly chosen National Assembly 
declared the Pope's temporal power at an end, and that the form of government 
for the Roman State should be a pure democracy, with the title of " The Roman 
Republic." A Triumvirate was chosen to exercise executive duties ; and at the 
head of the new government was the able, energetic, and eloquent Joseph Mazzini. 
The commander of the volunteers was the ardent rei3ublican, Joseph Garibaldi. 

Renewal of the Austro-Sardinian War — Abdication of Charles Albert 
—Urged on by the Italian republicans, King Charles Albert, of Sardinia, declared 
his armistice with Austria at an end on the 20th of March, 1849, ^^d, on the same 
day, his kingdom was invaded by the Austrian army under Field-Marshal Radetzky. 
After a spirited campaign of four days, on the Ticino and near Novara, Sardinia 
lay prostrate before the power of Austria; and, on the evening of the 23d (March, 
1849), Charles \lbert abdicated the throne of Sardinia in favor of his son, Victor 
Emmanuel, and immediately retired to Portugal, where he shortly afterward died 
of a broken heart. On the 25th of March (1849), Victor Emmanuel concluded a 
treaty of peace with Austria, by which Sardinia was required to pay fifteen millions 
of dollars, as indemnity for the expenses of Austria in the war. 



380 MODERN HISTORY. 

Siege and Capture of Rome by a French Army. — After waiting anxiously 
several months for the Roman people to recall him, Pope Pius IX. appealed to the 
Roman Catholic powers for assistance to restore his temporal power. In response 
to this appeal, Republican France sent an army of 4,000 men, under General Oudi- 
not, against Rome. The Roman republicans made earnest preparations for defense. 
The Roman National Assembly declared itself permanent, and Mazzini made fiery 
addresses to the people. When the French troops arrived before Rome, on the 30tb 
M" April, 1849, they found the Roman volunteers, under General Garibaldi, ready to 
make a determined resistance. The first attack of the French was repulsed, and 
the Eternal City held out heroically until its resources were exhausted; and, aftei 
withstanding many furious assaults, and a regular bombardment, Rome surrendered 
to the besieging French, on the 3d of July, 1849. General Garibaldi and the popu- 
lar leaders escaped to England and the United Slates ; and the Pope was restored 
to his former power, under the protection of foreign bayonets. Thenceforth Pope 
Pius IX. was a most zealous friend of absolutism, and a bitter antagonist to all 
liberal movements. 

Siege and Fall of Venice. — While victory shone upon the Austrian arms in 
Lombardy and Piedmont, an Austrian amiy was engaged in the siege of Venice, 
which, in March, 1848, had revolted against Austrian rule, and proclaimed "The 
Republic of St. Mark." Under the able republican leader, Manini, Venice main- 
tained its independence for nearly a year and a half. After a siege of many months, 
during which much property had been destroyed, and all her provisions had been 
exhausted, Venice surrendered to Field- Marshal Radetzky, on the 25th of August, 
1849; and, with the fall of that gallant city, the authority of Austria was reestab- 
lished throughout Lombardy and Venetia. 

HUNGARIAN REBELLION OF 18AS, '49. 

The Austrian Emperor's Concessions to the Hungarians. — Just after the 
Vienna Revolution of March, 1848, a deputation from Hungary, headed by Louis 
Kossuth, appeared in Vienna, and asked for the Hungarian kingdom the royal 
assent to a series of acts passsed by the Hungarian Diet, providing for the annual 
meeting of that body; the union of Transylvania with Hungary; the organization 
of a Hungarian National Guard; equality of taxation for all classes; religious toler- 
ation; liberty of the press; and a separate ministry for Hungary. These acts were 
approved by the Emperor-King, who, on the lith of April, 1848, personally con- 
firmed them in the Hungarian Diet, convened at Pesth, the capital of Hungary. 
These concessions were hailed with joy by the Hungarians. 

Slavic Revolt Against Hungary. — The Croates and the other Slavic races 
under the Hungarian government, jealous of the ascendency of the Magyars, and 
demanding their independence of Hungai-ian rule, took up arms against the Mag- 
yars. The Croates were encouraged in their rebellion by the Austrian Government, 
tiid Austrian armies were sent to their assistance. The Servians, a Slavonic race, 
jvho had also revolted against the Hungarian government, laid waste the Magyar 
Tillages, and committed the greatest atrocities on the defenseless population. The 
Hungarian war actually opened on the 12th of June, 1S48, when the Magyars 
bombarded Karlowitz, the Servian metropolis. The Servians in the Ottoman 
territories hastened to the aid of their brethren in the Austrian dominions; and 



NfNETEENTH CENTURY. 



381 



the Magyars were obliged to take refuge in the fortress of Poterwardein. The 
whole Servian population in the Banat then arose against the Magyars, and hostili- 
'ies between the contending races raged with great fury. 

Austria Supports the Slavic Rebellion. — On the 29th of June, 1848, the 
Imperial Government at Vienna announced Austria's intention to openly support 
the Sliivic races in their revolt against Magyar rule; and it soon appeared that 
'he Emperor Ferdinand, after the suppression of the rebellion against Austrian 
luthority in Northern Italy, was resolved to deprive the Magyars of the privileges 
ivhich he had recently granted to them. Convinced that the rights ol Hungary 
■must be defended by force of arms, the Hungarian Diet resolved to raise an army 
of 200,000 men. 

Jellachich's Invasion of Hungary. — In the meantime, a united Austrian and 
Croatian force, under the command of Jellachich, the ban or governor of Croatia, 
had invaded Hungary and advanced toward Pesth; but the Magyars, aroused by 
the eloquent and patriotic appeals of Louis Kossuth, one of the ablest of their 
leaders, soon repulsed the invaders, compelled Jellachich to flee, and, on the 5th 
of October, 184S, captured the Croatian rear-guard, consisting of 10,000 men. 

Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and the Accession of Francis 
Joseph. — Wearied of the contentions in the various parts of his dominions, the 
Austrian Emperor, Ferdinand, abdicated his throne, on the 2d of December, 1848, 
and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. As the uew Emperor did not 
take the requisite oath to support the constitution, laws, and liberities of Hungary, 
the Magyars refused to acknowledge him as their sovereign. 

Hungarian Preparations for the Struggle. — All the efforts of the Magyars 
for a peaceful settlement of difficulties were unsuccessful, as the Austrian Govern- 
ment was resolved upon depriving Hungary of her rights. The Magyars therefore 
made the most vigorous exertions for defense; manufactories of arms and ammuni- 
tion were established, the peasants of Hungaiy flew to arms, and the most intense 
enthusiasm was manifested. 

Austrian and Croatian Invasion of Hungary — Capture of Pesth. — In 
December, 1848, the Austrian army, under Windischgratz, entered Hungary from^ 
the west; and, on the 5th of January, 1849, Pesth fell into the hands of the Austrian 
and Croatian forces, under Windischgratz and Jellachich. Kossuth and the Hun- 
garian Ministry and Diet retired to Debreczin, in the Northern part of Hungary. 

Fall of Eszeck — Operations in Transylvania. — On the 30th of January 
1849, ^"^^ Magyars lost the strong fortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, which was sur- 
rendered to the imperialists, with its garrison of 5000 men. About the same time, 
General Bern, a Pole, who was at the head of an army of 10,000 Magyars, was 
driven from Transylvania, the Saxons and Wallachs, who inhabit that province, 
having joined the Austrians; but the warlike Szecklers of Southern Hungary having 
risen in favor of the Magyars, Bem returned to Transylvania, defeated the Austrians 
and Russians who opposed him, took Kronstadt and Hermanstadt, and then passed 
into the Banat, and captured Temeswar, its capital. 

Concentration of the Magyar Forces — Battle of Kapolna. — At the begin 
Jiing of February, 1849, Kossuth appointed General Dembinski, also a Pole, to the 
chief cormnand of the Magyar forces. Dembinski concentrated the Hungarian 



382 



MODERN HISTORY. 



armies in the upper part of the valley of the Theiss. to meet, the advancing Austrians 
under Windischgratz. On the 26th and 27th of February (1849), a bloody battle 
was fought between 40,000 Magj'ars and 60,000 Austrians at Kapolna, where, in 
consequence of the inactivity of the Hungarian general Gorgey, the imperialists 
were victorious. 

Gorgey's Victories over the Austrians — Siege and Capture of Buda,-- 

At length, Gorgey was entrusted with the chief command of the Hungarian armies, 
Dembinski having resigned that post a few days after the battle of Kapolna. After 
fourteen days of terrific hand-to-hand fighting, commencing with the battle of Szol- 
nok, on the 27th of March, and ending with the capture of Waitzen by Gorgey, on 
the 9th of April, the Magyars recovered Pesth, relieved Komorn, and utterly routed 
the imperialists. On the 17th of April, the chief command of the Austrian armies 
was assigned to Baron Welden. On the iSth (April, 1849), Welden was defeated 
at Szonz; and on the 19th, the Austrian reserve, under Wohlgemuth, was annihil- 
ated at Nagy Sarlo. The Austrians were severely repulsed in several attempts to 
carry by storm the strong fortress of Komorn; and Weldeij was compelled to re- 
treat toward Vienna. Instead of following up his successes by threatening the 
Austrian capital, as urged by Kossuth, Gorgey laid siege to the strong fortress of 
Buda, opposite Pesth. Gorgey carried Buda by storm, on the 21st of May, but the 
siege involved a delay fatal to the cause of Hungary, and saved Vienna, and proba- 
bly the Austrian Empire. The imperial forces were now completely driven out of 
Hungary, and the first campaign ended in the triumph of the Magyars. 

An Imperial Constitution — Hungarian Declaration of Independence. 

— On the 4th of March, 1S49, the Emperor Francis Joseph proclaimed a constitu- 
tion for the Austrian Empire, by which Hungary was to be incorporated with 
Austria. The Austrian Government also solicited the aid of Russia to crush the 
Hungarian rebellion. The Hungarian Diet at Debreczin, convinced of the impos- 
sibility of a reconciliation with Austria, took a decisive step, on the 14th of April, 
1849, by declaring the independence of Hungary; and Louis Kossuth was ap- 
pointed Governor of Hungary, with almost absolute powers. On the 12th of May, 
the Emperor of Austria issued a proclamation to the Magyars, announcing the inter- 
vention of Russia, and ordering them to lay down their arms. 

Russian Aid to Austria — Austrian and Russian Invasion of Hungary. 
— In response to Austria's application for Russian assistance in subduing the Mag- 
yar insurgents, the Czar Nicholas sent an army of 160,000 men, under the command 
of Prince Paskiewitsch, to invade Hungary on the northeast. At the same time, the 
Austrians were preparing to reenter Hungaiy on the west; and by the 1st of June, 
400,000 hostile troops were on the Hungarian frontiers. On the 30th of May, the 
brutal Baron Haynau was invested with the chief command of the Austrian armies. 
At about the same time, early in June, Haynau, with 5000 Austrians, entered Hun- 
gar)' at Presburg; Paskiewitsch, with 90,000 Russians, crossed the Galician frontiers, 
and invaded Hungary on the northeast; an Austro-Russian army of 25,000 men 
entered Transylvania; and Jellachich, with his Croats, advanced into the Mao^ai 
territoiy from the south. 

Successes of the Austrians and Russians — Retreat of Bern and Dem- 
binski. — Now opened the second campaign in the Hungarian war, — the campaign 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Z'^l 



which resulted in the subjugation of the Hungarian insurgents. After a gallant 
resistance, Bern was driven from Transylvania, by the overwhelming forces of the 
Russians ; Paskiewitsch, with the main Russian army, entered Debreczm on the 
7lh of July, and Pesth on the nth, and compelled Dembinski to retreat south- 
ward into the Banet; and Jellachich, after suffering a severe defeat near Hegyes, 
marched up the Theiss with his Croats, to form a junction with the Austrians under 
llaynau. 

Battle of Komorn — Retreat of Gorgey. — llaynau, who had in the meantime 
advanced from Presburg with the main Austrian army, was defeated by Gorgey, 
near Komorn, on the l ith of July. From Komorn, Gorgey retreated eastward to 
Tokay, and thence southward to Arad, which place he reached on the 8th of August. 
On the 19th of July, Haynau entered Pesth, and then went in pursuit of Gorgey. 
The cruelties of Haynau during his whole career in Plungary reflected disgrace 
upon his memory, and acquired for him the well-merited title of " Hungary's 
Hangman." 

Grand Sortie from Komorn — Battle of Temeswar. — While Haynau was 
marching southward in pursuit of the retreating Gorgey, an event occurred far in 
his rear which created serious alarm among the Austrians. On the 3d of Ausust, 
the garrison of Komorn, under General Klapka, made a grand sortie from the 
fortress, utterly routed the Austrians in that vicinity, and opened the road to Vienna. 
On the Sth (August, 1849), after four days fighting with the Austrians, Dembinski 
was severely wounded, whereupon the command of his armies devolved on Bern, 
who, on the following day (August 9, 1S49), engaged the Austrian and Croatian 
forces, under Haynau and Jellachich, at Temeswar, where, after a sanguinaiy con- 
flict, in which Bem was covered with wounds, the army which he commanded was 
thoroughly annihilated, Gorgey, although within a short distance of the place where 
he was fighting, having neglected to come to his assistance. 

Gorgey Made Dictator — His Treacherous Surrender. — The disasters to 
the Hungarian arms were in a great measure owing to the dissensions and want of 
concert among the Polish and Magyar generals ; and Gorgey, with whom the grati- 
fication of personal ambition was a primary consideration, was striving for absolute 
power. At the request of Gorgey, and at the solicitation of his friends, Kossuth, 
on the loth of August (1849), dissolved the provisional government, and appointed 
the ambitious general dictator. Gorgey had long been suspected of treachery to 
the cause of Hungary, and he had repeatedly disobeyed the orders of the provisional 
government. It now appeared that he had for some time been engaged in a trea- 
sonable correspondence with the enemies of his country, and he immediately made 
ase of his absolute power to ruin the cause of Hungarian independence. On the 
13th of August, 1849, Gorgey surrendered, without any conditions, his entire army 
of 35,000 men, tc the Russian general Rudiger, at Villagos. 

Submission of Hungary — Flight of Hungarian Leaders, — The treacher- 
ous surrender of G5rgey paralyzed all the efforts of the Magyars, the various Han- 
garian detachmens laid down their arms, and Hungary lay powerless before the 
despot power of Austria. Kossuth, Bem, Dembinski, and many others of ie 
patriot leaders, fled into the Ottoman dominions, and the Sultan of Turkey nobly 
refused to deliver them up, at the demands of the Austrian Government. Bem re- 
ceived a command in the Turkish army. In 1850, Kossuth left Turkey, and visited 



g^ MODERN HISTORY. 

England and the United States, in which countries his noble efTorts in the cause 
of Hungarian freedom excited universal sympathy. 

Surrender of Komorn— Execution of Hungarian Leaders.— On the 29^ 
Df September, 1849, Komom surrendered to the Austrians on favorable conditions, 
and, wiOi the fall of that important fortress, all military opposition to Austrian po^ver 
in Hungary ceased. To the everlasting infamy of the Austrian Government, thir- 
teen Himgarian generals and staff-officers were executed at Arad, on the 6tl. . { 
October, 1849. Many of the Hungarian civil leaders met the same fate. S 
large number of the inferior officers were imprisoned in fortresses, some for a tern, 
of years, and others for life ; and no less than 70,000 Hungarians who had engaged 
in the rebellion were compelled to serve in the Austrian army. 

THE LATEST WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. 

THE COUP D'ETAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON (1851). 

Parties in the French National Assembly.— Upon assuming the office of 
President of the French Republic, Louis Napoleon publicly avowed the principles 
of his government to be strictly republican. The different parties in the French 
National Assembly were the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the 
Bourbons; the Orieanists, who desired the placing of the heir of Louis Philippe 
upon the throne of France; the Bonapartists, or Imperialists, who desired the resto- 
ration of the French Empire; the Red Republicans, and the Moderate Republicans, 
or friends of the existing constitution. 

Disagreement between the President and the National Assembly.— 
From the beginning, there was a lack of harmony between the executive and legis- 
lative branch°es of the Government, the National Assembly having no faith in the 
republican professions of the President. The Assembly restricted the right of suf- 
frage and the freedom of the press, and in many other ways encroached upon the 
rights of the French people. In 1849, a French army, under General Oudinot, was 
sent to Rome, to overthrow the Repubhc which had been established there. The 
French constitution of 1848 provided for its revision by the National Assembly 
during the last year of the Presidential term, and it also made the President ineligi- 
ble to"ree!ection before an interval of four years. Louis Napoleon desired to have 
it revised and so altered as to render him eligible to reelection; but the Assembly, 
by a large vote, in 1 851, refused to revise it. The President, in his message, in 
November, 1851, advised the Assembly to extend the right of suffrage; but the 
Assembly rejected a proposition for that purpose, and soon afterwards a proposition 
was offered threatening the President with impeachment if he should seek a reelec- 
tion contrary to the provisions of the constitution. 

The Coup d* Etat.— The breach between the President and the National As- 
sembly was rapidly widening; and finally, Louis Napoleon determined to crush, a1 
one blow, all opposition to his will, by a bold stroke of state policy. About five 
o'clock in the morning of the 2d of December, 1851, the principal streets of Paris 
were occupied by troops ; and the leading members of the Assembly, and the chief 
military leaders, whom Louis Napoleon knew were opposed to his ambitious schemes. 




THIERS. 



\ 




NAPOLEON III. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^3t 

were seized in their beds, and shut up in prison. M. Thiers and Generals Cavaig 
n 10, Changarnier, and Lamoriciere, and other prominent characters, were arrested by 
d rtachments of police, assisted by the guards, and were imprisoned in the chateau of 
\ incennes. At the dawn of day, the Parisians were surprised to find the walls every- 
w here covered with placards containing the following decree : " In the name of th< 
F rench people, the President of the Republic decrees : I. The National Assembly is, 
dissolved : 2. Universal suffrage is reestablished ; the law of 3 1st of May is repealed ; 
3 The French people, are convoked in their communes, from the 14th to the 31st of 
December : 4. The state of siege is decreed in the whole of the first military division ; 
5. The Council of State is dissolved : The Minister of the Interior is charged with the 
execution of this decree. — Louis Napoleon Bonaparte." "During the day, some of 
the members of the National Assembly met at the residence of M. Daru, declared 
the President guilty of treason, and decreed his deposition; but 90 sooner had they 
signed the decree, than they were seized by the military, and conducted to prison. 
None of the journals but those that supported the President were permitted to be 
printed and distributed. This bold act of usurpation, dignified by the title " The 
Coupd'Etat," was completely successful ; the republican constitution was over- 
thrown, and Louis Napoleon was a monarch, in all but in name. 

Unsuccessful Resistance to the Usurpation. — On the 2d of December, no 
resistance was made to the President's usurpation; but about ten o'clock on the 
morning of the 3d, M. Baudin, a representative of the people, aj:^eared at the head 
of a mob in the Rue St. Antoine, but the arrival of the military restored order, and 
M. Baudin and two other representatives were punished with death. On the fol- 
lowing day (December 4, 185 1), barricades were erected in many of the streets of 
Paris ; but at noon, large bodies of troops swept the Boulevards, fired upon the 
buildings, killed many innocent people, and put an end to all resistance before 
night. The troops gave no quarter to the insurgents, and more than 2000 persons 
were killed. In the eastern departments of France, the rural population rose in 
great strength against the usurpation; but the army remaining faithful to the 
President, the insurrection was suppressed in a few days. 

Louis Napoleon Elected President for Ten Years. — On Satuidiy and 
Sunday, December 20th and 21st, elections were held throughout Fran';e, the 
question submitted to the nation being whether or not Louis Napoleon should hold 
the office of President ten years longer, with the power of forming a new constitu- 
tion for France, on the basis of universal suffrage. No other candidate was allowed 
to be named. The army voted first, and, as was to be expected, its vote was nearly 
unanimous in favor of Louis Napoleon; and the entire majority in favor of the 
lengthened Presidential term was 6,761,659 votes. On New Year's Day, 1S52, the 
result of the election was celebrated in the French capital with all possible mag- 
nificence: seventy rounds of artillery were fired at the Invalides, at ten o'clock in 
the forenoon; the Te Deum was sung at noon, in the Church of Notre Dame, Ibe 
President himself being present; and a splendid banquet was given at the Tuileries, 
it which 4Oi0 persons participated. 

New Constitution. — On the 14th of January, 1852, the new constitution pn; 

posed by I,ouis Napoleon was decreed. The constitution entrusted the executive 

authority to Louis Napoleon for ten years, and clothed him with almost absolute 

power. The legislative power was vested in a Senate, composed of the most gifted 

25 



386 MODERN HISTORY. 

men in France; a Council of State, to originate and enact laws ; and a Corps Leg- 
islatif, chosen by universal suffrage, to discuss and enact laws. 

Louis Napoleon Made " Emperor of the French."— The great end of all 
Louis Napoleon's ambition was the restoration of the French Empire. By means 
of newspaper agents and a mercenary press, the President prepared the minds of 
the French people to pronounce at the ballot-box in favor of or against the reestab- 
lishnient of the imperial throne. The election resulted in a majority of 7,611,035 
»'3tes in favor of imperialism; and on the 2d of December, 1852, I^ouis Napoleon 
fV'as formally proclaimed "Emperor of the French," with the title of Napoleon III, 
Thu5 ended the Second French Republic; and thus was established the Second 
French Empire, under Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Louis Bona- 
parte and Hortense Beauharnais. A large number of persons who had actively 
opposed Louis Napoleon's assumption of imperial power were arrested on the charge 
of treason, and imprisoned or banished to Algeria or Cayenne. 

Marriage of Napoleon III. — The new Emperor's next movement was the 
consummation of a marriage for the perpetuation of his dynasty; and, as all his 
proposals to foreign courts for the negotiation of a match were rejected, he selected 
for his bride, Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of Teba, a Spanish lady, who was not 
related to any reigning family. On the 2d of January, 1853, the announcement 
of the approachiiw nuptials was made to the French Senate. On the 29th of the 
same month, the civil marriage was celebrated at the Tuileries; and on the 30th, 
the religious ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp, in the Church of Notre 
Dame. 

THE CRIMEAN WAR (A. D. 1853-1856). 

The Guardianship of the Holy Places — The Czar's Demand. — For a 
long time, a dispute with regard to the Holy Places at Jerusalem had raged at Con- 
stantinople, between the Greek and Romish Churches, Russia supporting the claims 
of the Greek, and France those of the Romish Church. Early in 1853, a dispute 
arose between Russia and Turkey, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe. 
The Emperor Nicholas of Russia claimed the right to exercise a protectorate over 
the Greek Christians in the Ottoman dominions. This demand was j ustly regarded 
as incompatible with the dignity of the Sultan as an independent sovereign; and, 
by the advice of the English and French ministers at Constantinople, the demands 
of the Czar were rejected, and his extravagant pretensions denied, but the Sultan, 
by a "hatti sheriff," confirmed all the privileges of his Christian subjects. 

Russian Invasion of Turkey — War Between Russia and Turkey, — In^- 
mediately after the demand of the Russian autocrat had been rejected by the 
Ottoman Porte, 60,000 Russian troops invaded the Turkish provinces of Moldavia 
and Wallachia. The Sultan demanded the evacuation of his dominions, threaten- 
ing, in case of a refusal, a declaration of war. The fleets of France and Engl; nd 

ere ordered to the Dardanelles, while England, France, Austria, and Pruisia 
ainly endeavored to bring about an adjustment of the dispute by negotiatit it. 
The arrogance of Russia prevented a peaceful solution of the d'.fificulty; and, on the 
5lh of October, 1853, the Turkish Government declared war against Russia. On 
tlie 14th (October, 1853), the fleets of Great Britain and France, at the request of 
the Sultan, passed the Dardanelles. 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. -3 ^ 

Turkish Victories on the Danube — Battle of Sinope. — In the latter part 
of October, 1853, the Turkish forces crossed the Danube, for the purpose of expel- 
ling the Russians from the Ottoman territories. Under the command of their skill- 
ful general, Omar Pacha, the Turks won many splendid victories. On the 13th of 
November (1853), the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on the southern coast of the Black 
Sea, was suddenly and unexpectedly attacked and destroyed by the Russian fleet. 
Before the close of the year, the British and French fleets were ordered into ie 
Black Sea, to protect the Turks. 

Alliance of England, France, and Turkey — Advance of the Russians.-. 

A.S the Cz.'ir Nicholas still rejected all proposals for an amicable settlement of the 
dispute, England and France, closely in alliance with Turkey, declared war against 
Russia, at the close of March, 1854; but Austria and Prussia remained neutral. 
An allied English and French army of 90,000 men, under Lord Raglan and Mar- 
shal St. Arnaud, was sent to the assistance of the Turks, and a powerful Anglo- 
French naval arn^ament, under Sir Charles Napier, was dispatched to the Baltic 
sea. The Russians, under Prince Gortschakoff, their commander-in-chief, crossed 
the Danube, the Ottoman forces retreating in good order before the invaders. 

Bombardment of Odessa — Siege of Silistria — Expulsion of the Rus- 
sians. — On the 22d of April, 1854, the allied English and French fleets bombarded 
the Russian commercial town of Odessa, on the Black Sea. During the summer, 
the Turks, under Mussa Pacha, successfully defended Silistiia against 90,000 Rus- 
sians under Prince Paskiewitsch, and finally compelled them to raise the siege, and 
evacuate the Turkish dominions. 

Allied Expedition to the Crimea — Battle of Alma — Siege of Sevasto- 
pol. — In September, 1854, an expedition, composed of English, French, and Turkish 
troops, landed at Eupatoria, in the peninsula of the Crimea, and, on the 20th of 
that month, gained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Alma. A few days after- 
ward, Marshal St. Arnaud died, and the command of the French army was assigned 
to General Canrobert. The siege of Sevastopol commenced on the 1 7th of October, 
1854, when the allies opened their first bombardment on the town. 

Battle of Balaklava. — The Russians sent large reinforcements to their army 
in the Crimea, for the purpose of compelling the allies to evacuate the peninsula. 
On the 25th of October, 1854, occurred the famous battle of Balaklava, in which 
the English Light Cavalry Brigade of 600 men was almost totally destroyed, in a 
reckless charge upon the strong Russian position. 

Battle of Inkermann. — Large bodies of Russian troops continued to pour 
into the Crimea, for the pui-pose of relieving the beleaguered fortress of Sevastopol ; 
and on the cth of November, 1854, was fought the bloody battle of Inkermann, in 
which 8000 English troops held their ground firmly against 50,000 Russians for 
seven hours, when the appearance of a French force of 6000 men under General 
Bosquet soon decided the battle against the Russians, who were driven with heavy 
loss into the fortress of Sevastopol. 

Death of the Czar Nicholas — Peace Conference — Sardinia Joins the 
Allies. — On the 2d of March, 1855, the Emperor Nicholas died, and was succeeded 
on the Russian throne by his son, Alexander II., who declared his resolution of 
adhering to the policy of his father. A conference composed of representatives c f 



388 MODERN HISTORY. 

England, France, Turkey, and Russia, was held at Vienna, in the spring of 1855, 
for the purpose of bringing about a peace; but, as Russia rejected the demand of 
the allied powers, that the war-vessels of all nations should be excluded from the 
JJlack Sea, the efforts for peace failed ; and Sardinia joined the allied powers in 
theii war against Russia. 

Siege of Sevastopol. — In the meantime, hostilities were prosecuted with vigor 
ill the Crimean peninsula. On the 17th of February, 1855, the Russians assaul.ed 
the intrenched camp of the Turks at Eupatoria, but were repulsed, aftei a fierce en 
gagement. A severe battle between the Russians and the French occurred on the 
22d of March (1855), i"^ which the Russians lost over 2000 men, and the French 
600 men. The second bombardment of Sevastopol commenced on the 9th of April, 
and continued for several days. The incompetent Canrobert was superseded in the 
command of the French forces by the able and energetic General Pelissier. The 
third bombardment of Sevastopol, which commenced on the 6th of June, resulted 
in giving the French possession of the Mamelon, while the English captured the 
Round Tower. On the iSth of June (the anniversaiy of the battle of Waterloo), 
the French assailed the Malakoff Tower, while the English, at the same time, stormed 
the Redan. Both attacks were repulsed. On the 28th (JUne, 1855), Lord Raglan 
died, and was succeeded in the command of the English forces by General Simp- 
son. On the 1 6th of August, 60,000 Russians were repulsed in an assault upon the 
French and the Sardinians at Tchernaya. 

Attack on Sweaborg. — While the events just related were occurring in the 
Crimean peninsula, hostilities were being prosecuted in other quarters. On the 9th 
of August, 1855, the combined English and French fleet in the Baltic, under Sir 
Charles Napier, commenced an attack upon Sweaborg, which was continued until 
the 17th, without effecting any important result. 

Fall of Sevastopol. — On the 5th of September, 1855, commenced the fourth 
bombardment of Sevastopol. On the 8th, the French captured the Malakoff, after 
a furious assault, but, at the same time, the English were repulsed in an attack upon 
the Redan. The fall of the Malakoff rendered a further defense of the place use- 
less; and on the 9th (September, 1855), the Russians evacuated the southern side 
of Sevastopol, and left the town and the harbor in the possession of the allies. 

Capture of Kinburn — Turkish Victory at the Ingour. — On the 15th of 
October, 1855, General Bazaine, with 15,000 French and 4000 English troops, from 
the allied army in the Crimea, landed at Kinburn, and captured that post, after a 
fierce bombardment. Late in November, the Turks, under Omar Pacha, achieved 
a glorious victory at the river Ingour, when they forced a passage over the stream, 
and compelled the Russians to evacuate their position and retreat to Kutais. 

The War in Asiatic Turkey — Capture of Kars. — Important events occurred 
in Asiatic Turkey. On the 29th of September, 1855, 'he Turkish forces, under the 
command of the English general Williams, repulsed an attack of the Russians upon 
the town of Kars, and the place was defended successfully until the 28th of Novem- 
ber (1855), when the Turkish garrison was compelled to surrender and the towD 
fell into the hands of the Russians. 

Peace of Paris. — Early in 1856, an armistice was proclaimed, and soon after 
ward, the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Sardinia, Turkey, and Russia, 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 389 

a5£embl(;d in Paris ; and^ a heaty of peace was agreed upon, on Sunday, March 
30lh, 1856. By this treaty, the Russian forts and arsenals on the Black Sea were 
destroyed; Russia was to renounce all interference in the internal affairs of the 
Ottoman Empire; the vessels of all nations were to have the right to navigate the 
Danube; the Christian subjects of the Sultan were to be secured in certain privi- 
leges ; and the Russian fortress of Nicolaieff was to be dismantled. The eagle's 
q .ill mounted with gold and gems, with which the treaty was signed, was presented 
tf> the Empress Eugenie of France. Thus closed the Crimean War, in which mere 
tlian one million of men perished. 

THE SEPOY MUTINY IN BRITISH INDIA (1857-1859). 

England's Wars with Persia and China — The Mutiny'of the Sepoys. — 
In less than a year after the termination of her war with Russia, England became 
involved in wars with Persia and China. The war with Persia lasted only a few 
months, but the contest with China was not closed before the autumn of i860. The 
English and their allies, the French, completely humbled the Chinese, whose chief 
cities. Canton and Pekin, were taken, and the Chinese Emperor fled in consterna- 
tion from his capital. By the Treaty of Tien-tsin, in October, i860, the Chinese 
were obliged to allow a British minister to reside at Pekin. But a struggle of far 
greater magnitude than the Persian and Chinese wars employed the military strength 
of the British Empire— namely, the war produced by the mutiny of the Sepoys, or 
Hindoos in the military service of the East-India Company. 

Discontent of the Mohammedans of India— ,The Bengal Army. — For a 
long time, the Mohammedans of India had been dissatisfied with their subordinate 
position. When, in 1849, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of British India, 
compelled the titular king of Delhi to exchange the fortress of Delhi for the royal 
palace of the Kootub, the hatred of the Delhi Mohammedans against the British 
Government was increased. When the Kingdom of Oude was annexed to the 
British Indian Empire, many of the Sepoys comprising the Bengal army who were 
natives of Oude were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation; and they suc- 
ceeded in uniting all the Mohammedan sects in India, with the view of freeing 
themselves from British power. 

The Enfield Rifles and the Greased Cartridges. — Circumstances soon 
occurred which favored the cause of the Mohammedans of India. It had been 
rumored among the Hindoos that the British Government had resolved to compel 
all its subjects to embrace the Christian religion, and abolish the distinctions of caste 
which prevail among the Hindoos. Early in 1S57, the East-India.Company armed 
Lti Hindoo soldiers with the Enfield rifles, for which cartridges greased with pig's 
and cow's fat were used. The Hindoos are forbidden by their religion to taste 
xnimal food; and, as the ends of the greased cartridges must be bitten ofl", the 
Sepoys believed that by using them they would become defiled, lose their caste, and 
\v. bound to adopt the religion of their masters. Mohammedan emissaries secretly 
ai uused the dissatisfaction of the Hindoos, for the advancement of their own rebel • 
lious schemes. 

Mutiny of the Bengal Army. — During the month of April, 1857, many of 
the regiments composed of Sepoys in the Bengal army manifested a mutinous spiri* 



39° 



AIODEKIV ins TORY. 



'I'lic i()lh ;iiul 34th rcLjiinciils, t lie Oiulc irics^ular iiifavilvy, and a })ai'l o( the 3d 
l,it;lil Cavalry aL Mccnit, were llio lirsl lo rise in rebellion. Olhcr Sepoy regiments 
followoil Iheir example, and before lonj;, the whole Hindoo portion of the Bengal 
army, al out 120,000 men, stood in armed opposition to the British Government. 
The rebellion was purely a muliny, and not a popular insurreetion. 

Massacre of Delhi. — On tin- iilli of May (1857), a parly of mutineers from 
Meerut IWdishly massaered all the English residents at Delhi; but a small Eng- 
I'l for.r, under the gallant Lieutenant Willoughby, blew up the arsenal, to i)'even' 
I fiDui falling into the hands of the rebels. 

Massacre of Cawnpore.— At Cawnpore, 300 ICnglish troops under Sir Hugh 
Wheeler, and 500 women and children, were attacked and besieged by a Ixnly ol 
mutineers under Neua Sahib, a Mahratta prince. When Nena Sahib ft)und that 
]>e could not take the place by force, he oIlTered the garrison and the women and 
ciiiKlr>n a safe passage to Allahabad, if they would evacuate Ca\vn]>ore; but no 
.sooner had Ihoy embarked on boats in the river, than they were fu-ed upon by the 
treacherous mulineers, and many c^f their number were killed. One-hundred and 
lifty who had surrendered were put to death, and the women and chiklren were 
niiissacred soon afterward. 

Siege of Lucknow. — At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, at the head of an 
English force, defeated a large bt)dy of rebel Sepoys, but he was afterwards 
l>esicged in the residency at that place, and was mortally w ounded in a sally, at the 
beginning of July. (1857.) 

Excitement in England — English Troops sent to India. — The greatest 
excitement prevailed in England on the arrival of intelligence of the mutiny of the 
hitherto loyal Bengal army and the fiendish atrocities perpetrated by the mutineers. 
Within four months, 30,000 troops were sent from Great Britain to India, for the 
suppression of the Sepoy rebellion and the full restoration of British authority in 
Hindoostan ; and Sir Colin Campbell w.is sent to take the chief command of the 
British forces in India. 

General Havelock's Victories over Ncna Sahib on the Ganges. — 
Geneial Havelock, with British and loyal Hindoo troops, marched to the relief of 
the English garrison, under Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore. He reached that 
place after marching 126 miles and lighting four engagements with the mutineers, 
and after Nena Sahib had treacherously massacred the women and children, ;vs 
already staled. When Havelock approached Cawnpore, Nena Sahib and his insur- 
gent band lied; but they were pursued, and defeated eight times, on the banks of 
the Ganges, by ^le force under Havelock. The Sepoy regiments at Dinapore 
mutinied on the 25th of July (1857), and having lied from the station, they were 
puiTiued and defeated by Major Eyre, of the Bengal artillery. 

Siege and Fall of Delhi. — In the latter part of August, 1S57, the British 
lorce before Delhi, which had quietly watched the insurgents who had held pos- 
Scf iion of that famous city, was reinforced by English and vSikh troops; anil on the 
25':h (August, 1S57), the mutineers were defeated at Nujulfghur with heavy loss 
On the 7th of September, the British connnenced besieging Delhi with vigor. The 
Hrhole British force did not exceed 4,000 men. On the 14th of September, (Gen- 
eral Wilson, the British commander, divided his army into four columns. Two 01 



NlNl'/rKl'lNTll CEN-fdR V. 



y)i 



llusc coliiinnn c.-iriicd lli<' ( ':r,liiii(rc ;miiI \V:iIii Im iIdms ],y slniiii, (ill (In; sailK; <l;iy. 
'I 'III- ( ':i'.liiii( ic I'illc w:i'. Iiliiu II II 1 1, w III II I III- I liii i| I III II II I II {nil II 1 1 ihc oilier lvv<i ill 
llli; :lS!,:iiill ; :iiii| 'hcloic I lir i |i,m- (,l I lir (hiy, llu: lirilisli were iiiiislci s of ii ( diii idri 
nlilc |iiiili 111 III llii(ily. 'I'lii: rmiilli ( iiliiliiii vv:is i'('|iiils('(l in iiii iill:ii k ii|iiiii lite 
lily. On llu: 151I1 (Scpli'iiilitT, I.S57), llic; Hiilish sliclicd tlic jiiiiiicc iind hallrnid 
'li'. iii.ij;:i/.iiu' ; and on (lie 161I1, a IJrilisli f.loiniiiifj parly riislic'd (oiward, vvlu ic- 

ll|i 111 llii: iliMll;;rlil :il I i I Ici yiiicii llnl ill iii',iii:iy, Icivilij^ llic Itl'ilisll ill |MjS;ujMsi(Jll of 
lix jiicir:, (il (Miiiiiiii. ()ii iIk- 171I1 and iSlli, llic ltiili:.li );aini'<! M.'vi:ral iiii{i(>i am 

Ii(lvaiila;M'!; ; and ahrr :.cvci'a I ninn- asianlls, llic niiili a:, ( iilii riy cvai iLidd (In 

cily III l)rllii, which caiiic inln Ihc iiiililaiy pir, scsaun id Ihc |\ii|di',|i nii Ihc ;•< n h 
(if Sc])lciiilic|-. (I.S57.) A );ica,l |).ul (/I Ihc lnvvn vva', laid in iiiiir-: iiid lillcd 
vvilli ccirjiscs, and lunnlicrs ol (;a|iliii('d iniiliiiccrs were jinl In a laiicl dcalli. 

Siege of Lucknow -BatUc of Mungarwar- Relief of Lucknow. Siii(<; 
Juiiit, 1X57, a lai^jc: liody cif ICnjdisli lioops and WDnitiii and < liildn n had liiin 
l)csic;;cd in lln; n:sidcncy al laiikiiDW, by 50,000 iiisiirj.M:nts. While niaiihiiiii lo 
their relief, Ociicial liavclink ddcaled /|<),ooo iirair(;(ail'., in die halllc i,\ Miiniiar- 
war, on Ihe ::i;.l ol Sc|ilcnilicr. ('■*\')7-) Aller a Inreed iiiai(li nl luiir day.i, 
Ilaveloek ami his lionjis a|i|icared al I anl.mivv, <iii llie 25lh ol Se|ilcinli( 1 , and 
rciicvc:d llic liravi; (;aiiiMin. Allci m v( n- liidiliii};, llie rehcl Sejioys were i<|iiilse<l 
ill all llieir assaillls ; Iml ihcy slid iimliniicd ihe Kie(.;e with vi(;or. ( »ii Ihe r;!dio( 
Noveiiiher (lcS57), Sir ( ^olin ('anijilicll arrived al Lm know, with a '.Irnnj' l'ai(di:,h 
force, and look Ihc j.;arrisoii, alon;; willi llu; women and (liildien, to ( ,'aw'ii|ioie. 

Insurgent Attack on Cawnporc Siege and Capture of Lucknow. In 
Dceeiiiln'r, I.S57, ( ,'awn|ior(r was allaeked liy 25,oof) rc'liel Sepoys, lail tli<: linnly 
arrival of Ihe llrilisli loree, limh'r Sir (,'olin ( !aiii|iliell, saved llie place, and oMiiied 
Ihe miiliiieers lo reliic, allcr a severe eii};a;4('inenl. Soon allcrward, Sir ( !oliii ( 'amp 
lull laid sicgi; lo Jan know, vvliicli jilacc, after ii vi|^orous sie^e, h II inio Ihc hand:, 
of the Itrilisli on the 17111 ol March, 185.S. 

Siege and Capture of Gwalior Close of tlic Sepoy Rebellion. Aliir 
the fall of I an know, ( iwali'ir lieeaiiie Ihe slionidiold nl llie Sepny relicllinn ; lint 
ill June, lS5><, Ihat slrolij; place was compelled lo yield lo Ihe iJi ilisli ai ins ; allei 
wliicli llic war assumed a guerrilla cliaracleri and small hands roamed ovca- vaiious 
parls of India mild Iheclo.eof iSyj, when |ieaccwa, (iilly restored, ;ilid lliilish 
mil hill ily vva; cniiipldcly 1 1 c .Lilih.licd in India.. 'Ihc ai live pnvvci of ihe ichcninii 
had |)assccl away with the lall ol (iwalior, in tin: siimiiua' ol 1H5S; and soon aller 
lli.il eveiil, llie (iovernor-Ciencral, Lord Canning, ordered a, piihlic Ih.ink; jdvinj; 
lor llii: oveilhrow of Ihc rehellioii, and the restoration of peace lo Jirilish India. 
Ivl any of the vampiishc^d rchcis were pill to death in a most barbarous manner. 
A very important result of the iiiutiiiy was llie transfer, in tlie KUinmcr cf 1X58, 
of llic government of liritish India from the Last India Company to the Liiglisb 
cri'vvn. * 

^rilh: ITALIAN WAK (1859). 

Attempted Assassination of Napoleon III. In January, 1X15.S, while Inc 
Kmperor Napoleon III. was passing the It.dian ojiera hiiuse in I'aris, llirce Imlluw 
projectiles were aimed at his perscjii, killing and wounding a number of jier.sons. 



392 



MODERN HISTORY. 



The Italian refugee, Orsini, who made this attempt at regicide, was punished with 
death. 

Warlike Threat of Napoleon III. — During the reception of foreign ministers, 
at his palace, on New Year's Day, 1859, the Emperor Napoleon III., in speaking 
to the Austrian ambassador to France about the affairs of Italy, made some remarks 
vvhi,h w« re regarded by all who heard them as implying a threat of war; and it 
soon appeared that France was arming on an extensive scale. A marriage was 
negotiated between Prince Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin, and the Prir-ceii 
'^'otilda, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, who was an avovsea 
opponent of Austria with respect to the question of Italian independence; ano 
events indicated the speedy approach of war. 

Demands of Austria for the Disarmament of Sardinia. — The King A 
Sardinia, supported by France, was now making earnest preparations for war. 
Austria demanded that Sardinia should immediately disarm. Great Britain and 
Russia endeavored to avert hostilities by negotiation; but Austria's demand for the 
immediate disarmament of Sardinia was opposed by the other powers. Austria then 
proposed that all the powers should disarm. This was agreed to by Russia, Prussia, 
England, France, and Sardinia; but the proposition that the Italian States should 
be represented in a congress of the Five Great Powers was opposed by Austria, 
which still insisted on the immediate disarmament of Sardinia. This demand was 
still objected to by the other powers; and, as Austria would not recede from the 
position which she had taken, all hopes for an amicable settlement of the difficulty 
were dispelled. 

Sardinia's Rejection of Austria's Ultimatum — Austrian Invasion of 
Sardinia. — In the latter part of April, 1859, Austria sent to Sardinia an ultima- 
tum, demanding the immediate disbandment of her Italian volunteers, allowing 
only three days for a reply, and threatening war in case of a rejection of the demand. 
The King of Sardinia rejected the Austrian ultimatum ; and the Chambers, which 
he immediately summoned, conferred upon him dictatorial powers. On the 26th 
of April (1859), the Austrian army, in three divisions, numbering together 120,000 
men, crossed the Ticino, and invaded Sardinia. 

French Troops Sent to Italy— Napoleon III. Goes to Italy. — When 
intelligence of the Austrian invasion of Sardinia reached France, a manifesto pre- 
pared by the French Emperor was presented in the Corps Legislatif, declaring that 
France would stand by Sardinia. Large bodies of French troops were now pushed 
foward into Italy with the utmost haste; and, on the loth of May, the Emperor 
Napoleon III., leaving the Government of France in the hands of the Empress 
Eugenie as regent, left Paris to take command of the French troops in person. On 
the I2th (May, 1859), he reached Genoa, where he met with a most enthusiastic 
reception. 

Battle of Montebello. — After having exhausted the countiy which they had 
invaded, th; Austrians fell back slowly toward Lombardy. The first battle of the 
Italian war was fought on the 20th of May, 1859, at Montebello — the same place 
where, on the 9th of June, 1800, the French, under General Lannes, defeated the 
Austrians. After desperate fighting, the Austrians were defeated, with considerable 
loss. The French, who were commanded by General Forey, lost less than 700 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3P2 

men in killed and wounded. Among the killed on the side of the French was 
General Beuret. On the following day (May 21, 1859), a slight engagement oc 
curred between the Auslrians and the left wing of the allied army under General 
Cialdini. 

Italian and French Invasion of Lombardy — Defeats of the Austrians. 

— A bod}' jf Italian volunteers, under General Garibaldi, invaded Lombardy and 
captuied Varese, where they repulsed an attack of the Austrians, on the 26th of 
May. After a fierce conflict on the 27th, the Italians took possession of Como, the 
Austrians retreating to Camerletta, where they were again defeated, and compelled 
to Continue their retreat. On the 29th of May, the Emperor Francis Joseph, 
of Austria, left Vienna for the seat of war, and arrived at Verona on the 3lt.t. 
On the 29th, the Sardinians crossed the Sesia, and forced the Austrian works at 
Palcstro, capturing two pieces of artillery, and some small arms ahd prisoners. On 
the 31st, 25,000 Austrians were severely repulsed in an attempt to recover Palsstro. 
On the 1st of June, a French force, under General Niel, expelled the Austrians 
from Novara, after an insignificant conflict. The Emperor of the French entered 
Novara at five o'clock in the evening of the same day, meeting vidlh an enthusiastic 
reception. 

Battle of Magenta — Proclamations of Napoleon and Victor Emman- 
uel. — On the 4th of June, 1859, was fought the great battle of Magenta, in which 
100,000 French and Sardinians, under General MacMahon, were engaged. The 
Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men in killed, wounded, and pris- 
oners. After the battle, the Emperor of the French and the King of Sardinia 
entered Milan, where they were welcomed with the warmest enthusiasm. Napo- 
leon III. published a proclamation to the Italian people, declaring his intention of 
securing to Italy nationality and independence; and Victor Emmanuel issued a 
proclamation to the people of Lombardy, declaring that countiy united with Sardinia. 

Battles of Melegnano and Solferino. — On the 8th of June, occurred the 
battle of Melegnano, which lasted nine hour;-?, and in which 30,000 Austrians were 
engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 3200 men in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners. On the 24th of June (1859), was fought the famous 
battle of Solferino, in which the contending forces on each side numbered about 
140,000 men, and in which the Emperor Napoleon III. and King Victor Emmanuel 
commanded their troops in person. This sanguinary conflict raged from five 
o'clock in the morning until late in the afternoon, and resulted in the utter defeat 
of the Austrians, who were compelled to make a hasty retreat. . 

Peace of Villa Franca. — An armistice was agreed to on the 8th of July, 1859; 
and on the nth of the same month, a treaty of peace was signed at Villa Franca, 
between the Emperors of France and Austria. The treaty was concluded on tht 
following basis : the formation of an Italian Confederation, under the honorary pre- 
sidency of the Pope; the cession of Lombardy by Austria to France, in trust for 
Sardinia; and Venetia, although retained by Austria, to constitute an integral pait 
of the Italian Confederation. The King of Sardinia was dissatisfied with this treaty, 
and his Prime Minister, Count Cavour, immediately resigned. The Emperor Napo- 
leon III. now left Italy, and arrived at his palace of St. Cloud on the 17th of July. 
A defi litive treaty of peace was agreed upon at Zurich, in November, 1859. In a 



394 



MODERN in ST OK Y. 



war with Anam (1S5S-1S62), lu-.mce obtained by conquest a l;uge portion of 
Cocliiii China. 

ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1860-1861. 

Garibaldi's Invasions of Sicily and Naples- -Revolution in Naples.— 

I nporiant events occurred in Italy in 1S60 — events which resulted in the unification 
of Italy. Genenxl Garibaldi, with a band of Italian volunteers, landed in Sicily, and 
proclaimed himself Dictator for the King of Sardinia. Gaiubaldi carried Palcnno 
by storm, defeated the forces of Francis II., King of Naples, and then invading the 
main-land of the Kingdom of Naples, completely overthrew the Neapolitan aimy, 
and compelled the King of Naples to flee from his dominions. After the (light of 
Francis II., Victor Emmanuel entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. 

Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy — Victor Emmanuel King. — 
In 1S61, all the Italian States, excepting the Austrian province of Venetia, the Re- 
public of San Marino, and the Papal dominions, were consolidated into one great 
State, designated " The Kingdom of Italy," the crown of which was bestowed on 
King Victor Ennnanuel of Sardinia. 

GREEK REVOLUTION OF 1862. 

Misrule of King Otho. — For a long time, the Greek people had suffered under 
the misrule of King Otho. Oppression followed oppression. The greater part of 
the uncultivated lands became the property of the crown. The peasants were re- 
quired to pay a heavy land-tax, and manufactures were discouraged. The public 
money was squandered by the exti-avagant court; and the corrupt Ministry succeeded 
by bribes in having the Legislative Chambers filled with the supporters of the 
crown. 

Tyrannical Measures of King Otho. — The growing discontent of the Greek 
people compelled King Otho to call oh Canaris to form a new Ministry; but when 
Canaris presented to the king a memorial asking for the dissolution of the fraudu- 
lently-elected Chambei"s, the formation of a national guard, and the abolition of the 
censorship of the press, he was dismissed, and the corrupt Ministry remained in 
power. 

Insurrections of Nauplia and Syra — Flight and Abdication of Otho. — 
Soon afterward. King Otho caused more than lOOO of the popular party to be im- 
prisoned, An a charge of plotting against the Government. The result of this out- 
rageous act was the breaking out of a revolt at Nauplia, on the 12th of February, 
1862. The city of Nauplia was besieged by the Government troops, and the insur- 
gents were forced to surrender on the 20th of April (1S62). An amnesty was 
granted tc al! but nineteen of the insurgents ; but this amnesty was afterwards vio- 
lated, and many of the insurgents were thrown into prison. Another insuiTection 
agxiinst the king had in the meantime broken out in the island of Syra. The Syrins 
u-ere defeated in tl e nav;J battle of Tiiermia, but still they refused to submit. 
During the summer, the spirit of opposition to the Government manifested itself 
throughout Greece, while the tyranny of the king continually increased. Conv'cts 
were liberated from the prisons to plunder and keep down the people; and '.he 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^5 

press was prohibited from publishing the sentiments of the people. The opposition 
to King Otho became so great that he was obliged to abdicate hLi throne, on the 
30th of October, 1862, and to leave Greece a few days afterward. A provisional 
government, under Demetrius Bulgaris, was immediately installed; and in the fol- 
lowing year (1863), Prince George, of Denmark, was raised to the throne of Greece, 
with the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. 

POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1862-3-4. 

Tyrannical Proceedings of the Russians at Warsaw. — The Poles who haa 
assembled at Warsaw on the I5tli of October, 1861, to celebrate the memory of 
Kosciuszko, were prevented from doing so by the Russian authorities, who, the day 
before, had declared the city in a state of siege, and stationed largi^ bodies of troops 
in the streets. The people nevertheless assemljled in the churches peaceably, and 
when the churches were filled, the soldiers ordered them to disperse. As the Poles 
refused to obey, the Russian soldiers, by order of their commander, carried more 
than 2000 of them to the Citadel. These tyrannical proceedings were followed by 
the arrest, imprisonment, banishment, and condemnation to death of the most promi- 
nent Poles. 

Attempted Assassination of the Archduke Constantine. — In the summei 
of 1862, attempts were made by the Poles in Warsaw to assassinate the Archduke 
Constantine, Lieutenant of Poland, and brother of the Czar Alexander II. The 
Archduke and Count Wialopolski were severely wounded, but the assassins were 
arrested, condemned, and executed. 

Military Conscription — Polish Insurrection and Its Suppression. — In 
November, 1862, the Russian Government determined to put the citizens of the 
towns in Poland who had manifested any opposition to its authority, into the Russian 
army as common soldiers, and to send them to perform military service in Siberia. 
This harsh measure roused the Poles to a spirit of resistance; and a general insur- 
rection against Russian authority commenced throughout Poland. Small bands of 
insurgent Poles engaged in numeroas conflicts with the Russian troops without 
decisive results. The revolt never arose above the character of a guerrilla war. 
This Polish rebellion at one time threatened complications dangerous to the general 
peace of Europe. England, France, Austria, and Sweden, sympathized with the 
Poles, and asked of the Russian Emperor the amelioration of their condition. The 
insurrection continued for upwards of a year, and it was with great difficulty that 
the Russian Government was enabled to suppress the rebellion in the summer of 
1864. The Czar adopted harsh measures against the unfortunate Poles, many of 
whom were imprisoned, banished, or executed, 

RUSSIAN SERF EMANCIPATION (1863). 

Russian Conquest of Circassia — The Russian Serfs. — Russia enlarges 
ber Tast i miinions by the conquest of Circassia, in 1859, after a sanguinary strjggic 
of tLirty years, during which the Circassian tribes, led by the valiant and h-roic 
warrior-prophet, Schamyl, defied all the efforts of the Russians, and fought brave'y 
for their independence. The attention of the Russian Government was not wholly 



396 



MODERN HISTORY. 



absorbed by schemes of conquest and territorial aggrandizement; ami the Czar 
Alexander II. immoitalized his name by the emancipation of all the serfs or slaves 
in the Russian dominions. Of the thirty- eight millions of serfs in the Russian 
Empire at that time, sixteen millions were the property of the Russian crown. 
They we:e bought and sold with the lands on which they lived, and their condition 
was in all lespects very degraded. 

Emancipation of the Serfs. — In February, 1861, the Czar issued a decree, 
promi-ing the emancipation of the serfs two years after that date. In accordance 
with this decree, the Russian serfs received their freedom in February, 1863, and 
measures were taken for their improvement. 

THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR (1864). 

The Danish and Schleswig-Holstein Succession. — A Congress of Euro- 
pean Powers, assembled at London, in 1S52, settled the succession to the throne of 
Denmark, and to the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, upon Prince 
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg. On the death of King 
Christian VIII. of Denmark, in November, 1863, Prince Christian succeeded to 
the throne of Denmark and to the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schles- 
wig and Holstein ; but the succession to the Duchies was claimed by Prince 
Frederic of Augustenburg, whose rights had been disregarded by the London Con- 
gress of European Powers. The people of Schleswig and Holstein, mostly Ger- 
mans, for the most part sided with the Prince of Augustenburg, who also had the 
sympathies of the whole German nation. 

German- Federal, Austrian, and Prussian Armies in Holstein. — In Janu- 
ary, 1864, the Diet of the Germanic Confederation sent an army into Schleswig and 
Holstein, to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, and to prevent 
the incorporation of those German Duchies with the Kingdom of Denmark ; while 
Austria and Prussia, acting independently of the Federal Diet, also sent armies into 
the Duchies; and a war ensued between Denmark and the German Powers. 

First Campaign— Capture of Doppel. — On the 4th of February, 1864, hos- 
tilities between the Danes and the Germans commenced at Missunde. The war 
was prosecuted with vigor on the part of the Germans, and, after a spirited cam- 
paign, the Danes were defeated. The most important event of the first campaign 
was the capture of Doppel by the Prussians, on the 1 8th of April, 1864. Although 
her army was defeated, Denmark still refused to accept peace by relinquishing the 
sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; and Austria and 
Prussia undertook a second campaign to force Denmark to tenns. 

Second Campaign — Capture of Alsen. — The Danish army still gallantly 
resisted, but in vain. The Austrians and Prussians were again victorious. The 
island nf Alsen was captured by the Prussians, under Prince Frederic Charles, on 
the Qtt of July, 1S64, after a sanguinary struggle. Active hostilities had lasted five 
months and Denmark was now obliged to accept peace on such terms as Austria, 
Pnissia, and the Geraianic Confederation chose to dictate. 

Peace of Vienna. — On the 30th of October, 1864, a treaty of peace was con- 
cluded at \'ienna, between Denmark and the German powers, by which Kinj( 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



397 



Christian VIII. of Denmark relinquished all claims to the sovereignty of the Ger- 
man Dr.chies of Schleswig and Holstein. 

THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR (1866) 

The Schleswig-Holstein Controversy Between Austria and Prussia. 
— A. dispute between Austria and Prussia concerning the sovereignty of the Duchies 
if Schleswig and Holstein, which those two great powers had wrested from Den- 
■nark in 1864. led to a short, but fierce and decisive, war, in the summer of 1866. 
Austria seemed disposed to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg 
to the sovereignty of the Duchies; but, in October, 1865, Prussia declared that, 
according to the late treaty with Denmark, the sovereignty of the two Duchies had 
been yielded to Austria and Prussia jointly. Prussia considered thp favor of Austria 
for Prince Frederic of Augustenburg as indicating antagonism to the joint sover- 
eignty of Austria and Prussia over the Duchies. 

Arming of Austria and Prussia — Alliance of Prussia and Italy. — In the 
early part of 1866, Austria placed her army on a war-footing; and Prussia, suspect- 
ing the designs of Austria, began to arm in her defense. Austria pretended that 
her military preparations were with the view of protecting the Jews in Bohemia 
from persecution. The smaller German States endeavored to have the difficulty 
between the two great powers settled by the process of Austragal Judgment, as 
provided for in the eleventh article of the Federal Pact; but Prussia insisted on a 
reorganization of the Germanic Confederation. At length, both Austria and Prussia 
agreed to disarm; but in the meantime, Prussia had entered into an offensive and 
defensive alliance with Italy; and both Austria and Prussia continued their arma- 
ments. 

Demand of Prussia— Prussian Troops sent into Holstein. — The discus- 
sions of Prussia's demand for a reorganization of the Germanic Diet rendered an 
amicable adjustment of the dispute still more difficult; and at length, Prussia 
declared that if her demand were not complied with by the Diet, she would seek 
redress through some other source. The Austrian governor of Holstein had 
received orders to summon the Estates of the Duchy to consider their politicdl rela- 
tions. Prussia considered this as a violation of the stipulations of the treaty of 
1864; and Cqunt von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime-Minister, dispatched a military 
force into Holstein, and the Austrians withdrew from the Duchy. 

Mobilization of the German-Federal Army — Declaration of War. — A 
motion for the mol^lization of the German-Federal army was, through the mfluence 
of Austria, adopted by the Federal Diet; whereupon Prussia declared the Diet dis- 
solved, on account of the violation of the Germanic Constitution, withdrew froru 
tlie Germanic Confederation, and called upon the German States to unite with her 
under a new constitution. On the i8th of June, 1866, Italy and Prussia formally 
and conjointly df dared war against Austria, and immediately set their Armies in 
motion. 

Flight of the King of Saxony — Surrender of the Hanoverian Army.— - 

Prussian troops had already occupied Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and Saxony, because 
those States refused to unite with Prussia in a new confederation. The King of 
Saxony fled into Bohemia, destroying the bridges and tearing up the railroads 



39^ 



MODERN' HI ST OR Y. 



behind him. Prussia vainly attempted a reconciliation with Hanover. Although 
successful in an action with the Prussians, the Hanoverian anny, not receiving the 
expected assistance of the Bavarians, was obliged to surrender to the Prussians, 
•whose i^^imbers were continually increasing. 

Prussian Victories over the Bavarian and Federal-German Armies. — 
The Bavarians, being several times disastrously defeated by the Prussians, were 
obliged to retire behind the Main. The Prussians next defeated the Federal- 
German army at Aschaffenburg, and forced it to retire beyond the Main, where it 
effected a junction with the defeated Bavarians. 

Operations in Italy — Battle of Custozza — Naval Battle of Lissa. — 
The Italian armies were at this time contending against the Austrians in Northern 
Italy. On the 24th of June (1866), was fought the battle of Custozza, in which the 
Italians were defeated and compelled to retreat. In July, the Italian army invaded 
Venetia, and forced the Austrians to fall back. General Garibaldi, with 12,000 
Italians, was in the passes of the Tyrol, to the left of the main Italian army. The 
Italian right wing compelled the Austrians to retreat beyond Trent, in the Tyrol. 
The Italian right pursued the Austrians in their retreat through Venetia. While 
these movements were taking place on land, the Italian navy was defeated off the 
island of Lissa, by the Austrian fleet under Admiral Tegethoff. 

Prussian Invasion of Bohemia. — In the meantime, the Prussians were con- 
ducting a brilliant campaigii against the Austrians in Bohemia. Three large Prus- 
sian armies, numbering together more than 200,000 men, had been assembled in 
June, 1866, for the invasion of the Austrian province of Bohemia. The ist Prus- 
sian army, under Prince Frederic Charles, the nephew of King William of Prussia, 
advanced into Bohemia from Saxony ; the 3d Prussian army, under General von 
Bitterfeld, joined the 1st Prussian army in Bohemia, before the close of June; and 
the two combined forced the Austrians to fall back. In the meantime, the 2d Prus- 
sian army, under the command of the Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia, 
passed the frontiers of Silesia, and advancing into Bohemia, defeated the Austrians 
on the 27th of June. (1866.) 

Battle of Sadowa. — After brilliant maneuvering, and a series of conflicts, in 
which the Prussians captured 15,000 prisoners and twenty-four pieces of artillery, 
the 1st and 3d Prussian aiTnies became engaged with 200,000 Austrians, under 
Field-Marshal Benedek, at nine o'clock in the morning of the 3d of July, 1866, at 
the little village of Sadowa, near Koniggratz. The Prussians had held their 
ground firmly against the superior force of the Austrians, when the arrival of the 
Crown-Prince with the 2d Prussian army, at one o'clock in the afternoon, decided 
the battle against the Austrians, who, after fighting bravely, were defeated with the 
loss of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 1 74 pieces of cannon. 
The victorious Prussians lost 20,000 men. 

Peace of Prague. — After the battle of Sadowa, the shattered Austrian forces 
retreatecT to Olmutz, in Moravia, pursued by the Prussians, who gained another vie- 
tory on the 22d of July. (1866.) The Austrian Government, seriously alarmed 
at the rapid advance of the triumphant Prussians, was now anxious for peace; and, 
through the mediation of France, an armistice was concluded on the 26th of July. 
On the 23d of Augus* (1868), a treaty of peace was signed at Prague, by the 




GLADSTONE. 




DISRAELI 



NINETEENTH CENTURY 



399 



plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia. By this treaty, Austria ceded Venetia to 
Italy, and consented to the formation of a new German Confederation, from which 
she was to be excluded; and the entire sovereignty of the Duchies of Schleswig 
and Holstein was surrendered to Prussia. 

Prussian Treaties with Other German States — Peace of Vienna. — Prus- 
sia concli.ded treaties of peace, on advantageous terms for herself, with Wurtem- 
berg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. An armistice had been proclaimet' 
between Austria and Italy; and, on the 3d of October, 1866, a treaty of peace W- 
' weeij these two powers was signed at Vienna, Austria surrendering Venetia to Italy. 
A confederation of North German States, with Prussia at its head, was established; 
and Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt became independent sov- 
ereign states. 

ENGLISH REFORMS (1867-1869). 

The Russell Ministry— Rejection of the Reform Bill. — For some time, 
England had been agitated by the question of a more popular representation in 
Parliament. A reform bill, brought forward by the Ministiy of Earl Russell, was, 
after much discussion, rejected by Parliament, on the iSth of June, 1866. This 
result produced much excitement and dissatisfaction throughout England. Immense 
reform demonstrations were made in various parts of the kingdom, and in some of 
the principal cities serious riots occurred. 

The Derby Cabinet — Passage of the Reform Bill — War with Abyssinia. 

■ — The Whig Ministry of Earl Russell was succeeded by a Tory Cabinet, at the 
head of which was Earl Derby. The Derby Ministry proposed very liberal 
measures of refomi, which occupied the attention of Parliament for several months; 
and a reform bill greatly extending the right of suflVage by diminishing the pro- 
perty qualification of voters for members of Parliament, was finally passed by 
both Houses of Parliament, in August, 1867; and on the 15th of that month, it 
received the royal assent. The chief event connected with the foreign policy 
of England during Lord Derby's Administration was the advance of an expedition, 
under General Robert Napier, into Abyssinia, late in 1867; and the Abyssinian 
king, Theodore, who had refused to release his English captives, was defeated and 
killed in April, 1S6S. 

The Disraeli Administration — Reform Bill for Ireland. — In May, 1868, 
Earl Derby was succeeded as Prime- Minister of Great Britain by Mr. Disraeli, the 
chief leader of the Tory party in the House of Commons. A reform bill for 
Ireland, proposed by Mr. Gladstone, one of the Whig leaders in the House of 
Commons, was passed. The disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland 
was now agitated by the English Liberal party, headed by John Bright and William 
E. Gladstone. In August, 1868, the Ministry dissolved Parliament and ordered 
new elections, in order to test the sense of the nation. 

The Gladstone Ministry — Disestablishment of the Irish Church.— The 
Parliamentary elections in November, 1 868, resulted in overwhelming majoiities 
for the candidates of the Liberal party, in consequence of which Mr. Disraeli and 
his colleagues resigned, early in December (1868); and a Whig Ministry, with Mr. 
Gladstone at its head, came into power. The great measure of Gladstone's 



400 MODERN HISTORY. 

Administration was the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland. A 
disestabiishment bill, which encountered the most strenuous opposition on the pari 
of the aristocratic Tories in the House cf Lords, was finally passed in August, 
1869, and received the royal assent on the 26th of that month. The Irish land 
bill, which was designed to better the condition of the tenant population of Ire- 
land, was also passed and approved by the sovereign. Thus were removed just 
causes of complaint on the part of the people of Ireland 

SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1868. 

Spain's Wars with Morocco, Peru, and Chili — Tyranny of Queen Is- 
abella II. — The most prominent events in the recent histoiy of Spain were the 
successful war against Morocco, in 1859 and i860; the sending of the allied Eng- 
lish. French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, in December, 1861; and the 
war against Peru and Chili, in 1864 and 1865. The dissolute and tyrannical conj 
duct of Queen Isabella II. made her detested by her subjects. Unsuccessful insur- 
rections against her authority occurred at different times, and for several years, 
Spain was in a disturbed condition. 

Spanish Revolution of September, 1868 — Flight of Queen Isabella II. — 
Isabella's extravagance and profusion to her favorites produced a growing discontent 
throughout the Spanish kingdom; and about the middle of September, 186S, while 
the queen was at San Sebastian, on her way to visit the Emperor Napoleon III., an 
insurrection, headed by Generals Prim and Serrano, broke out. The revolt soon 
extended throughout the whole kingdom, and all the important towns declared 
against the queen. The army and navy joined the insurgents, who soon took pos- 
session of Madrid. The authority of Queen Isabella II. was now 'at an end, and 
she fled to France; and a Central Provisional Junta was formed to conduct public 
affairs. A bloody insurrection against Spanish authority now broke out in the 
island of Cuba, and continued several years. 

A Constituent Cortes — A New Constitution — Serrano, Regent. — In 
November, 1868, elections for a Constituent Cortes were held in Spain. This 
Cortes assembled soon afterwards, and, after long deliberation, adopted a new 
monarchical constitution, on the 1st of June, 1869; and General Serrano was 
appointed regent of the Spanish kingdom, until a king should be chosen. General 
Prim was placed at the head of the Ministry. 

Carlist and Republican Insurrections. — In August, 1869, an insurrection of- 
the Carlists broke out in the north-eastern part of Spain, but it was promptly sup- 
pressed by the Government troops. A Republican insurrection in the following 
month (September, 1869), was also crushed, after the cities of Valencia and Sara- 
gossa, where the Republicans had determined to make a desperate stand, were taken, 
after furious assaults and sanguinary fighting in the streets. 

The Duke of Aosta Elected King of Spain. — On the 17th of November, 
870, the Spanish Cortes, by a vole of 191 against 120, elected the Duke of Ao-.'Lt. 
son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, King of Spain, with the title of Amad;fu 
I, In the beginning of January, 1871, the newly-elected king made his entrance 
j-ito Madrid, and took the oath to support the new constitution of the Spanish 
nation. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



401 



Assassination of General Prim. — Strong opposition to the new king was 
manifested by the Spaiiisli RepubUcans, and also by the Carlists ; and General Prim, 
the ablest of Spanish statesmen, was bitterly hated by the Republicans, many of 
whom regarded him as the chief obstacle in the way of the establishment of a Span- 
ish Republic. As General Prim was returning from the Cortes, on the night of tlie 
27th of December, 1870, eight shots were fired at his carriage, by a party cf assas 
sins in the streets. The General was wounded in three places, and died on the 31st. 
The death of Prim produced a profound sensation of grief in Madrid, and thraugl ■ 
out Spain ; and great popular indignation was manifested against the assassins. Th'; 
Cortes adopted a resolution in honor of the memory of the great statesman, declaring 
that the deceased deserved well of his country, and placed his family under the 
protection of the Sjianish nation. 

THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). 

Candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. — At the 

beginning of July, 1870, General Prim, the Prime- Minister of Spain, with the con- 
sent of Serrano, the- Regent of that country, invited Prince Leopold, of Hohenzol- 
lern-Sigmaringen, a German prince, to become a candidate for the vacant throne 
of Spain. Regarding the candidature of this prince as a menace to France on the 
part of Spain and Prussia, the French Government violently opposed the project; 
and the Duke de Gramont, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, immediately 
informed the Governments of Spain and Prussia that France would not consent to 
the election of a Prussian prince to the throne of Spain. 

Diplomatic Note to Prussia — -Reply to France. — On the 5th of July, Emile 
Ollivier, the French Prime-Minister, held a consultation with the Duke de Gramont 
and Senor Olozaga, the Spanish ambassador at Paris, and the result was a sharp 
diplomatic note to Baron Werther, the Prussian ambassador to France. Immedi- 
ately aft'='r receiving the note, Baron Werther started for Ems, to meet the King of 
Prussia. General Prim refused to abandon the candidacy of the Prince of Hohen- 
zollern 'mtil the Spanish Cortes should have decided on the question; and the 
Prussian Government, in reply to the diplomatic note from the French Cabinet, 
stated tl at Prussia did nothing toward obtaining the offer of the Spanish crown for 
Prince Leopold, that the consent of the King of Prussia to its acceptance would be 
^iven after the Spanish Cortes had acted on the question, and that if the Cortes 
fhoulc' choose the prince to the vacant throne Prussia would support him. 

Co .rse of Spain and Prussia. — At a Council of Ministers in Madrid, ihe 
ccurse of General Prim was unanimously approved, and the candidature of the Prii ce 
of Hohenzollern was accepted. It was believed in Paris that Prim and the Count 
von Bismarck, the shrewd and unprincipled Prime-Minister of Prussia, had for some 
time been secretly intriguing for the elevation of the Prince of Hohenzollern to the 
Spanish throne. Spain denied that she was influenced by Prussia in regard to thr 
candidacy of the Prince of Hohenzollern ; and Prussia declared herself innocent of 
all political intrigue, and asserted that she had no right nor inclination to dictate to 
Spain, or to the Prince of Hohenzollern. England, Austria, and Russia, made vain 
efforts for the preservation of peace. 

Military Preparations of France. — France was now making the most earnest 
26 



402 MODERN HISTOR Y. 

militar}' preparations, and the Garde Mobile and the Garde Nationale were put up/n 
a war-footing. The greatest activity prevailed at Toulon, Cherbourg, and other 
French ports; and troops were being rapidly moved eastward toward the Rhine. 
The Imperial Guards were placed under the command of Marshal Bazaine; and 
Marshal MacMahon was ordered home from Algeria, to take command of the French 
army which was to operate on the Rhine. Marshal Canrobert and General? Failly 
and Frossard were also appointed to important commands. 

Formal Withdrawal of Prince Leopold — Demand of France. — On thf 
12th of July (1870), Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, declining tc 
be the cause of a European war, formally withdrew as a candidate for the Spanish 
throne. Not satisfied with the conduct of the King of Prussia in sanctioning the 
withdrawal of the candidacy of Prince Leopold as head of the Hohenzollern family, 
the French Government demanded that he should do it as King of Prussia. But 
King William declined to do this, as he regarded such a step as inconsistent with the 
dignity to which Prussia was entitled as one of the first class powers of the world. 
Prussian troops were now also hurried to the Rhine. 

Dismissal of the French Ambassador — Declaration of War. — On the 
14th of July (1870), Count Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia, demanded 
an audience of King William, at Ems, for the purpose of securing the perpetual 
renunciation of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as a candidate for 
the throne of Spain ; but as the king refused to receive him he started for Paris ; 
and on the following day (July 15th, 1870), the French Corps Legislatif declared 
war against Prussia. 

The Prussian Armies. — Both the French and the Prussian people were enthu- 
siastic in support of their respective governments. All the German States rallied 
to the aid of Prussia, and the immediate mobilization of the whole Prussian army 
was ordered. The Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia was placed in com- 
mand of the South German armies, while his cousin. Prince Frederic Charles, was 
appointed to take command of the forces of North Germany. Although King 
William of Prussia was the nominal commander-in-chief of the German armies, the 
direction of the military operations of Germany was in the hands of the skillful 
general, Count von Moltke. After concentrating between Mayence and Coblentz, 
the Prussian forces were moved to the French frontier. 

The French Armies. — After concentrating in the vicinity of Nancy, Metz, and 
Thionville, the French forces were moved forward to the German frontier. In the 
latter part of July, the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris for the seat of war, and 
took the chief command of the French armies. The principal French armies were 
the Army of the Moselle, under Marshal Bazaine, in the neighborhood of Metz and 
Thionville, and the Army of the Rhine, under Marshal MacMahon, in the vicinity 
of Strasburg. There was also a large army of reserves, under Marshal Canrobert, 
at Chalons-sur-Marne. 

Numerical Strength of the Belligerent Forces — Skirmish at Saar- 
Virucken. — Toward the end of July, the German troops, 700,000 in number, occu- 
pied a line along the French frontier, extending from the Moselle to the Rhine. 
The French troops, 350,000 in number, were assembled at various points along the 
frontier, directly opposite the Prussian line. Skirmishes occurred at Saarbrucken, 




FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE CROWN PRINCf 




LEOPOLD. 



NINE7E3NTH CENTURY. 403 

on the 30th of July and on the 1st of August, in which the French were repulsed, 
but on the 2d of August, the town was captured by the French, after a sharp fight. 
Battle of Weissenbourg — Advance of the Prussian Line. — On the 4th 
of August, the frontier town of Weissenbourg was captured by a part of the Prus- 
sian army under the Crown- Prince Frederic William, after a spirited engagemfnt, 
in which the French General Douay was killed, and Soo French troops were made 
prisoners by the Prussians. The Prussian victory at Weissenbourg was followed 
by a general advance of the whole Prussian line int' France, and the Count voo 
Moltke immediately assumed an offensive attitude. 

Battle of Woerth — Battle of Forbach. — On the 6th of August was fought 
the battle of Woerth or Froschwiller, in which the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with a 
large force of Prussians and Bavarians, defeated the French under Marshal 
MacMahon, separated them from the remainder of the French army, and made 4,000 
of them prisoners. The total French loss was 11,000 men, and the Prussian loss 
3,500. On the very day of the battle of Woerth (August 6, 1870), the Prussian 
right, under General von Steinmetz, recaptured Saarbrucken, carried the heights of 
Spicheren after a severe struggle, and completely defeated the French under Gen- 
eral Frossard in the battle of Forbach, and afterwards compelled them to evacuate 
Forbach, St. Avoid, and Thionville, and took 8,000 of them prisoners. The whole 
French line fell back on Metz, followed by the Prussians. 

Consternation and Indignation in Paris. — When intelligence of the defeats 
of the P'rench arms at Weissenbourg, Woerth, and Forbach reached Paris, the inhabi- 
tants of that proud capital manifested the most intense indignation, and the greatest 
excitement and consternation prevailed; and it was feared that a sudden revolution 
would take place, and result in the overthrow of the Bonaparte dynasty. 

Advance of the Prussians in France. — The Prussian right and centre, under 
General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, now advanced on Metz, and 
60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, laid siege to Strasburg. 
At the same time, the Prussian left, under the Crown-Prince,,followed the 'shat 
tered forces of Marshal MacMahon, in the direction of Nancy. On the 13th of 
August MacMahon evacuated Nancy, which was immediately taken possession of by 
the victorious forces of the Crown-Prince, MacMahon retreating to Chalons-sui 
Mame. 

Movements near Metz — Battles of Courcelles, Vionville, and Grave- 
lotte. — After the ist and 2d Prussian armies had reached the Moselle, the French 
army, under Marshal Bazaine, at Metz, attempted to retreat from that strong fortress, 
on the 14th of August, but was met and defeated at Courcelles, by the ist Prussian 
army, under General von Steinmetz, and driven back with heavy loss. On the fol 
lowing day (August 15, 1870), the 1st Prussian army crossed the Moselle between 
Metz and Thionville, to cut off Bazaine's retreat to Paris by the northern road to 
Verdun, while the 2d Prussian army, which had already passed the Moselle south 
of Metz, seized the southern road. On the i6th, a fierce and bloody battle was 
fought at Vionville, between Metz and Verdun, in which the French were defeated 
by the 2d Prussian army under Prince Frederic Charles. Bazaine's army was now 
in a perilous situation. On the 17th, the Prussians hurried the remainder of their 
corps across the Moselle for the final struggle. On the iSth (August, 1S70), oc- 



404 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



curred the sanguinary battle of Gravelotte oi Rezonville, west of Metz, which raged 
tor nine hours, and in which Marshal Bazaine's army was again most disastrously 
defeated. The carnage of both sides was frightful. The battle-field and neighbor- 
ing villages were strewn with dead. During this week of battles, the French lost 
50,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The victorious Prussians also lost 
heavily. Thus every attempt at retreat which Bazaine made M'as defeated. lie 
was now blockaded in the vicinity of Metz, with no hope whatever of extricating 
himself from his perilous position. All communication between him and Paris wai 
severed, and an attempt to move in any direction would result in another disastrous 
defeat of his army. 

Advance of the Crovvn-Prince of Prussia toward Paris. — While the ist 
and 2d Prussian armies, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, 
were holdmg Bazaine fast at Metz, the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with the 3d Prus- 
sian army, 200,000 strong, having passed Metz on the south, was rapidly advancing 
toward Paris by way of Chalons-sur-Marne, MacMahon with his defeated and shat- 
tered forces retreating before him. King William at length removed his head- 
quarters from the Prussian armies near Metz to Bar-le-Duc, and then accompanied 
the Crown-Prince on his march toward Paris. In the meantime, a sharp conflict 
occurred at Verdun, between a French detachment and 10,000 German troops undei 
the command of the Crown- Prince of Saxony; and Vitry-le-Francais was captured 
by the Prussians, after a spirited engagement. 

Battles of Beaumont and Sedan. — At length, when MacMahon, after having 
evacuated Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 23d of August, and after being reinforced, 
attempted to fly to the relief of Bazaine near Metz, the Prussian Crown-Prince, 
suddenly relinquishing his march toward the French capital, followed his antagonist 
northward, toward the frontier of Belgium. MacMahon's army was also threatened 
by the forces of Prince Frederic Charles. There was heavy skirmishing on the 28th 
and 29th of August, between the armies of MacMahon and the Crown-Prince. On 
the 30th (August, ^870), MacMahon made a movement toward Montmedy, but his 
army was attacked at Beaumont, and, after a tremendous conflict, utterly defeated 
and driven across the Meuse, toward the Belgian frontier, by the Prussian forces 
under the Crown-Prince. The Prussians captured twelve cannon and thousands of 
prisoners. During the night, both the French and Prussian armies received large 
reinforcements ; and on the following day (August 31, 1870), the battle was renewed, 
and, after the most desperate fighting, the French were again disastrotisly defeated, 
and driven to Sedan. At daylight on the ist of September, 1870, MacMahon's army, 
which was now reinforced, occupied a strong elevated position around the fortified 
town of Sedan, near the Belgian frontier. About 5 o'clock in the morning, the 
Prussians commenced the great battle of Sedan by simultaneous attacks on the 
French front and left flank. During a great part of the forenoon, the fighting wa-s 
confined mainly to the artillery of both armies; but at length, the firing of musketiy 
became quite lively. About noon, the Prussian infantry made a furious attempt td 
break the French centre, but after the most desperate fighting they were repulsed. 
Afterwards, a simultaneous movement was made along the whole line of the Prus- 
sians, their infantiy charging the French guns. After the French cuirassiers had 
failed in a charge on the Prussian skirmishers at the La Givonne hills, the French 
infantry made a desperate assault, but they also met with a disastrous repulse. At 



NINErEENTIl CENTURY. 405 

three (/cluck, the Freiich line, which had thus far gallantly withstood the Prussian 
assaults, wavered, and soon afterward broke. The battle now became a rout. The 
victorious Prussians hotly pursued the French troops, who, leaving everything be- 
hind them, were fleeing in dismay from the field, and throwing away their arms. 
The pursuing Prussians used the bayonet with terrible effect, as they were deter- 
mined to cut off the French retreat toward Belgium. Night put an end to the rout 
and p irsuit, an4 the broken hosts of the French army took refuge in the fortress of 
3£dar. The Prussians had won a brilliant victory, but at the cost of 30,000 men 
vn kilica and wounded. The defeated Fre.ich army had lost 20,000 men. On the 
31st of August and the 1st of September (1870), Marshal Bazaine made another 
desperate effort to escape from Metz, but he was again defeated by Prince Frederic 
Charles, and driven back into the fortress. 

Surrender of MacMahon's Army — Surrender of Napoleon III. — On the 
2d of September, 1870, the French army under Marshal MacMahon, then number- 
ing 120,000 men, and being entirely surrounded at Sedan, without any hope of 
escape whatever, was surrendered prisoners of war to King William of Prussia, 
by General Wimpffen, instead of Marshal MacMahon , who was severely wounded. 
The Emperor Napoleon III., who had been with MacMahon at Sedan, but who then 
held no command in the army, surrendered himself a prisoner to King William. 
In his letter to the King of Prussia, proposing surrender, the French Emperor said, 
" As I cannot die at the head of my army, I come to lay my sword at the feet of 
yotir majesty." The King of Prussia treated his imperial captive with great courtesy 
and generosity, and allotted to him the chateau of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, for a 
residence during his captivity in Germany. Thus, five weeks after the commence- 
ment of hostilities at Saarbrucken, the military power of France was thoroughly 
broken. The imperial career of Napoleon III. had now ended, and the Second 
French Empire had received its death-blow. 

The Paris Revolution of September — France Proclaimed a Republic. 

— When intelligence of the capitulation of MacMahon's army at Sedan and the 
surrender of the Emperor spread through Paris, the excitement of the people of 
that city became almost indescribable. The streets were filled with excited crowds, 
who demanded the dethronement of the Bonaparte dynasty and the establishment 
of a new French Republic. A stormy scene took place in the Corps Legislatif. 
On Sunday, September 4th, 1870, the French capital was in revolution. The pop- 
ular agitation gradually became greater, and at length unparalleled excitement pre- 
vailed throughout the city. The Place de la Concorde was one mass of human 
beings, and the Boulevards were impassable, on account of the immense crowds 
assembled theie. The National Guards, however, succeeded in preserving order. 
The soldiers and National Guards fraternized with the people, singing the "Mar- 
seillaise" and wildly shouting "Vive la Republique!" The Corps Legislatif was 
suiTounded by hundreds and thousands of excited Parisians, who demanded the 
deposlnon of the Bonapartes and the establishment of a republic. The Senate 
was suppressed, and the Corps Legislatif dissolved, after proi laiming, by a unani- 
mous vote, that the Bonaparte dynasty had forfeited the crown of France. The 
Republican members of the Corps Legislatif then proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, 
where they proclaimed France a Republic. A Provisional Government, entitled 
"The Government of National Defense," was then formed, consisting of eleven 



4o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

persons, — namely, Emanuel Arago, Emanuel Cremieux, Jules Favre, Jules Ferry, 
Jules Simon, Leon Gambetta, Garnier Pages, Ernest Picard, Henri Rochefort, Glcis 
Bizoin, and Eugene I'elletan, all representatives of Paris. The Parisians were wild 
with joy, at the dtihronement of the Emperor, and the inauguration of the new 
Republic. They embraced each other and wept for joy. The Paris mob, which 
again ruled supreme, was destroying in spite and fury. All signs having imperial 
arms and medals were torn down. The mob invaded the great palace of the Tuil- 
eries, tore down the throne, destroyed everything marked with the imperial insignia, 
and cai-ried away and cast into the river Seine, all the busts, statues, and pictures of 
the Bonapaite family. On the following day (September 5, 1870), the Provisional 
Government issued a proclamation, announcing that a Republic had been proclaimed 
at the Hotel de Ville. The Provisional Government also decreed that the Corps 
Legislatif was dissolved and the Senate abolished, and accorded full amnesty for 
all political crimes and offenses against the Empire. This sudden and remarkable 
revolution was accomplished without the sacrifice of a single life. The greatest 
enthusiasm prevailed throughout France, and the people of the departments every- 
where accepted the Republic. The Empress Eugenie had fled from Paris and gone 
to England. The Government of the Unites States promptly recognized the new 
French Republic. 

Advance of the Germans on Paris. — After the surrender of MacMahon's 
army and of the Emperor Napoleon at Sedan, the Crown Princes of Prussia and 
.Saxony, accompanied by King William, the Count von Moltke, and the Count von 
Bismarck, marched against Paris, at the head of 400,000 German troops. The for- 
tified town of Laon surrendered to the Prussians on the lOth of September, but the 
citadel was treacherously blown up, killing several hundred French and German 
soldiers. The immense German armies, upon their arrival before Paris, about the 
middle of September, prepared for the prosecution of a vigorous siege of that great 
capital. 

Unsuccessful Attempts at Peace. — After the establishment of the Govern- 
ment of National Defense in Paris, on the 4th of September, energetic efforts on 
the part of France were made for peace with Germany. The distinguished Jules 
Favre, the new French Minister of Foreign Affairs, visited Count von Bismarck, 
and endeavored to procure a cessation of hostilities and the conclusion of a treaty 
of peace. Favre offered many humiliating concessions to Germany; but Bis- 
marck's harsh demand that the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be 
ceded to Germany, and the non-existence of a permanent government in France, 
rendered the efforts at peace abortive; and thus this sanguinary war was left to 
continue. 

Siege and Capture of Strasburg. — Soon after the German armies had entered 
France, 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, invested Stras- 
l)urg, the chief city of the French province of Alsace, which was garrisoned by 
about 20,000 French troops, under General Uhrich. Although the city suffered 
heavily from the fierce bombardments which the besieging Germans opened upon 
it, being often on fire in different places and a great part of it destroyed, the garri- 
son held out heroically for two months, refusing repeated demands for surrender, 
and making many desperate sorties. Finally, on the 27th of September (1870J, 
after the garrison and the inhabitants had sufier"^. from famine, and any further 



NIAETEENTH CENTURY. 



407 



defense being impossible, General Uhrich surrendered the city of Strasburg and its 
garrison then consisting of 17,000 men, to General von Werder. The city was 
immediately occcpied by the conquering Germans, and placed under German rule 

Investment and Siege of Paris. — On the i6th of September (1870), the 
German armies, half a million strong, began the investment of Paris, and, on tht; 
same day, the city was declared in a state of siege. The headquarters of King 
William were established at Ferrieres, of the Crown-Prince of Prussia at Versailles, 
and of the Crown-Prince of Saxony at Grand Tremblay. The French capital was 
garrisoned by about 230,000 troops, under the command of General Trochu. 1 he 
i itriiiians were determined to defend their city to the last extremity, resolving to 
emulate Metz and Strasburg. Before the siege had commenced, the city had been 
supplied with immense stores-of provisions. Paris, surrounded by a strong wall (the 
enciente), and by numerous fortifications, was impregnable to attack, and could 
only be conquered by starvation. The principal forts defending the city, — namely 
Valerien, d' Issy, Vanvres, Montrouge, Bicetre, Noisy, and Rosny, — were strongly 
garrisoned. Numerous engagements of an unimportant character occurred around 
Paris, during the latter part of September and throughout October. On the 30th of 
September, a severe conflict took place between the French troops of the line and 
the Prussians, resulting in the repulse of the French, who took refuge behind the 
forts. On the 22d of October, Paris ^as completely surrounded by the German 
army of investment, about 300,000 strong, and the German military authorities per- 
mitted no person whatever to enter or leave the beleaguered capital. All commu- 
nication between Paris and the outside world was cut off, except by means of bal- 
loons. Before Paris had been completely surrounded by the besieging Germans, 
some of the members of the French Provisional Government established themselves 
at Tours, while the others remained in the besieged capital. Communication 
between Paris and Tours was kept up by the dangerous service of balloons. 

German Victories at Orleans. — In the meantime, a new French army of more 
than 1 00,000 men had been formed on the Loire. A portion of this army was defeated 
by a German force, under General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, on the loth of 
October. The French fled in disorder, leaving 10,000 prisoners in the hands of the 
victorious Germans. On the 12th of October, the French Army of the Loire was 
defeated at Orleans, after nine hours' fighting. The Prussians took Orleans by 
storm, and captured 10,000 prisoners. 

Capture of Soissons. — On the 17th of October, Soissons capitulated to the 
Germans commando 1 by the Duke of Mecklenburg-Scliwerin, after an obstinate 
contest of four days, and the most sanguinary fighting in the streets, no quartei 
being shown to the wounded, the women from the houses hurling missiles upon the 
heads of the Germans, and much of the city being destroyed. 

Bazaine's Surrender of Metz. — -After many unsuccessful sorties, and when 
famine had begun to threaten the army and citizens of Metz with its horrors, Mar- 
shal Bazaine surrendered the city of Metz, one of the most strongly-fortified places 
ii 'he world, together with his army, then consisting of 173,000 men, and all his 
artillery, small arms, and ammunition, to Prince Frederic Charles, on the 27th of 
October. This disgraceful capitulation produced the most intense indignation 
throughout France. Bazaine, who had never recognized the Republic, was sus- 
pected of treachery by his countrymen; and the Government of National Defense 



4o8 MODERN HISTOR V 

ordered tLe arrest of the Marshal wherever found in France. King William created 
tlie Crown-Prince of Prussia and Prince Frederic Charles Field-Marshals. This 
was the first instance of any such dignity being conferred upon any prince of the 
House of Hohenzollern. 

Failure of Renewed Attempts at Peace. — In the latter part of October and 
in the begini ing of November (1870), in consequence of the fall of Metz, lenewed 
;'Toits were made on the .part of France for peace. Bismarck's firm refusal to 
consent to an armistice on any other basis than the cession of Alsace and Lorraine 
to Germany, and his rejection of the proposition for the revictualling of Paris as a 
condition of the proposed armistice, rendered all efforts at an armistice, as the fore- 
runm-r of a treaty of peace, fruitless, and both parties determined upon the con- 
tinuation of the terrible struggle. 

Victories of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — After the 
German victories near and at Orleans, in October, tlie French Army of the Loire 
was gradually augmenting in numerical strength. On the 9th of November, after 
a severe battle of two days, the Army of the Loire, 150,000 strong, under the com- 
mand of General d'Aurelles de Paladines, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the 
German force commanded by General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, and recap- 
tured that city. The German loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was 12,000 
men. Following up his victory, Paladines again defeated Von Der Tann at Arthe- 
nay, the next day (November 10, 1870). The defeated and shattered forces of 
Von Der Tann retreated hastily in the direction of Paris. 

Operations at Dijon — Capture of Thionville — Battle of Amiens. — On 
the loth of November, the town of Dijon, in Eastern France, which had in the 
meantime fallen into the hands of the Prussians, was recaptured by the French 
Army of the East; but on the l6th of the same month (Noveml)er, 1870), Dijon 
was reoccupied by the Prussians in heavy force. On the 25th of November, Thion- 
ville surrendered to the Prussians, after a fierce bombardment, by which a great 
part of that town was reduced to ashes. Two days later (November 27, 1870), a 
I'rench force was badly beaten at Amiens, by the Prussians, under General Man- 
teuffel, and driven toward Arras with severe loss. 

Defeats of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — On the 28th 
(;f November, after five days' fighting, in the vicinity of Orleans, between the 
French Army of the Loire, and the Germans, under Grand-Duke of Meclvlenburg, 
the design of Paladines to advance to the relief of Paris was frustrated. On the 
4th of December, after four days' heavy fighting near Orleans, the Army of the 
Loire suffered a disastrous defeat from the German armies, commanded by Prince 
Frederic Charles and the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg. The Germans took 10,000 
prisoners and reoccupied Orleans, which had been evacuated by the French. The 
Army of the Loire retreated southward, toward Blois, closely pursued by the vic- 
torious forces of Prince Frederic Charles. On the loth of December, after three 
days' fighting in the vicinity of Meung, eleven miles south-west of Orleans, the 
Army of the Loire was defeated by the Germans, under the Grand-Duke of Meck- 
lenburg. On the 14th of December, after four days' more fighting around Beau- 
gency, the Army of the Loire retired to Blois and Tours. General d'Aurelles de 
Paladines now resigned his command, and retired to his estate. The French Pio- 
, visional Government had already left Tours, and been installed at Bordeaux. 




COUNT VON BISMARCK. 




EMPEROR WILLIAM. 



NINE TEENTH CENTUR Y. 



409 



Grand Sorties from Paris. — On the 28th, 29th, and 30th of November (1870), 
General Trochu made sorties from Paris on a large scale, but his assaults were re- 
pulsed by the Germans, and his troops were driven behind the fortifications of the 
.IlJ. On the 2d of December, a French force of 150,000 men, under General 
Ducrot, having been sent out of Paris by General Trochu on the preceding day, 
made a desperate attempt to force the German line of investment, and partially suc- 
ceeded, compelling the Saxons and Wurtembergers, 100,000 in number, to fall back, 
after a sanguinary conflict of seven hours. Several days afterward, Ducrot's force 
was compelled to retire back into Paris. During the Christmas holidays, the weatliti 
around Paris was intensely cold, and thousands of French and German soldiers 
were frozen to death. 

Capture of Pfalzburg — Capture of Montmedy. — On the 14th of December, 
the fortress of Pfalzburg, in the Vosges Mountains, surrendered dnconditionally to 
the Germans, who had laid siege to the place soon after the battle of Woerth. On 
the following day (December 15, 1870), Montmedy, near the Belgian frontier, also 
capitulated to a German besieging force. 

Restoration of the German Empire — King William Emperor. — For sev- 
eral months, negotiations had been in progress for a union of the South German 
States — namely, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt — with the 
North German Confederation. These negotiations were successfully completed in 
the early part of December, 1870; and, on the 9th of that month, the King of Prussia, 
with the desire of the German princes and people, accepted the title of Emperor of 
Germany. On the 19th of January, 1 871, in the presence of all the German princes, 
in the Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles, in France, King William, of Prussia, was 
formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Thus the long aspirations and dreams 
of the German people for the unity of their Fatherland were finally realized in the 
restoration of the German Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806, by the action 
of Napoleon I. 

Bombardment of Paris. — Having gi-own impatient at the lengthy duration of 
the siege of Paris, the Germans determined to compel the devoted capital to sur- 
render by assault and bombardment. In the latter part of December, 1 870, the 
besiegers opened a heavy bombardment on Fort Avron, which was in consequence 
evacuated by its French garrison, and immediately occupied by German troops. 
(December 30, 1870.) The forts on the east and south sides of Paris were so vig- 
orously bombarded that some of them — Forts Noisy, Rosny, d'Issy, and Van vies — 
were at length silenced, but they again resumed fire, and replied as vigorously to 
the fire from the German batteries. Both the French and German armies suffered 
much from the severity of the season. Much damage was done to the suburban 
villages of Paris by the heavy fire from the German batteries ; but the Parisians, 
although suffering greatly from the inconveniences and miseries of the siege, were 
as determined as ever upon defense. Thousands of balls from the German guns 
foil in the suburbs of Paris, creating havoc in all directions, killing men, women, 
and children, in the streets and houses, striking ambulances, hospitals, mu'^um«, 
public libraries, churches, school-houses, and dwellings, and setting many ponions 
of the city on fire. The horrors of the bombardment inflamed the Parisians with 
rage, and made them more resolute than ever in their intention to • esist to the ut- 
most. On the 9th of January, 1S71, a severe action occurred at the village of 



4IO 



2M0DERN HISTORY. 



Claiiiail, in which the Prussians were victorious. On the loth of January, General 
Trochu was repulsed in a sally on the north side of Paris, from St. Denis; and on 
the nth, an unsuccessful sortie was made on the south side, between Forts Vanvres 
and Montrouge. On the 19th of January, a great sortie was made from Fort Vale- 
rien, by General Trochu, but he was repulsed, with the loss' of 3000 men. 

The Army of the Loire — Battles of Vendome and Le Mans. — The French 
Army of the Loire, under General Chanzy, assumed the offensive, about the begin- 
ning of January (1871), and the Germans, under Prince Frederic Charles, weic 
concentrating at Orleans, with th'' view of preventing Chanzy's army from advancing 
to the relief of Paris. A seven, engagement occun'ed near Vendome, on the 6th 
of January, between the Army of llie Loire and the forces under Prince Frederic 
Charles, which resulted in the defeat of the French, who were in consequence com- 
pelled to retreat westward, closely pursued by the Gennans. After a series of 
spirited actions, Chanzy's army was driven to Le Mans, where a general battle was 
fought on the nth of January. The German army, under Prince Frederic Charles, 
attacked the Army of the Loire along the whole line, carried all the French posi- 
tions, occupied Le Mans, and then went in hot pursuit of the defeated and fleeing 
hosts of General Chanzy. On the 15th (Januaiy, 1S71), another battle took place, 
which ended in another defeat for Chanzy, who then continued his retreat westward 
to Laval. The loss of the Germans in these battles was only 3500 men, while they 
made 22,000 prisoners. The Army of the Loire was now thoroughly crippled, and 
the last hope of the French for the relief of their capital had vanished. 

The French Army of the North — Battles of Amiens, Bapaume, and 
St. Quentin.— Li the meantime, there had been great activity in the movements 
of the French Army of the North, commanded by General Faidherbe, which was 
endeavoring to cooperate with the Army of. the Loire, in its efforts to raise the siege 
of Paris. On the 23d of December, 1870, Faidherbe's army, then numbering 60,000 
men, was defeated and routed near'Amiens, by the Germans under General Man- 
teuffel. At length, Faidherbe's army met with some successes, which led to the 
concentration of the German forces in the North of France under General Manteuf- 
fel. On the 3d of January, 1871, the French Army of the North was repulsed in 
an attack upon a portion of General Manteuffel's army at Bapaume. After the battle, 
Faidherbe's army hastily retreated, and was vigorously pursued by the German cav- 
alry. On the 19th of January (1871), a severe battle was fought at St. Quentin, in 
which Faidherbe's army was defeated by the Germans, who lost over 3000 men, but 
captured 4000 prisoners. Faidherbe then retreated northward, and near the close 
of January he reached Dunkirk. 

Battles at Belfort — Defeat and Retreat of the French Army of the East. 
— At the close of December, 1870, a French army of more than 100,000 men, under 
General Bourbaki, moved into Eastern France, to operate against the Germans 
under General von Werder, in the vicinity of Belfort. The Germans laid siege *o 
Belfort, but were repulsed in an assault upon the fortifications of the town. On the 
10th of January, 1871, General von Werder took Viller Exel by storm, and lepulseii 
the French in their attempts to recapture the place. On the 17th of January, after 
three days of severe fighting at Belfort, the French Army of the East, under General 
Bourbaki, met with a disastrous repulse, and, after a loss of 8,000 men, was com- 
pelled to retreat, closely pursued by the victorious Germans. In a series of skir- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



411 



mishes with the Piussians, Bourbaki's anny was successful. General Manteuffel, 
who was now placed in chief command of the German armies in Eastern France, 
prepaied to bring about the destruction of the French Army of the East. Bour- 
baki's defeated and shattered army retreated to Besancon, closely pursued by Man- 
teuffel's victorious forces. These disasters to the French arms had such an effect 
upon the mind of General Bourbaki that he attempted suicide. After a series of 
engagements, lasting three days, and ending on the 1st of February, on the Swiss 
frontier, Manteuffel captured 15,000 prisoners, and compelled Bourbaki's army. 
So,ooo strong, to retreat into Switzerland. 

Battle of Dijon — Siege and Capture of Longwy. — On the 22d of January, 
1871, the Prussians in large force attacked Dijon, but they were disastrously 
repulsed, after a severe battle of five hours, and compelled to retreat. By the 20th 
of January, the town of Longwy, near the Belgian frontier, had been completely 
invested by a Prussian force. The French garrison made two successful sorties, 
dislodged the Prussians, and silenced their batteries; but, after a furious assault 
and bombardment, Longwy, with its garrison of 4,000 P'rench troops, fell into the 
hands of the Prussians on the 25th of January. 

Surrender of Paris. — At length, after the French capital had suffered terribly 
from the fierce bombardment by the Germans, and after famine had wrought its 
horrors upon the inhabitants of the beleaguered city, the besieged made proposals 
of surrender to the besie'gers; and on the 27th of January, 187 1, the articles of 
capitulation were signed by whic'n the city of Paris was surrendered to the Ger- 
mans, and its garrison of 185,000 men, under General Trochu, became prisoners of 
war. The Germans levied a contribution of 53,000,000 francs upon the conquered 
city; and the forts around the city were immediately occupied by German garri- 
sons. Measures were taken for the revictualling of the city under German super- 
vision. For several weeks after the surrender, hundreds of Parisians died daily 
from starvation. 

An Armistice — A French National Assembly. — The fall of Paris opened 
the eyes of the French Government and people to the hopelessness and folly of 
resistance to the gigantic power of German)", and made them anxious for the speedy 
conclusion of peace. An armistice of three weeks was signed at Versailles, on the 
28th of January, by Jules Favre on the part of the French Republic, and by Prince 
Bismarck on the part of the German Empire, in order to allow the French jjeople 
to elect representatives to a National Assembly, which should convene at Bordeaux, 
to consider and ratify a treaty of peace with Germany. Each of the different parties 
in France, — the Legitimists, the Orleanists, tiie Bonapartists, and the Republicans, 
— made great efforts for success in the election for deputies to the proposed National 
Assembly. The elections took place on the Sth of February, and resulted in the 
choice mostly of Orleanists and Republicans. The National Assembly convened at 
Bordeaux on the 15th of February, 187 1, and upon its organization unanimously 
chose Louis Adolphe Thiers, the distinguised historian, orator, and statesman, to 
the office of President of the French Republic, and took measures for the speedy 
restoration of peace. 

Preliminary Peace of Paris. — After much negotiation, the armistice having 
been in the meantime extended one week, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed 
at Paris, on the 25th of February, 187 1, by President Thiers and Jules Favre on the 



412 



MODERN HISTORY. 



part of the Frenc: Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German 
Empire. France was required to cede to Germany nearly the whole of Alsace, in- 
cluding Strasburg, and one-fifth of Lorraine, including Metz; and pay five milliards 
of francs (equal to one thousand million dollars), in three years, as indemnity for 
the losses sustained by Germany in the war : a large portion of the German army 
was to garrison a number of the French fortresses until the entire indemnity was 
paid, the expense of supporting this army of occupation to be paid by France; and 
iiie Ilmperor William and a portion of the German army were to enter Paris, and 
occupy the Champs Elysees. On the ist of March, 1871, the National Assei/ibly 
at Bordeaux, by a large majority, ratified these terms of peace, so harsh and humili- 
ating to France, and the great Franco-German War ended. 

German Triumphal Entry into Paris— Release of Napoleon. — On the 
1st of March, 1S71, the Emperor William, of Germany, and 30,000 German troops 
made their grand triumphal entry into the French capital. Contrary to the expecta- 
tions of many, no acts of violence were committed toward them, few of the inhabi- 
tants of the city appearing in the streets. The Germans evacuated Paris two days 
afterward (March 3, 1871), and on the 14th, the Emperor William started for Berlin, 
where he arrived on the 17th (March, 1 871). The ex-Emperor Napoleon was 
released from his captivity at Wilhelmshohe by the German Government, on the 
6th of March, whereupon he left Germany, and retired to Chiselhurst, in England, 
where he died on the 9th of January, 1873. The war just closed was the greatest 
of modem times. During the six months that military operations were in progress, 
nearly half a million human lives were sacrificed. The successes of Germany in 
this mighty conflict were among the most remarkable in the annals of war : her 
armies were victorious in nearly every encounter ; three of the most strongly-fortified 
places in the world yielded to the power of her arms; three of the largest armies 
ever raised were compelled to lay down their arms ; the proudest capital in the 
world was occupied by her warriors ; and the once-proudest monarch in Europe 
was made a captive. In all, 700,000 French soldiers were made prisoners during 
the war. The pride of France was thoroughly humbled, and her sword was broken. 

Definitive Peace of Frankfort-on-the-Main. — On the lothof May, 1871, a 
definitive treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, by Jules Favre and 
Ponyer Quartier on the part of France, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of Ger- 
many. Bismarck agreed to a reduction of the war indemnity to be paid by France 
to Germany, from five milliards of francs to four and a half milliards. The French 
were required to restore all the German ships captured during the war, or to refund 
their value in cash in cases in which the vessels were sold. According to this 
treaty, the Germans were only to hold Belfort, Nancy, and Longwy, as hostages 
until the fulfilment of its conditions. This treaty was speedily ratified by the Gov- 
ernments of France and Germany, whereupon the greater part of the Gennan 
Army of Occupation evacuated France, and the French prisoners in Germar.y 
were returned to France as speedily as the railroads could transport them. 

ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1870. 

Garibaldi's Movement on Rome in 1862. — In 1862, General Garibaldi, at 
the head of a band of Italian volunteers, attempted a descent upon the Papal tern- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY 



413 



tories, with the view of uniting Rome with the Kingdom of Italy ; but he was met 
and defeated at Aspromonte, by the troops of King Victor Emmanuel, on the 29th 
of August, 1S62. Garibaldi was kept a prisoner for several months. 

The Treaty of September, 1864 — Garibaldi's Movement in 1867. — In 

September, 1864, a treaty was concluded between France and Italy, l)y which King 
Victor Emmanuel was bound to prevent any violent attempt on the dominions of 
lie rape. In the autumn of 1867, Garibaldi made another movement agr.insf 
Rome, but he was again unsucce^:sful, and sent as a prisoner to the isiar. 1 o.' 
Caprera. 

The Italian Movement on Rome in September, 1870.— When the Second 
French Empire had received its death-blow by the catastrophe of Sedan, at the 
beginning of September, 1870, the King of Italy felt himself freed from all obliga- 
tions entered into with Napoleon III. At the same time, there ■ivas much political 
agitation in Italy, and fears of a republican rising were entertained by the Italian 
Government. When intelligence of the Paris Revolution of September 4th, 1870, 
and the proclamation of the Third French Republic, had reached Florence, King 
Victor Emmanuel and his Cabinet resolved upon the military occupation of Rome, 
and the annexation of the Papal territory to the Kingdom of Italy. The King of 
Italy was compelled to take this step by the ardent wishes of his subjects, and any 
refusal or delay on his part to comply with their wishes would have co.st him his 
crown. The people of the Pontificial States also petitioned the King of Italy to 
occupy Rome. On the 12th of .September, 1870, an Italian army of 4000 men, 
under General Cadorna, marched into the Papal territory. General Cadorna issued 
a proclamation to the Roman people, assuring them that he did not bring war to 
them, but peace and order, and that the independence of the Holy See would not be 
molested. There was great enthusiasm among the Italian troops and people; and, 
as the troops advanced toward Rome, the people everywhere fraternized with them, 
and received them with acclamations. The ultimatum of the Italian Government 
stripped the Pope of his temporal power, but permitted him to remain in Rome as 
Head of the Roman Catholic Church. King Victor Emmanuel issued a proclama- 
tion to the Romans, declaring that peace, order, and self-government, and not war, 
were brought by the Italians. The Pope protested to the foreign ambassadors in 
Rome against the Italian occupation of the Papal dominions; but, anxious to avoid 
bloodshed, he also ordered a cessation of all resistance on the part of the Papal 
troops. 

Surrender of Rome — End of the Pope's Temporal Power. — The siege 
of Rome, by the Italian army, under General Cadorna, commenced on the 19th of 
September, 1870; and on the following day, the Papal troops, 9,300 in number, 
surrendered, and the triumphant Italians entered the city and were welcomed by 
the Romans as liberators. A plebiscite was taken in Rome a few days afterward, 
resulting in a unanimous vote in favor of the annexation of the Eternal City to the 
Kingdom of Italy. All political prisoners in the Papal territories were immediately 
set free, and a provisionial government was organized by General Cadorna. Tl e 
King of Italy visited Rome in the early part of December, 1870. 

Rome made the Capital of Italy.— On the 3d of July, 1871, King Victor 
Emmanuel and his Ministers, and the foreign embassies to the Italian Government, 



414 



MODERN HISTORY. 



removed from Florence to Rome, which then became the the capital of a united 
Italy. 

THE FRENCH CIVIL WAR OF 1871. 

The Red Republicans of Paris. — No sooner was a preliminary treaty of 
peace between PVance and Germany agreed to, than France began to be districted 
by a fierce and bloody civil war, caused by a rebellion of the Red Republicans 
an J Communists of Paris. For some time, the Red Republicans had been quite 
active, and engaged in revolutionary schemes. Fearing a formidable revolutionary 
n.sing. President Thiers and the National Assembly established themselves at Ver- 
sailles. On the 6th of March, 1871, the revolutionists intrenched themselves in 
the Montmartre district with a battery of guns, and the Thiers Government brought 
up troops of the line to resist any attack which the insurgents might make on the 
capital. The National Guards resisted the action for their disbandment, piled 
their arms on the Boulevards, and collected in groups, with discontented and angry 
looks. 

Rising of the Paris Red Republicans. — On the 17th of March, the Ver- 
sailles Government sent a detachment of troops and gendarmes to occupy the posi- 
tions of the mob, which had been rioting for several days, at Montmartre. A 
considerable number of cannon were removed, and the gendarmes took 400 pris- 
oners. The next morning (March 18, 1871), the National Guards of Belleville 
and Montmartre, with many unarmed soldiers of the line, arrived on the scene, and 
released the prisoners. A severe conflict took place in the Rue Royale. Some 
artillerymen and cuirassiers were surroundered by a frantic mob, who accosted 
them with shouts of "Go and fight the Prussians." General Faron's troops, re- 
maining faithful to the Government, cut their way through the mob by which they 
were surrounded, and escaped, after capturing the insurgent ban'icades at the point 
of the bayonet. Generals Lecompte and Thomas were abandoned on the heights 
of Montmartre, and shot in the Rue de Rosiere, by their troops, who joined th* 
insurgents. 

Progress of the Paris Rebellion. — The Central Committee of the National 
Guard placarded two proclamations, defending their course, and issued orders for 
the election of a Communal Council for Paris. The regular soldiers in Paris fra- 
ternized with the insurgents, who now virtually ruled the city, and mob-law was 
completely triumphant. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, displayed perfect apathy, 
and no resistance was made to the insurgents. By the 20th of March (1871), the 
insurgents held possession of the Plotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Tuileries, 
and the Place Vendome. Barricades were erected in some quarters, and Forts 
d'Issy, Vanvres, and Montrouge were seized and garrisoned by the insurgents, and 
measures were taken to insure the defense of Paris against any assault from the 
Government forces. On the morning of the 21st (March, 1871), the insurgents at 
Montmartre and Belleville saluted each other with rounds of artillery, and fresh 
barricades were erected in the vicinity of Batignolles, in the Rue d' Amsterdam, in 
the Avenue Clichy, and near the Great Northern Railway Station. 

The Versailles Government.— The greatest excitement prevailed at Ver- 
sailles, in consequence of the revolutionary movement in Paris; and the National 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 415 

Assembly soon rallied a large army, under General Vinoy, to its support. On the 
meetmg of the Assembly on the 21st of March, all the deputies of the Mountain 
were absent. Measures were taken by the Thiers Government for the suppression 
of the rebellion, and Versailles resembled a camp. Contrary to the expectations 
of the Paris Reds, no successful rising of their partisans in the other large cities of 
France took place; but the departments rallied to the support of the Versailles Gor- 
ernment. 

Establishment of the Paris Commune — A Reign of Terror in Paris, -- 
The Communal elections in Paris took place on tlie 26th of March, and resulted in 
an overwhelming majority for the revolutionists. The Commune was soon organ- 
ized, holding its first sitting on the aglh of March. A reign of Terror was now 
inaugurated in Paris, and the outrages of 1793 were repeated. The cry of the 
Socialists and Red Republicans was, "Death to the priests !" "D6ath to the rich!" 
" Death to the property-owners !" Aristocrats and wealthy persons were in constant 
danger of being dragged to the guillotine, and more than 100,000 of the more respeta- 
able Parisians fled in consternation from the city. Priests were arrested and thrown 
into prison, churches were sacked, and religious service was suspended. Journals 
which supported the Versailles Government were suppressed, and several journalists 
were sentenced to death. The insurgents boldly avowed their determination to 
march to Versailles, disperse the National Assembly, overthrow the Thiers Govern- 
ment, and establish "The Universal Republic." 

Temporizing Policy of President Thiers. — The Government and the 
National Assembly had already collected a considerable army; but, instead of 
adopting prompt measures for the suppression of the insurrection. President Thiers 
lost much precious time by temporizing with the Paris insurgents, with the view of 
bringing about peace without bloodshed. On the contrary, energy and resolution, 
but also great inefficiency, were displayed by the Paris Commune. 

Battle of Courbevoie. — At the close of March, 1S71, the military forces of 
both parties were in motion; and on the 2d of April, a spirited action, favorable to 
the Government forces, occurred at Courbevoie. The defeated insurgents fled to the 
bridge of Neuilly, where they were again defeated. More than 200 insurgents 
were killed, and many were wounded. The insurgents who were made prisoners 
by the Government troops were immediately shot. 

Terrible Battle between Paris and Versailles. — Onthe3dof April, 100,000 
Communists, under General Bergerot and Gustave Flourens, issued from Paris, at the 
Neuilly gate, and marched against Versailles. They were soon met by the Assembly- 
ists under General Vinoy, and a furious battle ensued, which resulted in great destruc- 
tion of life. Contrary to expectations of the insurgents, the garrison in Fort Valerien 
did not fraternize with them, but, remaining faithful to the Versailles Government, 
suddenly opened a heavy fire upon them, producing the greatest consternation in 
their ranks. General Bergerot had just got out of his carriage when the vehicle was 
smashed to pieces by a bomb-shell. The wildest confusion ensued, and the mam 
body of the Communist army retreated back to Paris, but General Bergerot and 
35,000 men were cut off and defeated in an attempt to pass Fort Valerien. Among 
the killed on the side of the insurgents was the violent political agitator, Gustave 
Flourens. The Government forces were completely victorious. 



41 6 MODERN HISTORY. 

Government Successes.— A night attack by the insurgents upon the bridge 
of Sevres was repulsed by a detachment of the Versailles army, on the 5th of April. 
On the 6th, the insurgent garrisons in Forts d' Issy and Vanvres kejDt up a resolute 
fire on the Government troops at Chatillon ; and on the 7th, the insurgents were 
dislodged from the bridge of Sevres, and a fierce cannonade was kept up between 
Chatillon and Forts d' Issy and Vanvres. 

Burial of the Insurgent Dead in Paris. — The burial of the insurgent dead ir 
iParis, on the 6th of April, was an extraordinary scene. The most intense grief ar..- 
indignation were manifested by the Parisians. Hwndreds of women were marching 
along the Boulevards; and the bodies of the slain were interred in the cemetery of 
Pel e la Chaise, amid the shrieks of women and the cries of the men for vengeance 
on "The assassins of Versailles." Pere la Chaise was thronged with people, who 
shouted, " Vive la Republique!" "Vive la Commune!" 

Battle of Neuilly. — On the 7th of April, severe fighting occurred at Porte de 
Neuilly. The Communists at Courbevoie were dislodged by the guns of Fort Vale- 
rien, but they rallied up the Avenue de Neuilly, and opened a severe fire on the 
Versailles troops who appeared on the heights. The Communists were forced 
to retire behind the bridge of Neuilly, which they barricaded, but the pursuing Ver- 
saillists shelled and demolis];ied their barricades. In attempting to hold the bridge, 
the insurgent National Guards suffered severely, and being finally compelled to 
retire, were closely pursued by the Government troops; but the insurgent guns 
swept the Avenue de Neuilly and checked the pursuit. After vainly endeavoring, 
under protection of their artillery, to throw up barricades across the avenue, the 
insurgents were entirely driven out of Neuilly, and found themselves obliged to take 
refuge behind the ramparts. 

Marshal MacMahon^Outrages and Crimes of the Commune. — On the 
8ih of April, there were spirited engagements at various points. Fort Valerien and 
the advanced Government batteries fiercely bombarded Porte Maillot, many of their 
shells falling in the Champs Elysees. Marshal MacMahon was now invested with 
the chief command of the Government forces. The Paris Commune was daily 
growing more desperate, and the most shameful outrages and revolutionary excesses 
were perpetrated. Additional numbers of priests and nuns were thrown into prison; 
and at length, a demand was made on the Church for 1,000,000 francs, the insur- 
gents threatening to kill the Archbishop of Paris, if the sum was not paid. The 
Archbishop suffered the most shameful treatment from a band of infuriated Reds. 

Bombardment of Paris — Measures for Defense. — There was now severe 
fighting imder the very walls of Paris, and shells were constantly falling in the 
Champs Elysees. The Arc de Triomphe was repeatedly struck and much damaged. 
The fighting around Paris was very severe on the 15th and i6th of April. Many 
more of the inhabitants left the city. The insurgents erected bamcades in the Place 
Vendome, in the Rue Castiglione, in the vicinity of the Tuileries, at Montmartre, 
nd at Belleville, in anticipation of an attack from the Government army. The 
ommune continued the arrests of priests, and scarcely a church in Paris no<v 
remained open. 

Insurgent Victory at Vanvres. — The Government troops attacked the insur 
gents at Vanvres on the 15th of April, and a bloody battle ensued. The Commun 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



417 



jsts, completely taken by surprise, were driven back; but they soon rallied, iind, 
after a desperate fight, compelled the Assemblyists to retreat, and regained their lo%t 
ground. During the day the conflict was several times renewed, but in the end the 
insurgents were left masters of their position, and the Versaillists suffered severely 
from the deadly fire from the insurgent garrison in Fort Vanvres. On the 17th, 
the insurgents were again victorious, in a furious engagement at Neuilly, in which 
each side lost about 2500 men. 

Battle of A«nieres.-^On the i8th of April, the insurgents were badly defe .it ei 
at Asnisres. Their large defensive works were fiercely assailed by the Governmerl 
troops. The Communists fled across the Seine, before the heavy cross-fire from the 
attacking Government columns. After being reinforced, the insurgents rallied and 
renewed the battle ; but they were again defeated with heavy loss, being a second 
time driven across the Seine by the Versailles troops. 

Extraordinary Measures of Defense by the Commune. — The insurgents 
continued the work of fortifying Paris, and the most desperate resources were being 
rendered available for the defense of the city against the Government forces. In 
various quarters, barricades were erected, surrounded by broad deep trenches, be- 
yond which mines of j)owder were laid. These measures of the Cotnmunists for 
defense greatly terrified the people of Paris. At the Beaujou Hospital, crowds of 
women, with streaming hair, were uttering loud shrieks, and demanding their hus- 
bands, brothers, and children. On the 23d of April, the Government batteries 
opened a furious cannonade upon Forts d' Issy and Vanvres, and the ramparts at 
Pont du Jour. 

Terrific Bombardment of Paris. — The bombardment of Paris on Sunday 
night, April 30th, was fearful and apparently utterly reckless as to the amount of 
damage it inflicted on the city. The Parisians were greatly excited, and lar^e 
crowds were assembled on the street corners, discussing the alarming condition of 
affairs. Large bodies of Versailles troops were moved toward Paris, to reinforce 
the Government Army of Investment. The insurgents at Neuilly kept up the 
indignation of the people of Paris by throwing petroleum-shells into the city, 
the Parisians being led to believe that they came from the lines of the Versailles 
armyj 

Capture of Clamart and other Government Successes. — On the ist of 
May, the Clamart railway station was captured by the Assemblyists at the point of 
the bayonet, and about 300 insurgents were killed in the action. On the 6th of 
May, the insurgents were repulsed, with a heavy loss, in a sortie from Fort d'lssy. 
The Government army continued its approaches to the Bois de Boulogne; and on 
the 7th of May, the Versailles batteries reopened fire on Pont du Jour and other 
points. 

Capture of Fort d' Issy — Investment and Siege of Paris. — After many 
stul:>born conflicts and furious assaults, Fort d'lssy was finally captured and occu- 
pied by the Government forces, on the 8th of May. On the following day (M.iy 9. 
1871), the investment of Paris from Gennevilliers to Fort d'lssy by the Government 
forces was complete, and preparations were being made for a gi-and assault on the 
city. On the 13th of May, 30,000 Versaillists were in the Bois de Boulogne, shel- 
tered by the trenches of the besieging army. A heavy column of Communist troops 
27 



41 8 MODERN HISTORY. 

which attempted a sortie from Port Dauphine was blown to atoms by the bursting 
of twenty shells which came from the lines of the Versailles army. 

Capture of Fort Vanvres. — After m.any desperate struggles and fierce assaults 
and bombardments, Fort Vanvres fell into the possession of the Government troops, 
on the 14th of May, the Communist garrison having fled, by a subterranean passage, 
to Fort Montrouge. The Government troops found sixty cannon and eighteen 
mortars in the fort. The approaches to the ramparts and fortificat'ons of Paris 
Aere now actively pushed forward, under cover of a heavy canno^jiale. and prepara 
iions were being made by Marshal MacMahon for a grand attack on the walls, 01 
snciente, of Paris. 

Bombardment of the Enciente of Paris. — By the 15th of May, the Gov- 
ernment troops were under the walls of Paris, exchanging shots with the insurgents, 
who lined the ramparts from Porte de la Meute to Porte d'Issy. Paris was now 
completely invested and declared in a state of siege. The Parisians were expelled 
from the trenches between Forts d'Issy and Vanvres. Breaches were made in the 
enciente of Paris, by the furious cannonade from the Government guns, and the 
Antiuel gate was now completely destroyed. The Western and South-western 
arrondissements of Paris were now uninhabitable, on account of the great destruc- 
tion of life and property in those portions of the city. On the night of the 1 5th of 
May, the Communists were repulsed with heavy loss, in a sortie upon the Govern- 
ment troops in the Bois de Boulogne ; and the Versaillists continued to fire around 
the ramparts from Pont du Jour to Porte Maillot. 

Destruction of the Column in the Place Vendome. — At six o'clock in 
the evening of the i6th of May (1871), the great Column in the Place Vendome, 
which had been erected there by Napoleon I. to commemorate his great victory at 
Austerlitz, was levelled with the ground, by order of the Paris Commune. The 
Column fell at full length in the Rue de la Paix, amid the shouts of "Vive la Repub- 
lique !" "Vive la Commune!" from the multitude which had assembled in the Rue 
de la Paix and the Rue Castiglione, to witness the destruction of this monument of 
imperial glor}'. 

The Government Forces in Paris — Battles in the Rue St. Honore and 
Rue Royale. — On Sunday night, May 21st, the Government troops effected an 
entrance into Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, when the most terrific fighting 
of the whole civil war commenced; and for a week, Paris was one vast battle-field. 
On the 22d (May, 1871), the Government troops, under Marshal MacMahon, con- 
tinued pouring into the city, through the Bois de Boulogne ; and veiy soon three of 
the principal avenues leading to the Champs Elysees were in the possession of the 
Government forces. The Communists were now thrown into the greatest confusion, 
A bloody battle occurred on the same day in the Rue St. Honore, where the insur- 
gent barricades were captured and recaptured six times. The Government troops 
charged down the street with fury, and were fired upon from the windows of the 
conciergieries. Many of the Communist barricades were captured, and the CliLmi'S 
Elysees were swept by the heavy fire from the Versailles artillery, whicli vveri 
planted near the Arc de Triomphe. Many leaders of the Commune were captured, 
and some massacres were perpetrated. The head-quarters of Marshal MacMahon 
were established in the new opera-house. The heaviest fighting occurred in the 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. ^ I p 

Rue Royale, where the slaughter was terrific. At the Tuileries, 10,000 insurgents 
were made prisoners by the Government troops under General Clinchart. 

May 23d — Battle at Montmartre — Murder of the Archbishop of Paris 
— A.t daybreak, May 23d, a terrible fire of musketiy and cannon commenced in the 
Mcntmartre district; and at one o'clock in the afternooon, Montmartre was captured 
by the Government forces, under Generals Clinchart and L'Admirault. Heav}' 
fighting occurred at the barricades in the Place de la Concorde and the Place de 
Clicby, The Government troops under General Cissey captured the barricades 
in 'he Chaussu dii Marne, in the southern part of Paris. Barricades were hastily 
thrown up, and terrible conflicts occurred in other parts of the city. Many of the lead- 
ers of the Commune were captured, and shot on the spot; and during the rattles in 
various quarters of the city, no quarter was shown by the Government forces. At 
the close of the day, the Government troops occupied the Place de Clichy, the 
Palais de P Industrie, the Chamber of the Corps Legislatif, the Hotel des Invalides, 
St. Quen, the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville, and the Place Vendome. The Place 
de la Concorde was also abandoned by the insurgents. On the evening of this day, 
Monseigneur Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, and sixty-nine priests, who had been 
seized and held as hostages, were murdered by the infuriated Communists. 

May 24th — Vandalism of the Commune — Brekkirlg out of Fires in 
Paris.— On the 24th (May, 187 1), the Communist insurgents, in the madness 
of desperation and despair, perpetrated acts of vandalism almost unparalleled 
in the history of the world. With the intention of destroying the city they could 
no longer rule, the insurgents, from their barricaded positions in various portions 
of Paris, threw petroleum shells over the city, and fires arose in many quarters. A 
number of women who were detected in the act of setting fire to buildings were 
shot on the spot, by the exasperated Government troops. The most famous build- 
ings set on fire were the Palace of the Tuileries, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, 
the Hotel de Ville, and the Louvre. The fighting during the day was of the most 
desperate character. The streets were strewn with dead bodies, and no quarter 
was shown by either party. The fighting resulted in immense advantages to the 
Versaillists, the insurgents being driven from many of their positions. 

May 25th — Retreat of the Insurgents to Belleville — Additional Fires. 
— The fighting was continued during the 25th, with additional advantage to the 
Government army. Driven from Paris proper, the insurgents, mad with rage and 
fury, took refuge in Belleville, the very centre of the revolutionary movement, and 
the birth-place of the great Communist rebellion. From Belleville, the Commun- 
ists continued to throw petroleum shells all over Paris, thus kindling additional 
fires in the city, and destroying many public and private buildings. The whole city 
was wrapt in clouds of smoke, and the fires could be seen for many miles around . 
A great many buildings were destroyed by the explosion of mines. The Luxem 
bourg, the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay, and the Palais Royal, were now also burning. 

May 26th — Battle of Belleville — Capture and Death of Communis! 
Leaders. — On the 26th, a furious battle was in progress in Pantin. The capture of 
6,000 insurgents in the Quartier Moufifiard ended the rebellion ir that quarter. The 
Government troops were severely harassed by the fire of musketry from the windows 
of houses. Many Communists who attempted to escape towards Pantin were hotly 



420 



MODERN HISTORY. 



pursued, and slaughtered without mercy, by the exasperated Versaillists. The 
insurgent position at Belleville was vigorously cannonaded by the Government army. 
The '.nsurgents were driven into the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where they were 
surr junded by the Government forces. The Rue Royale was destroyed by mines, 
and the most terrible fires were still raging in Paris. Women who were detectec] 
m pouring petroleum into cellars, were shot by the enraged Versaillists. Many of 
the insurgent leaders, among whom were Valles, Amoreux, Brunei, Rigault, Bous- 
(juet, and General Dombrowski, were captured and shot. 

May 27th — Battles of Belleville and Pere la Chaise. — On the 27th oc -urred 
trie most terrific fighting of the civil war. Sanguinary battles were fought at Belle- 
ville, Menilmontant, and in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. No quarter was given 
to man, woman, or child. After a day of the most frightful carnage, the Govern- 
ment forces captured the insurgent positions at Belleville and Pere la Chaise, late in 
the night. The destructive fires were still raging in Paris, but soon after the anival 
of the London Fire Brigade, the flames were got under control, and in a few days 
entirely extinguished. 

End of the Rebellion — Condition of Paris. — On Sunday morning, May 28th, 
the last band of insurgents surrendered unconditionally, the whole city was in the 
undisputed possession of the Government forces, the firing ceased, and lo,ooo pris- 
oners were passing through the Rue Lafayette. The great Rebellion of Paris in 
187 1 had now ended: one-third of Paris was in ashes, and 50,000 dead bodies 
were lying in the streets and cellars of the city. Among the slain were many 
women and boys who had fought in the ranks of the insurgents. The Tuileries, 
the Louvre, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Luxembourg, the Palais Royal, 
the Hotel de, Ville, and the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay were wholly or partially 
destroyed. This foolish and causeless rebellion, during the two months of its exist- 
tence, cost the lives of 60,000 Frenchmen. Many valuable works of art were sacri- 
ficed to the madness of the infuriated Cominunists. The outrages of the Commun- 
ists equaled those of the Jacobins of 1793; and the names of Cluseret, Bergerot, 
Dombrowski, Delescluse, Assy, Piat, and Rochefort, deserve the same execration 
as those of Robespierre, Danton, Marat, St. Just, Couthon, Henriot, and Fouquier- 
Tinville. 

Paris under Military Law— Wholesale Execution of Communists. — 
Upon the suppression of the rebellion. President Thiers appointed General Vinoy 
military governor of Paris, and military law was established in the city. A heavy 
doom was inflicted on the vanquished rebels, of whom about 40,000 were held as 
prisoners. Drumhead court-martial was established, from fifty to one hundred 
•asurgy mts were shot at a time, and no person was permitted to leave Paris without 
\ pass signed by Marshal MacMahon. The places of execution were the Champ 
de Mars, the Park de Monceaux, and the Hotel de Ville. Altogether, iS,ooo of 
the Communist rebels were shot after they had surrendered. In a few days aftei 
the suppression of the insurrection, all restrictions concerning communication with 
Paris were removed, and entrance and exit were free to all. The barricades were 
soon removed, and perfect order again prevailed. 

Republican Victory in the Supplementary Elections. — The supp'emen- 
tary elections in France for deputies to the National Assembly, at the beginning of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



421 



July, 1871, resulted in an overwhelming ma;ority for the Moderate Republicans. 
Out of 105 deputies chosen, there were 86 Moderate Republicans, 13 Radicals, 3 
Orleanists, 2 Legitimists, and i Bonapartist. 

SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1873 

Difficult Position of King Amadeus — Various Opposition Parties. — 

F»om the moment of his accession to the throne of Spain, King Amadeus found h»5 
situation to be an unenviable one. The young sovereign was really desirous of the 
welfar*. and prosperity of his subjects, but he lacked the abilities necessary for the 
difficult post of a constitutional monarch. The Spanish nation was divided into 
numerous parties, the rebellion against Spanish power in the island of Cuba still 
continued, and the young king found opposition on almost every hand. The most 
important parties opposed to King Amadeus were the Carlists, or adherents of Don 
Carlos; the Alphonsists, or partisans of Prince Alphonso, the son of ex-Queen 
Isabella II. ; the Republicans, and the Radicals. The Carlists worked actively for 
the elevation of Don Carlos to the throne of Spain; and the Republicans, headed 
by Senor Castelar and Senor Figueras, did not cease their dreams for the establish- 
ment of a Spanish Republic. The throne of Amadeus was only upheld by the 
non-agreement of the various opposition parties — the Carlists, the Alphonsists, the 
Republicans, the Radicals, and others. 

Carlist and Republican Insurrections — The Cuban Rebellion. — From 
the moment of the accession of King Amadeus, in January, 1871, the Carlists and 
the Republicans plotted against his government ; and several attempts were made 
to assassinate the young monarch. In June, 1872, a formidable insurrection of the 
Carlists broke out in the North of Spain ; but, after some spirited actions, in which 
the Carlists were defeated by the Government troops, the rebellion was suppressed. 
Armed bands of Carlists and Republicans roamed over the Northern Provinces of 
Spain, tearing up railways and cutting telegraph wires. A Republican revolt broke 
out in the town of Fcrrol, in October, 1872, but the insurgents dispersed on the 
approach of Government troops. The Cuban rebellion still continued without any 
decisive result. 

Abdication of King Amadeus — Spain Declared a Republic. — In the be- 
ginning of February, 1872, King Amadeus embraced the resolution of resigning his 
troublesome throne. The Ministry sought to dissuade the king from his purpose, 
but Amadeus persisted in his determination to abdicate the throne. When it be- 
came known that King Amadeus would certainly resign his crown, groups of people 
Bssembled in Madrid, and there were some attempts to create a disturbance; but 
'hese demonstrations were promptly suppressed, and the crowds were dispersed 
without any conflicts. The Congress, or lower branch of the Cortes, adopted p 
proposition that the President of that branch and fifty deputies should constitute a 
Permanent Committee. The Cortes assembled at a late hour on February llth, 
1873, ^'^'i '^^ formal message of the king's abdication was read in each chamber 
separately, but upon the conclusion of the reading the Senate and the Congress met 
together in one chamber, and constituted themselves the Sovereign Cortes of Spain, 
Senor Rivero, the President of the Congress, being called to the chair, declared him- 
self ready to answer for the preservation of order, and for the execution of the decrees 



422 



MODERN HISTORY. 



of the supreme power. The abdication of King Amadeus was unanimously accepted 
by the Cortes, which then, by a vote of 259 in the affirmative, and 32 in the negative, 
declared Spain a Republic. That night the streets of the Spanish capital were filled 
with an excited people. The Senate appointed a Permanent Committee of Thirty. 
Sen or Melcampo and Marshal Serrano oflered their support to Prime-Minister 
Zordla in maintaining order. The Ministry of Senor Zorilla now terminated, ar'd 
on fhe following day (February 12, 1873), the Cortes elected a new Ministry, n 
I'ro visional Government, of which Estanislao Figueras, the ardent Republican, .vas 
cliosen President. After the members of the new Government had taken their sects 
upon thi; ministerial benches in the Cortes, President Figueras addressed the Corlts, 
expressing the hope that the Spanish Republic would be established forever. On 
the following day (February 13th, 1873), '^^ two Houses of the Cortes met in joint 
session, and constituted themselves the National Assembly of Spain; and proceeded 
to effect a permanent organization by electing Senor E. Martos President of tlie 
Assembly. The Provisional Government ordered the suppression of the Royal 
Guard. Ex-King AmadeusJiad already left Madrid for Lisbon, in Portugal, whence 
he was to be conveyed to Italy by an Italian squadron. The establishment of the 
Spanish Republic was celebrated in Madrid, on the night of the 14th (February, 
1873), by ^ general illumination, on which occasion the streets of the Spanish capital 
were crowded with people, but there was no disorder. 

Abolition of Slavery in Porlo Rico — Dissolution of the National As- 
sembly. — After several months' deliberation, the National Assembly of Spain, on 
the 22d of March, 1873, passed, by a unanimous vote, a bill providing for the im- 
mediate abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, one of the largest of the Spanish West- 
India Islands, and accorded to the emancipated slaves the full privileges of Spanish 
citizenship. After passing this important measure, the National Assembly dissolved 
itself by a unanimous vote, on which occasion the greatest excitement prevailed in 
the Assembly chamber, and in the streets of the capital. On that and the following 
day (March 22d and 23d, 1873), there were several unsuccessful revolutionary 
demonstrations in Madrid. 

Carlist Insurrection in the North of Spain. — In the meantime, a formidable 
insurrection of the Carlists had broken out in the North of Spain. The Carlists,. 
instead of concentrating their forces, roamed over the Basque Provinces, Navarre, 
and Catalonia, in small bands, and engaged in tearing up railways, burning railway 
stations and bridges, cutting telegraph wires, and in every way interrupting com- 
munication in the Northern Provinces of Spain. Numerous small engagements 
were fought with various success between the Republican forces, headed by Gen- 
erals Gonzales, Nouvillas, Cabrinity, and others, and the Carlist bands, led by the 
Cure of Santa Cruz, and by Generals Seballs, Dorregaray, and Tristany, and Don 
Alphonso, the brother of Don Carlos. At the close of May, 1873, General Nou- 
villas, at the head of 12,000 men, was holding the mountain passes of Biscay, and 
driving the Carlists in that province toward the coast. 

Insurrection in Madrid. — During the latter part of April, 1S73, Madrid wa.' 
gieatly excited. A rising of the Monarchists in that city took place on the 23d of 
Api"il, beginning with the revolt of several battalions of volunteers, who fired on 
General Contreras. The agitation increased as night approached, and shots were 
fired in otl.er portions of the city. During this time, the Permanent Committee of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



423 



the National Assembly held a session, to consider the gravity of the situation, and 
to deliberate upon measures for the public safety. While the Committee was in 
session, some of the rebellious volunteers entered the hall, and the Committee sought 
safety in flight. The Ultras demanded the establishment of the Commune w. 
Madrid, and engaged in hunting down the members of the Permanent Committee, 
several of whom were arrested and imprisoned by the infuriated insurgents, and 
Ihe greatest excitement prevailed. Early in May, there was a renewal of revolu- 
ii',)nary demonstrations in Madrid. The city was placarded with numerous procla- 
mations, urging the people to demand the immediate proclamation of the Federal 
Republic, the abolition of capital punishment, the abolition of the State Council, 
and the separation of Church and State; and large Federalist meetings were licM 
on the 5th of May (1873). 

The Elections in Spain— Meeting of the Constituent Cortes.— In the 
meantime, elections for a Constituent Cortes had been ordered. The elections took 
place on Saturday and Sunday, May loth and nth, 1873, and resulted in the 
choice of 310 Ministerial Federal Republicans, 30 Extreme Radicals, 8 Interna- 
tionalists, 10 Independent Republicans, and 30 Monarchists. The total number of 
votes cast throughout Spain was 1,200,000. The vote in the capital was light, owing 
to the apathy of all parties except the Federal Republican. The Constituent Cortes 
assembled on the 31st of May, 1S73. The session was formally opened by Senor 
Plgueras, President of the Spanish Republic, with a speech, in which he maintained 
the right of the Spanish people to choose their own form of government. The 
Cortes organized by electing Senor Orense, a Federal Republican, its President. 

Proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic — Ministerial Crisis, 
— On the 8th of June, 1873, the Cortes, by a vote of 210 yeas against 2 nays, pro- 
claimed the establishment of the Federal Democratic Repiiblic in Spain, and then 
adjourned until evening. The session of the Cortes on the night of the 8th of 
June was a stormy one. Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, ten- 
dered his resignation; but, after great confusion and excitement, a Ministiy proposed 
by Senor Pi y Margall was rejected, and the Cortes went into secrect session. An 
excited crowd filled the streets in front of the palace, and within the Chamber the 
greatest agitation prevailed. Through the efforts of Castelar and Figueras, calm 
was finally restored in the Chamber, as well as among the populace outside. Aftei 
successive fruitless attempts of Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall to form a new 
Ministry, Senor Figueras was finally prevailed upon, by the Cortes, to remain in 
j.ower with his old Cabinet. After a vote of confidence in the Figueras Ministry, 
the Cox-tes adjourned. The proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic 
,vas celebrated at Barcelona, on the night of the 8th of June, with illuminations 
r,nd general rejoicings. 

Resignation of President Figueras — Senor Pi y Margall, President.-— 
,\i a Cabinet council on the nth of June, 1873, President Figueras and his Minis- 
ters tendered their resignations, in consequence of a disagreement with the Coitcs 
on the currency. In consequence of this ministerial crisis, fears were enteriained 
of a serious cutbreak in Madrid. The Cortes continued in secret session on ilie 
following day, and during their deliberations, a party of armed volunteers surrounded 
the palace of the Cortes. A large body of armed police and troops were stationea 
at various points throughout the city, in anticipation of an outbreak. A majority 



424 



MODERN HISTOR Y. 



of the Cortes finally chose Senor Pi y Margall to the Presidency of the Republic, 
and his Ministry was immediately appointed. The excitement which had prevailed 
in Madrid for several days greatly subsided, and the city appeared quite calm. 
Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Constituent Cortes. 

Disturbances at Barcelona, Malaga, and Seville. — Disturbances occurred 
at Barcelona on the 24th of June, 1873. There was firing all that night between 
'he soldiers and the citizens. On the following day, the troops were all removed 
horn the city, and a cordon of police was established between them and the city, 
to i)revent a further collision. On the 25th of June, the populace in Malaga arose 
against the authorities, and killed the Mayor of the city, but order was restored in 
the evening. The Extreme Radicals arose in Seville, and barricaded the sU-eets, 
but the outbreak was soon suppressed. 

Extraordinary Governmental Powers — A Spanish Republican Consti- 
tution. — On the 30th of June, 1873, ^^ Cortes, by a large majority, approved a 
bill granting extraordinary powers to the Government, to enable it to crush the 
Carlist insurrection. Seiious apprehensions were entertained of an outbreak in 
Madrid against the Government, and troops were placed at strategic points in 
the city. The Constituent Committee of the Cortes completed the draft of a 
Federal Republican Constitution for Spain. The Constitution provided for the 
division of European Spain into eleven States; and Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
Philippine Islands were to be constituted Territories of Spain. Madrid was to 
remain the capital. The Government was to be divided into the Legislative, 
Executive, and Judiciary Departments. The Cortes was to hold two sessions each 
year, and the members were to receive salaries. Senator's were to be chosen by the 
States, and Deputies by universal suffrage. Deputies could not act as Ministers. 
A President was to be elected by universal suffrage, for a single term of four 
years. 

Rising at Alcoy. — On the 12th of July, 1873, ^^'^ Internationals arose against 
the authorities at Alcoy, in the Province of Alicante, and assassinated the Mayor 
of the city, although he was a life-long Republican. His body was dragged 
through the streets by a mob which kept up a continuous yell. The Collector of 
Taxes was also assassinated, and his body was treated with the same indignities as 
that of the Mayor. Several factories were burned by the mob. On the 13th of 
July, General Velarde entered Alcoy, with a strong column of Government troops. 
The insurgents had already been reduced to submission by the Alicante miliitia, 
who took possession of the town, but the leaders of the revolt escaped. 

Insurrections in Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Barcelona. — In 
anticipation of the adoption, by the Cortes, of contemplated changes in the new 
Federal Constitution, the Provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia 
rose in rebellion against the Government, and proclaimed their independence 
Declarations of independence were issued at Seville, Cadiz, and Barcelona. 

Communist Insurrection' at Cartagena. — The Communist insurgents at 
Cartagena, headed by General Contreras, made themselves masters of the whole 
city, except the arsenal. The crews of several Spanish men-of-war in the harbor 
of Cartagena having revolted, the Spanish Government issued a proclamation 
declaring them pirates, and authorizing their capture and treatment as such, by any 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 425 

foreign power, on the ^igh seas; and decrees were issued dismissing General Con- 
treras from the public service, and removing the civil governors of the levolted 
provinces. The insurgents at Cartagena, after gaining control of the city, seized 
the Castillo de las Galeras, a strong fort on the west side of the harbor, less \\\iT, 
a thousand yards from the entrance, which it commanded completely. This gav6 
them control of the batteries on the shore, at the mouth of the harbor. They 
hoisted the red flag of the Commune over the fortifications, and summoned the 
squadron lying in the harbor to surrender. The crews being in sympathy with the 
insurgents, the vessels fell into their hands without opposition. The insurgents 
levied a heavy contribution upon the inhabitants of Cartagena. The Communists, 
or Intransigentes, at Cartagena, established a Provisional Government for the Can- 
ton of Murcia, at the head of which was General Contreras, as President. 

Insurgent Attack on Almeria.— Contreras was in command af the insurgent 
fleet off Almeria. He demanded a heavy contribution from the city, but as the city 
authorities refused to comply with his demand, he opened a heavy bombardment on 
the city. After two hours of heavy firing, the Intransigentes attempted to disembark, 
but were repulsed by the Government forces, and compelled to reembark ; but they 
afterward renewed their attack upon the city. 

Resignation of Pi y Margall — Senor Nicholas Salmeron, President. — 

The numerous internal troubles of Spain caused the Cortes to demand the formation 
of a vigorous Ministry under Senor Nicholas Salmeron ; and accordingly, Senoi 
Pi y Margall and his Cabinet resigned, and on the 20tli of July, 1873, Senor Nicholas 
Salmeron was made President of the Spanish Republic, and an able Ministry was 
formed. While the debate on the Ministry was going on in the Cortes, great excite- 
ment was produced by the explosion of an Orsini bomb at the door. Senor Emilio 
Castelar was elected President of the Cortes, on the 26th of August, and on taking 
the chaar, he made a speech exhorting the Republicans to be united. 

Bombardment of Valencia. — The insurgents at Valencia refused to surrendei 
to the Government troops, who thereupon opened a heavy bombardment upon the 
city, on the night of the 30th of July. The city was cannonaded at regular inter- 
vals, musketry firing was frequent, and there was some desperate fighting. The 
Government troops occupied the village of Mislata, but were dislodged by the in- 
surgent artilleiy, and the village was alternately taken and retaken, and set on fire 
by shells from the gamson in Valencia. A serious conflict took place at the village 
of Masannasa, near Valencia, between the Government troops and the insurgents, 
in which 150 men were killed. Already 200 shells had been .hrown into Valencia, 
and the Government troops had advanced 600 yards. 

Reduction of Seville. — On the 31st of July, 1873, ^^ insurgents at Seville 
set file to that city in four different places, by means of petroleum. The insurrec- 
tion at Seville was soon suppressed, and the city was occupied by the Government 
ti'oops. The fires which the insurgents had kindled were extinguished. Tli< 
Government troops captured twenty cannon at Seville. 

Fight at Malaga— Revolt at Alhama — Fall of Cadiz. — Early in August, 
the Government troops defeated the insurgents in a sharp fight at Malaga, and drove 
them from the field. The town of Alhama, in the Province of Alicante, proclaimed 
its independence, and a junta was organized, whose first act was to levy a heavy 



426 MODERN IIISTOR Y. 

contribution upon the citizens. Tlie insurgents at Cadiz surrendered to the Govern- 
ment troops, under General Pavia, on the 5th of August. 

Mutiny at Barcelona. — On the 8tli of August, 1873, the artillerymen belong- 
ing to the garrison of Barcelona mutinied against their ofiicers, but were quickly 
disarmed, and imprisoned by the cavalry under the command of the Captain-General 
of Barcelona. The mutineers were court-martialed, and twelve of the ringleaders 
werf; sentenced to death, and thirty to transportation to the penal colonieg oJ 
.Sjiain. 

Socialistic Rising in Andalusia. — Early in September, 1S73, S jcialibtic 
troubles broke out in the Province of Andalusia. In the vicinity of the town of 
Jimena, the farm-laborers banded together, for the purpose of demanding and endeav- 
oring to enforce a division of property. They burned forty farm-houses belonging 
to those opposed to them, and committed other excesses. Some of the rioters were 
arrested. 

Resignation of Salmeron — Senor Emilio Castelar, President. — The 
question of military executions engaged the attention of the Cortes, and President 
Salmeron, who was opposed to capital punishment, tendered his resignation, and 
his Ministry retired on the 5th of September, 1873. On the 7th, Senor Emilio 
Castelar was elected President of the Spanish Republic, and he entered on his 
duties with an able Ministry. The Cortes conferred on President Castelar dicta- 
torial powers, to enable him to crush the Carlist and Communist insurrections. 
Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Cortes ; and several weeks 
later, the Cortes adjourned. 

Disturbances at Ecija, Malaga, and Seville. — On the i6th of September, 
[873, there was a serious riot at Ecija, provoked by the Intransigentes, and attended 
(vith considerable loss of life. The municipal elections in Malaga, on the same day, 
were attended with riot and bloodshed. The Intransigentes in Seville attacked a 
party of Republican recruits, but the latter resisted, and several were killed. 

Insurgent Bombardment of Alicante. — The insurgent men-of-war from 
Cartagena effected a landing at Augilas, and pillaged the town and suburbs. The 
insurgent fleet proceeded to Alicante, in the Province of Alicante; and when a 
demand for a contribution was rejected, a fierce bombardment was opened on the 
city, on the 27th of September, 1873, ^^"^ 5°° projectiles, some filled with petroleum, 
were thrown into the city, and did great damage ; but the fleet was seriously disa- 
bled by a vigorous return fire from the forts, and, after several days, the insurgent 
fleet withdrew from Alicante. 

Siege and Bombardment of Cartagena. — In the meantime, the siege and 
bombardment of Cartagena by the Government forces had progressed actively. A 
column of 2000 insurgents made a desperate sortie from the city, on the 9th of Octo- 
ber, but were repulsed with heavy losf^. The Intransigente fleet was defeated by 
the National squadron under Admiral Lobos, on the nth of October, near Carta- 
gena. On the 19th of October, the insurgent squadron from Cartagena appearec 
before Valencia, but withdrew several days afterward, with the plunder of ten Spanish 
merchant-ships. On the 23d of October, the Government fleet arrived off Carta- 
gena, and was fired upon from the forts, but the insurgent vessels remained inside 
the harbor. The bombardment of the city continued incessantly. On the 26th of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



427 



November, the cathedral and hospital were struck by the besiegers' artilleiy. On 
the 2Sth, the Protestant church and the theatre were destroyed, and 200 persons 
were killed and wounded within the city. The insurgents raised the black flag 
upon the forts. The bombardment did great damage to the city, and 400 houses 
were destroyed ; but the forts and batteries remained almost intact. The bombard- 
•nert produced distress among non-combatants. The insurgents strengthened their 
works and armament. The Government forces at length occupied the San Antonio 
iuburl), and, concentrating their fire upon the forts, suspended their bombardment 
of the town. 

The Carlist Rebellion. — The Carlist rebellion in the North of Spain continued 
during the Administrations of Pi y Margall, Salmeron and Castelar. Don Carlos 
had entered Spain, on the l6th of July, 1873, from Bayonne, France, accompanied 
by several attendants, and was received by his adherents with indescribable enthu- 
siasm. During the whole summer and autumn of 1873, the Basque Provinces, 
Navarre, and Catalonia, were the theatres of numerous engagements between the 
Republican forces, commanded by Generals Nouvillas, Cabrinety, Moriones, and 
others, and the Carlist bands under the leadership of the Cure of Santa Cruz, and 
Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, Olio, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso. By the 
close of the autumn of 1873, there were 40,000 Carlists under arms in the North 
of Spain, and Don Carlos took up his winter-quarters at Durango, in the Province 
of Biscay. 

Coup d' Etat of General Pavia — Marshal Serrano, President. — The 
Spanish Cortes reassembled on the 2d of January, 1874; and President Castelar 
read his message from the Ministerial bench. For a long time, a disagreement had 
existed between Senor Castelar, President of the Republic, and Senor Salmeron, 
President of the Cortes, and on this occasion a sharp debate took place between 
these two Republican leaders and statesmen. On the 3d (January, 1874), the Cor- 
tes, on two votes, refused to sustain President Castelar, the majority against him 
being twenty. As soon as the result of the votes was announced. General Pavia, 
Captain-General of Madrid, who had surrounded the Chamber of the Cortes with 
soldiers, sent an officer into the Chamber with a letter to Salmeron, demanding the 
dissolution of the Cortes. Thereupon Senor Castelar resigned the Presidency of 
the Republic, and his Cabinet retired from office; and immediately some of Gen- 
eral Pavia's soldiers entered the hall and expelled the Deputies. General Pavia 
then summoned the most eminent men of all parties to form a new Government, 
excluding only Carlists and Intransigentes; but he refused personally to become a 
member of the Government. Marshal Serrano was made President of the Repub- 
lic, and an able Ministry was formed. Castelar, Salmeron, and other Republican 
leaders protested with all their energy against the brutal Coup d' Etat of General 
Pavia. 

Communist Insurrection in Barcelona. — On the Sth of January, 1S74, a 
Comnmnist insun-ection broke out in Barcelona, and barricades were erected in the 
suburbs by the insurgents. Fort Montijoi, on the south side of the city, opened 
fire on the city ; and there was severe fighting in the suburbs. The insurrection 
continued until the 15th, when the insurgents surrendered, and the authority of the 
Spanish Government was fully restored in t'le city. 



428 MODERN HISTORY. 

Bombardment of Cartagena. — Early in Januar)-, 1874, after General Pavia's 
Coup d' Etat, the besiegers of Cartagena redoubled their efforts to reduce the city, 
but the garrison stubbornly held out and made several desperate sorties. On the 
9th of January, a column of the National army besieging Cartagena was repulsed 
In an assault upon Fort San Julian. A heavy fire was kept up on both sides. The 
besiegers finally compelled Atalaya Castle to surrender. During the siege and 
bombardment, powder magazines frequently exploded in the city, causing much 
destruction of life. 

Fall of Cartagena — Flight of the Insurgent Leaders. — Cartagena sur- 
rendered to the Government forces, on the 14th of January, 1874. Upon the 
capitulation of the city, the members of the Insurgent Junta and the liberated con- 
victs went on board the frigate Numancia. The Numancia, in escaping, passed 
five Spanish men-of-war, and arrived safely at Mers-el-Kebir, on the coast of 
Algeria, with 2,500 refugees on board, among whom were Generals Contreras and 
Galvez. One of the steamers which attempted to escape was captured with a large 
number of refugees. Another insurgent vessel, with a large party of refugees, suc- 
ceeded in reaching the French shores, whither she was pursued by a French man- 
of-war. The members of the Cartagenian Junta surrendered the Numancia to the 
French authorities at Mers-el-Kebir. The Numancia was delivered by the French 
to a Spanish frigate. The insurgent chiefs, Contreras, Ferrez, and Galvez, were 
sent to the capital of Algeria, and the Cartagenian refugees were interned in the 
forts and barracks of Oran and Mers-el-Kebir. 

The Carlist War. — Winter did not suspend operation between the Carlist and 
Republican forces in the North of Spain ; and the Province of Biscay was the prin- 
cipal theatre of war. During the month of February, 1874, there was severe fight- 
ing at Bilbao, Tolosa, and Somorrostro, between the opposing forces, with various 
success. After the fall of Cartagena and the suppression of the Instransigente 
insurrection. President Serrano assumed the chief command of the Government 
forces operating against the Carlists, and, with the aid of his chief subordinates, 
Generals Lo'ma and Manuel de la Concha, he prepared for a vigorous and decisive 
campaign. 

Serrano's Campaign against the Carlists — Siege of Bilbao. — By the 
niiddle of March, 1874, a Republican army of 34,000 men, under the chief com- 
mand of President Serrano himself, stood face to face with a Carlist force of 35,000 
men, while General Loma, with 8,000 Republican troops, was moving on the Car- 
list I ear. In the meantime, the Carlists had laid siege to Bilbao, which they bom- 
barded incessantly, throwing 200 shells into the city daily. The Carlists captured 
an outlying fort with forty prisoners, and they threw incendiary shells into Bilbac 
with terrible effect. An engagement before the city resulted in the occupation of 
the Albia suburb by the besiegers. A desperate engagement was fought before 
Bilbao on the 25th of March, lasting all day, and in the evening, the Republicans 
encamped on the positions which they had captured from the Royalists. The fight- 
uig before Bilbao was renewed on the 26th, continuing all day, and closing at night 
.vith decided advantages for the Republican forces. Serrano's troops advanced, 
and drove back the Carlist lines, capturing, at the point of the bayonet, several 
villages anl several positions which were occupied by the insurgents the day pre- 
vious. Serrano's losses during these two days were 550 men, and Generals Loma 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



429 



and Primo de Rivera were severely wounded. Serrano made a successful attack on 
Pedro Abanto, and drove the Carlists beyond Santa Guliana. The fighting at Bil- 
bao was renewed on the 28th of March, lasting all day; and the Republicans were 
repulsed in their attacks on the Carlist lines, losing 4,000 men, while the Royalists 
lost only 1,000. A heavy fire was kept up on the Carlist positions before Bilbao 
by the Republican artillery. Active operations before Bilbao were resumed on the 
3(1 of April (1874), with the bombardment of Abanto by the Republican foices. 
Serrano's army kept up a furious cannonade on the Carlist positions before Bilbao. 
On the 29th of April, fighting was resumed before Bilbao, and continued the next 
two days; and ori the first of May, the Carlists were defeated and routed, and the 
Republican forces, under President Serrano and General Manuel de la Concha, 
triumphantly entered Bilbao. During the month of May, there were several skir- 
mishes around Bilbao, and, at the close of the month, the Carlists invested Hernani. 

Attack on Estella and Death of Marshall Concha. — On the 25th of June, 
1874, General Manuel de la Concha, in the midst of a terrible storm, surprised tlie 
Carlist positions near Estella. The engagement lasted an hour, and the Carlist 
losses were heavy. In a bayonet charge on the Carlist intrenchment? at Mura, Mar- 
shal Concha, who was over eighty years of age, having placed himself at the head 
of the Republican troops, was instantly killed. The Republican army then fell 
back to Lerin, eight miles from Estella. The Republican loss was 1,500 men. 
The command of the Republican army was then given to General Zabala, Spanish 
Minister of War. Marshal Concha's death produced a profound sensation through- 
out Spain, and his remains were honored with magnificent funeral obsequies. 

Capture of Cuenca by the Carlists — Cruelties of the Carlists. — On the 
13th of July, 1874, Don Alphonso, with 8,000 Carlists, made an attack upon the 
Republicans at Cuenca, and, after a most desperate struggle, during which the 
Republicans repulsed four fierce assaults made upon them by the Carlists, the Roy- 
alists finally obtained possession of the Citadel, compelling the Republicans to 
surrender. The victors practiced the greatest cruelties upon the vanquished, many 
of whom were shot after they had surrendered. 

Recognition of the Spanish Republic by European Powers. — In August, 
1874, the Spanish Republic was formally recognized by England, France, Gemiany, 
Italy, Austria, Holland, and Sweden; but Russia held aloof, fearing that recogni- 
tion would strengthen the cause of republicanism in Europe, and alleging that 
Marshal Serrano's government, which had its origin in a coup d'etat, had no legal 
existence. 

Progress of the Carlist War — Attacks on Puigcerda — Siege of Irun. 
— The war between the Republicans and the Carlists continued with various 
success. In the latter part of August, 1874, the Carlists were repulsed in repeited 
attacks on Puigcerda. Early in November (1874), the Carlists laid siege to Irun, 
which they furiously bombarded for nearly a week, but they were eventually ooni 
pelled to raise the siege, and to retreat into Navarre. 

Prince Alphonso Proclaimed King of Spain by the Armies. — On the 
31st of December, 1874, Prince Alphonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella II., was pro- 
claimed King of Spain, by the Republican armies. Marshal Serrano acquiesced. 
The Minister of Interior immediately sent dispatches to the Governors of the 
Provinces, announcing that Alphonso XII. had been proclaimed King by the 



430 MODERN HISTORY. 

nation, the army, and the Ministry. On the 9th of January-, 1S75, King Alphonso 
arrived at Barcelona from France, and was received with great demonstrations of 
enthusiasm. On the 14th (January, 1875), he arrived in Madrid, and met with a 
grand reception, and in the evening the city was brilliantly illuminated. 

Alphonso's Proclamation to the Carlists — Desertion of Carlist Gen- 
erals.— After taking possession of the throne of Spain, King Alphonso issued a 
proclamation, calling upon the Carlists to lay down their arms, but they refused, 
:ind preparations were made to subdue them. In February, 1875, Estella was cap- 
tured by the Alphonsists, and the Carlists were repulsed in an attack upoii Bilbao. 
Jn March, General Cabrera deserted the cause of Don Carlos, and issued a procla- 
mation recogirizing Alphonso as King of Spain, and calling upon the Carlists to 
submit He also concluded a convention with the Alphonsists. In May, Generals 
Elio and Aguirre also deserted Don Carlos; and Aguirre issued an address to the 
Carlists, advising them to submit to King Alphonso. 

Carlist Defeats — Flight of Dorregaray — Siege and Fall of Seo de Urgel. 
— In July (1875), the Carlists were defeated by the Alphonsists under Generals 
Jovellar and Martinez Campos, but the Alphonsist general Loma was unsuccessful. 
Dorregaray fled across the frontier, into France, pursued by the Alphonsists. In 
August, the Alphonists laid siege to the strong fortress of Seo de Urgel. On the 
17th, a body of 6000 Carlists made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the beleag- 
uered fortress; and on the 27th (August, 1875), Seo de Urgel surrendered to the 
Alphonsists. The Carlists were also defeated at other points, about this time. 

Submission of Carlists — Carlist Dissensions. — In September (1S75), the 
Carlists in the provinces of Catalonia, Navarre, and Biscay, gave in their submission 
to the Government of King Alphonso, and applied for amnesty. The Carlists became 
more and more distracted by dissensions in their own ranks ; and Don Carlos quar- 
relled with Generals Don-egaray, Seballs, and others, and ordered them to be shot. 

RECENT AFFAIRS OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. 

Political Struggles in France — Fall of Thiers — Marshal MacMahon, 
President. — After the suppression of the rebellion of the Paris Commune in 1871, 
the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention 
of the French Assembly and people. The Legitimists and Orleanists effected a 
fusion, and labored actively for the elevation of the Count de Chambord, the repre- 
sentative of the Legitimists, as the chief of the reunited House of Bourbon, to the 
throne of France as king. The Bonapartists, who were now comparatively weak, 
intrigued in behalf of the Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III.; while the Repub- 
licans of all factions, whose recognized chief was President Thiers, were determined 
upon the preservation of the Republic. The Radical Republicans, headed by M. 
Gambetta, demanded the dissolution of the National Assembly which had met in 
f ebruary, 1871, and the election of a new Assembly. On the opening of the As- 
sembly, in November, 1872, a violent struggle began between the parties in that 
body, for the furtherance of their respective schemes. A Committee of Thirty was 
appointed, to consider the question of the reorganization of the Government of 
France. M, Thiers recommended the definitive establishment of the Conservative 
Republic. The struggle between the Republicans and the Monarchists in the As- 




VON MOLTKE. 




PRESIDENT McMAHON. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



43^ 



scmbly continued until the 23d of May, 1S73, when the Mona-chical majority in 
the Assembly demanded the organization of a more Conservative Ministiy. On 
that day, a violent scene took place in the Assembly. When President Thiers 
mounted the tril)une to address the Assembly, his voice was drowned by the cries 
of the Monarchists; and, after vainly endeavoring to make himself heard, tl:« Pre- 
sident descended the tribune, and, amid the greatest confusion and excitement, the 
Assembly adjourned. On the following day (May 24, 1S73), President Thiers 
addressed the Assembly, urging the definitive establishment of the Republic. Aftei 
a violent debate, and the defeat of the Government on several votes in the Assem- 
bly, the Ministry resigned, and a message from M. Thiers was read in the Aa^embly, 
in which he tendered his resignation as President of the Republic, which was ac- 
cepted by a vote of the Assembly. The Assembly then elected Marshal MacMahon 
to the Presidency of the Republic. The new President announced^ a Conservative 
policy, and formed a Cabinet composed chiefly of Monarchists, with the Duke de 
Broglie at its head. For more than a year, the Assembly was engaged in the fram- 
ing of Constitutional bills. The Monarchists were intriguing for the enthronement 
of the Count de Chambord, while the Republicans carried nearly all the elections 
to fill vacancies in the Assembly. On the 20th of November, 1873, the Assembly, 
by a decisive vote, prolonged President MacMahon's powers for seven years. The 
Broglie Ministry resigned in May, 1S74, in consequence of a defeat in the Assem- 
bly, and a new Ministry, in which the Duke Decazes was the chief member, was 
formed. 

Ecclesiastical Struggle in Germany — Attempted Assassination of 
Prince Bismarck. — During fhis time, Germany was disturbed by a religious and 
political dispute, or a struggle between Church and State. The Ultramontanes, or 
extreme Catholics, held allegiance to the Pope as a higher obligation than allegi- 
ance to the Emperor of Germany. The German Government, under the energetic 
direction of Prince Bismarck, was resolved to assert practically the supremacy of 
the civil over the ecclesiastical power; while the Ultramontane party, encouraged 
by the Pope and by the reactionary party in France, sought to place the spiritual 
above the civil power. Bishops were frequently arrested, fined, and imprisoned, 
by order of the Prussian Government, for their defiant attitude toward the civil 
authority of the Empire. The Pope addressed a letter to the Emperor William, 
praying him not to persecute the Church. To this letter the Emperor replied 
politely, but firmly asserted his determination to defend the imperial authority against 
the attacks of the Ultramontane party. The most defiant of the clergy were the 
Bishop of Emerland and Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen. The Prussian Gov- 
ernment caused the Catholic churches of Berlin and the Province of Posen to be 
closed, and Archbishop Ledochowski, who maintained an obstinate resistance to 
the decrees of the Government, was arrested, tried, and sentenced to two years' 
nnprisonment. The Bishop of Treves, the Archbishop of Cologne, and Bishop 
Janizewski of Posen, were also arrested for violation of the ecclesiastical laws. The 
i'russian Government issued an ordinance requiring all Bishops when installed to 
5wear to maintain the subordination of the Church to the State. The Pope, in 
December, 1873, issued an allocution denouncing the Governments of Germany, 
Switzerland, and Italy, for their encroachments on the Church. The journals in 
Prussia which published the allocution were prosecuted by the Government. Od 



432 



MODERN HISTORY. 



the I4tli of July, 1S74, while Prince Bismarck was riding out in the country, he 
was fired at by a young Catholic named Kullman. The Prince naiTOwly escaped 
assassination, the ball grazing his wrist. Kullman was promptly arrested, and the 
people were with difficulty restrained from lyncliing him. Bismarck received over 
100 telegrams congratulating him upon his escape. 

Republicanism in England — War with the Ashantees — Gladstone's 
Fall. — During this time, England was politically and socially agitated. Largi 
Republican meetings were held in some of the large cities, and the Rej ublicai 
movement, directed by such men as Charles Bradlaugh and Sir Charles Dilke 
made much .progress among the workingmen. A Cabinet crisis occurred in March, 
1873, but was soon terminated by Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet remaining in office. \v 
August, 1873, an English military e.x;pedition, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, invaded 
the negro kingdom of Ashantee, in Upper Guinea, in Western Africa, for the pui- 
pose of chastising the Ashantees for their depredations on the British possessions 
on the Gold Coast. After numerous victories over the Ashantees, the British 
finally stormed and took Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, early in February, 1874, 
and compelled King Koffee to accept very humiliating conditions of peace. Late 
in January, 1873, Mr. Gladstone, finding a majority in Parliament opposed to him 
on some important measures, dissolved Parliament and ordered new elections. The 
elections resulted in giving the Tories an overwhelming majority in Parliament, 
whereupon Mr. Gladstone's Wliig Ministry resigned, and the Tories, headed by 
Mr. Disraeli, Returned to power. 

Definitive Establishment of the Republic in France. — In the meantime, 
the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of 
the French National Assembly. After voting the prolongation of President Mac- 
Mahon's powers for seven years, the Assembly devoted itself to the framing of 
Constitutional Bills. Finally, in February, 1875, the Assembly passed Constitu- 
tional Bills, providing for the establishment of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, 
which were to be vested with the legislative power, while the executive power was 
to be entrusted to a President of the Republic, who was to be elected for seven 
years, by both Chambers of the Assembly in joint convention. The Constitution 
also provided that the President of the Republic, with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, could dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. The principle of Ministerial 
responsibility was established. The Senate was to consist of 300 members, of 
which 225 were to be elected by the Councils-Generals, the Municipal Councils, 
and the Arrondissements, and 75 by the Chamber of Deputies; and all Senators 
ware to be irremovable. The Chamber of Deputies was to be elected by universal 
suffrage. The Senate Bill was passed on February 24th (1875), by 448 yeas to 
241 nays. On the same day, the Assembly recognized the Republic, by passing 
the Public Powers Bill, by a vote of 433 yeas to 262 nays. An Electoral Bill, pre- 
scribing the conditions of suffrage, was debated for many months, and finally passed 
"n December, 1875. 

Russia's Wars in Central Asia. — During the greater part of the precenf 
century, Russia has been engaged in a series of wars with wild Tartar tribes ;-rd 
petty states of Central Asia. In a war with Bokhara, in 1868, the Russians were 
victorious; and in 1 871, they subdued Soongaria, which had fought itself inde- 
pendent of Chinese rule in 1864. Early in 1873, a war broke out between 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 4^, 

Russia and Khiva; and a Russian military expedition, under General Kauffn-.ann, 
was sent against the Khivans. After several engagements, in which the Khuans 
were defeated, General Kauffmann entered the Khivan capital in triumph, and dic- 
tated terms of peace to the terrified Khan of Khiva (June, 1873). I^i the fad of 
1S73, '^^ Russians defeated the Turkomans. In the summer of 1875, hostilities 
broke out between Russia and Khokand. A Russian army under General Kauff- 
mann invaded Khokand, defeated 30,000 Khokand troops, captured the Khokand 
capital, and forced the Khan of Khokand to accept a humiliating peace. (Septem 
ber, 1875.) 

Rebellion in the Herzegovina against the Turks. — In July, 1875, the 
peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the West of European Turkey, 
rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government, to resist the collection of taxes 
by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears 
were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the 
Great European Powers met at Mostar, and endeavored to bring%bout a pacification, 
by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and reasonable concessions to the 
Herzegovinians and Bosnians; while, at the same time, they tried to induce the 
insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of an unimportant charactej 
occurred in the autumn of 1875, ^ut no great battle took place; and no advantagi 
was gained by either party. 



THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 

THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 

CAUSES OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

Deplorable Condition of Spanish America — Tupac Amaru's Revolt in 
Peru (1780). — Mexico, or New Spain, and South America, during the three cen- 
turies that they were dependencies of Spain, were to a great extent isolated from 
the rest of the world. The most exclusive policy was pursued by Spain toward 
her American colonies. No foreigners, except such as desired to make discoveries 
in natural history, were pennitted to travel in Spanish America, and then only with 
the written consent of the King of Spain. The commerce of the SpanisI Ameri- 
can colonies was crippled by the most severe restrictions, and most of the wealth 
of the colonies flowed into the mother country. The Spanish American.; were 
taught to look upon Spain as the mother of nations. The condition of the C reoles 
and Indians of Spanish America was the most deplorable imaginable. The nativf 5 
were the victims of the most cruel oppression; being forced to work in the mines, 
where many of them perished. The influence of priestcraft and Jesuitism contrib- 
uted to keep the inhabitants of Spanish America in intellectual darkness; and 
ignorance and superstition enabled Spain to uphold her dominion in Spanish 
America for three centuries. The condition of the Spanish Americans was fa: 
worse than that of the Anglo-Americans, as in the case of the former the intellect 
was enslaved. In 1780, the standard of revolt was raised in Peru, by Tupac 
Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, who endeavored to restore his country's inde- 
pendence ; but, after a bloody struggle of two years, the insuiTection was suppressed, 
28 



434 MODERN HISTORY. 

and Tupac Amaru was put to a cruel death, his body being drawn in quarters by 
horses. 

Effect of Bonaparte's Dethronement of the Royal Family of Spain in 
Spanish America. ^The immediate cause of the Spanish American Revoluton 
had its origin in Europe. When intelligence of the dethronement of the legitimate 
royal family of Spain, by the Emperor Napoleon I., reached Spanish America, in 
I So8, the inhabitants there, who since the first conquest of the country had been 
I lyal to Spain, declared in favor of the patriots of Spain, who had taken up aiins 
against the French invaders of their country, and in defense of their rightful sover- 
eign, Ferdinand VII. The Spanish Americans also took up arms for Ferdinand 
VII., for the purpose of preventing Spanish America from being placed under the 
dominion of Joseph Bonaparte, the so-called King of Spain; and they prepared to 
resist the viceroys, who, in order to retain their offices, for the most part sided with 
the French and acquiesced in the usurpation of Napoleon. But the motives of the 
Spanish Ameiicanf were misunderstood by the Provisional Junta in Spain, which 
sent out armies for their subjugation, and which by its tyranny soon alienated the 
Spanish American colonies from the mother country; and the struggle assumed 
the shape of a war for independence on the part of the Spanish Americans. 

THE REVOLUTION IN MEXICO (1810-1824). 

Enfranchisement of the Mexican Creoles — Imprisonment of the Vice- 
roy of New Spain. — In Mexico, or New Spain, all offices were in the possession 
of the European Spaiyards, while the Creoles, or native inhabitants, were deprived 
of all share in the government. The Viceroy of New Spain allowed the Creoles a 
share in the government, in order to secure their support to Ferdinand VII., the 
lawful King of Spain. This measure was opposed by the provincial court of the 
Audiencia, which, siding with the 5^uropean Spaniards, seized and imprisoned the 
Viceroy, and again deprived the Mexican Creoles of their rights and privileges. 
These arbitrary proceedings increased the bitterness on the part of the Creoles 
toward the European Spaniards. 

Commencement of the Mexican Revolution by Hidalgo. — On the i6th 
of September, 1810, the Revolution in Mexico was begun, in the little town of 
Dolores, by a priest named Hidalgo. The insurrection spread with wonderful 
rapidity, and Hidalgo soon had 100,000 men under arms. With this immense 
force, Hidalgo advanced toward the city of Mexico, gained some victories, but soon 
made a hasty and unaccountable retreat. 

Sanguinary Career and Death of Hidalgo — Short Career of Morelos. — 
Hidalgo gained some victories during the latter part of the same year (1810), out 
tarnished his glory by his atrocities. The number of Spaniards put to death by his 
orders amounted to several thousand. After being several times defeated, Hidalgo 
was taken prisoner, and was shot by order of the Spanish authorities, in July, i8i I. 
After the death of Hidalgo, Morelos, a warlike priest, who was as generous as 
brave, gained many brilliant victories over the Spaniards, during the years 1811 and 
1812, but he was defeated, captured, and shot in 1813. 

Declaration of Mexican Independence — Restoration of Spanish Au- 
thority. — In 181 3, a Congress which assembled at Chilpanzingo, declared Mexico 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 4^5 

an independent nation. Various partisan leaders, such as Victoria, Bravo, Guerrero, 
Teran, Rayon, and Torres, carried on a guerrilla warfare against the royalists until 
1819, when the patriots were defeated, and Spanish authority was temporarily reestab- 
lished in Mexico. 

Revolt of Iturbide — " Plan of Iguala" — Independence of Mexico, — 
On the 24th of February, 1821, Don Augustin Iturbide, who had previously fought 
en the side of the Spaniards, proclaimed the celebrated " Plan of Iguala," which 
declared Mexico independent of Spain, its government a constitutional monarchy, 
and its religion Roman Catholic, while all Mexicans who ranged themselves on the 
side of independence were invested with the rights of citizenship. After a feeble 
resistance on the part of the Spaniards, Spanish authority was overthrown, and 
Mexico became an independent nation. 

Iturbide, Emperor — His Dissolution of the Congress — His Overthow 
and Death. — On the 24th of September, 1821, the Mexican capital was entered 
in triumph by Iturbide. A Congress which was assembled in 1822, elevated Itur- 
bide to the dignity of Emperor of Mexico, with the title of Augustin T. Soon a 
dispute arose between the Emperor and the Congress. Iturbide ended the dispute 
by dissolving the Congress, but his arbitrary conduct produced a revolution which 
'resulted in compelling him to abdicate his crown, and to flee from the country. 
(May, 1823.) He retired to Europe, but returned to Mexico in February, 1824, 
and, after making a fruitless effort to regain his former power, he was shot by order 
of the provincial congress of Tamaulipas. 

The Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824. — After the overthrow and flight 
of Iturbide, in 1823, a Congi-ess was convened, and a new constitution was estab- 
lished, by which Mexico became a federal republic. This Federal Constitution, 
which was somewhat modeled after the Constitution of the United States of America, 
declared the United States of Mexico a federal republic, and divided the govern- 
ment into three departments, — legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative 
power was vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives ; the Senate to be composed of two members from each State, 
elected for a term of four years by the legislatures of the States ; and the House of 
Representatives to consist of members elected for a term of two years by the citizens 
of the several States. The executive power was vested in a President, who, with 
a Vice-President, was to be elected by the legislatures of the several Mexican States, 
for a term of four years. The President was to be a Mexican bom, and thirty-five 
years of age. The judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of 
eleven Judges, and one A'torney-General, who were to be elected by the State leg- 
islatures, and who were not to be removed except in cases specified by law. With 
many excellent features, this constitution did not provide for trial by jury; and it 
declared the religion of Mexico to be perpetually the " Roman Catholic Apostolic,"' 
to the exclusion of all other religious systems. 

THE REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA (1809-1823). 

Juntas at Quito and Caraccas — Beginning of the Colombian Revolu- 

tion, — In August, 1809, a junta was established at Quito, by the inhabitants of that 
city. The junta was suppressed by the viceroy of New Grenada; and, on the 2d 



43^ 



MODERN HIS TOR Y. 



of Aiigiist, iSio, about 300 of the supporters of the junta were treacherously massa- 
cred by the royalist troops. During the same year (1810), a junta was established 
at Caraccas, where a declaration of independence was promulgated. Caraccas was 
blockaded by order of the regency of Spain. In their conduct, the colonists were 
acting in the name of King Ferdinand VII., and in opposition to the various juntas 
in Spain, and to the French, who had almost subdued the Spanish peninsula. 
\\Tiile the war was raging in the Spanish peninsula, Spanish troops were sent tc 
Amfrica, to reduce the colonists to submission. A sanguinary war of twelve years' 
duration desolated New Grenada, Ecuador, and Venezuela, which three provinces 
were soon united, with the title of Colombia. In the course of this war, the moa 
shocking atrocities were perpetrated by the Spaniards. 

Declaration of Colombian Independence — Policy of the Bonapartes.— 
The Colombians, provoked at the tyranny of the mother country, now resolved upoi 
a political separation from Spain, and, on the 5th of July, i8ri, a Congress assem 
bled at Caraccas declared Venezuela independent of Spain. Soon afterward th'- 
provinces composing New Grenada declared their independence, and their exampl* 
was followed by Mexico, in 1813, and Buenos Ayres, in 1816. Still Spain blind!) 
persisted in her despotic course, until her American colonies were lost to her for 
ever. Napoleon and Joseph Bonaparte were doing all in their power to promote ■ 
the cause of Spanish American independence, with the view of strengthening them 
selves in Spain. 

Conspiracy in Venezuela — ^Juntas at Bogota, Popayan, and Carthagena. 
— A frightful conspiracy in Venezuela, against the provisional government of Vene 
zuela, was suppressed in 1 8 10. A constitution was adopted in Venezuela in i8ia 
A junta which had been established in Bogota, in July, 1810, gave place to a cop 
gress, which conducted the affairs of the Revolution. A junta had been formed ja 
Popayan and Santa Martha. A junta had been established at Carthagena in 1810 
The various provinces, acting separately from their federal governments, and oftei 
at war with them, prosecuted the war against the royalists with vigor. The royalist 
in Popayan, after defeating the patriots, were themselves defeated. 

Effects of the Earthquake at Caraccas in 1812. — The earthquake in 
Venezuela in March, 1812, which destroyed Caraccas, greatly injured the causa 
of the Revolution, as many of the patriots, believing the earthquake to be a pun- 
ishment inflicted upon them from Heaven for their rebellious conduct, joined the 
royal cause. Space will not permit us to give an account of the many conflicts 
between the Colombians and the Spaniards, and the changes of government and civil 
wars among the Colombians themselves, while struggling for freedom against their 
common enemy. 

Suppression of the Revolt in Venezuela — Renewal of the Revolt by 
Simon Bolivar. — After the earthquake at Caraccas, that city was taken by the 
Spaniards, who reestablished their authority in Venezuela, and who filled the dim- 
geons of Puerto Cabello with the defeated patriots. The resistance to Spanish 
power was renewed in Venezuela by the illustrious Simon Bolivar, who soon de- 
feated the Spaniards, and liberated Venezuela from their yoke. The royalists then 
armed the slaves against the patriots, and the war was renewed with vigor and 
ended in the triumph of the patriots, who, under Bolivar, gained the battle of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



437 



Carabol o, on the 28th of May, 1814; but soon afterward, Bolivar was defeated at 
La Pucrta, and the royalists recovered Venezuela. 

Tyrannical Measures of King Ferdinand VII. — Civil War Among the 
Colombians. — In 1814, the Emperor Napoleon I. was overthrown in Europe by 
the Allied Powers, and Ferdinand VII. came in undisputed possession of the throne 
of Spain. The tyrannical measures of Ferdinand toward the rebellious Americans 
rendered forever impossible all hopes of a reconciliation between Spain and hei 
levolted colonies. The patriots greatly weakened their cause by their internal dis 
sensions. When the province of Cundinamarca refused to join the Colombian con 
federacy, the Colombian Congress resorted to military force, and sent General 
Bolivar with an army to compel Cundinamarca to unite with the other provinces 
of Colombia. Bolivar compelled the city of Bogota, the capital of Cundinamarca, 
to smxender, whereupon the rebellious province was obliged to join the confedera- 
tion. 

Morillo's Successes Over the Colombians — His Defeats. — In 1815, a 
Spanish army, under the brutal Morillo, arrived from Cadiz, and conquered the 
island of Margarita, on the Colombian coast, and captured the city of Carthagena. 
General Bolivar again attempted to liberate Venezuela, but he was defeated and 
compelled to evacuate the province; and the Spaniards, under General Morillo, 
conquered New Grenada, captured Bogota, and massacred many of the patriots. 
On the 5th of April, 181 7, the city of Barcelona, in Venezuela, was taken by the 
Spaniards, afteE.a furious assault ; but soon afterward, the Colombian anny, under 
Generals Bolivar and Piar, took the town of Angostura, in Guiana, and Morillo 
made an unsuccessful attack on the island of Margarita, which had again revolted. 

Defection of General Piar — Individual Foreign Aid to the Patriots. — ■ 
On the i6th of October, 1817, General Piar, who had fought bravely for freedom 
in Colombia, having been detected in a conspiracy for obtaining the supreme power, 
was executed. The patriots now received assistance from enthusiastic individuals 
from Great Britain, who joined the Colombian armies, and fought heroically for 
freedom in Colombia. Patriotic persons from the United States also aided the 
Colombians. 

Battle of Boyaca — Formation of the Republic of Colombia. — General 
Bolivar, after marching his army into New Grenada, gained the most brilliant victory 
of the whole war, in the battle of Boyaca, on the 7th of August, 1819. Soon after- 
ward, Bolivar entered Bogota, where he established a provisional government for 
New Grenada, after which he entered Venezuela. On the 17th of December, 1819, 
the Congress sitting at Angostura, passed the fundamental law, which united New 
Grenada .ind Venezuela into one state, with the title of "The Republic of Colom- 
bia." G-neral McGregor, with a patriot force, after taking Puerto Cabello, was 
defeated by the royalists. The army and navy of Colombia captured Rio de la 
Ilacha, in April, 1820. An armistice was now concluded, and General Morillo 
was succeeded in command of the Spanish army by General Morales. 

Battle of Carabobo— Capture of Carthagena by the Colombians. — The 
patriots captured Coro, on the lith of May, 1821 ; and on the 24th of June of the 
same year, Bolivar defeated the Spaniards in the battle of Carabobo. The Congress 
of New Grenada, which shortly after convened at Cucuta, ratified the union with 



438 MODERN HISTOR V. 

Venezuela. A Spanish flotilla was destroyed, on the 30th of the same month 
(June, 1821), bythe Colombian squadron, under Admiral Biron, who compelled 
the city of Carthagena to capitulate, on the 23d of Septem'jer of the same year. 
(1S21.) 

Battle of Pinchincha — Capture of Maracaybo by the Colombians.— -On 
the 1st of June, 1S22, the Colombians under General Sucre defeated the Spaniai Js 
in the bloody battle of Pinchincha, which liberated Quito, or Ecuado?, from Spanish 
authority. The Colombian squadron destroyed the Spanish flotilla ui Lake Mara- 
caybo, on the 23d of July, 1823, and captured the town of Maracaybo, with the 
Spanish army under General Morales. 

Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians — Liberation of Colom- 
bia. — Finally, the long war was closed, and the independence of Colombia secured, 
by the surrender of Puerto Cabello to the patriots, in the beginning of December, 
1823. The United States had already acknowledged the independence of Colom- 
bia, in 1822. In 1824, Bolivar marched into Peru, and a part of his army, under 
General Sucre, gained the battle of Ayacucho, which put an end to Spanish power 
in America. 

THE REVOLUTION IN LA PLATA (1810-1821). 

Insurrection at Buenos Ayres. — The news of the dethronement of the legit- 
imate King of Spain by Napoleon, and the rise of the Spanish people against the 
usurpation of the Bonapartes, occasioned popular movements in Buenos Ayres. 
The Revolution in Buenos Ayres, or the provinces of La Plata, began on the 25th 
of May, 1810, when the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres established a provisional 
junta. In March, 1811, a new junta was appointed. The Spaniards of Monte 
Video were opposed to this proceeding, and sent an army against Buenos Ayres; 
and war was commenced. 

Revolt in the Banda Oriental — Dissensions among the Patriots. — The 
royalists of Buenos Ayres were defeated, and a revolt was inaugurated in the Banda 
Oriental, of which Monte Video is the capital. The patriots of Buenos Ayres, like 
those of all other parts of Spanish America, soon quarreled among themselves ; and 
for ten years, while prosecuting the war against the Spaniards in Upper Peru and 
Chili, Buenos Ayres was distracted by numerous revolutions and civil wars. 

Wars of the Banda Oriental with Buenos Ayres — Independence of 
Paraguay. — The Banda Oriental, with Artigas at its head, was often at war with 
Buenos Ayres, and with the Brazilians, who claimed its territory. The province 
of Paraguay became independent in 1812, with Dr. Francia as Dictator. 

Declaration of Argentine Independence — Emancipation of La Plata. 
— •On the 9th of July, I?i5, a Congress at Buenos Ayres declared the confederated 
provinces of the La Plata independent of Spain. Civil war and anarchy continued 
in the piovince until 1821, when a period of tranquillity and prosperity returned. 
In 1829, Spain acknowledged the independence of La Plata, or the Argentine 
Republic, 

THE REVOLUTION IN BOLIVIA (1809-1S24). 

Insurrections of La Paz, Cochabamba, and Potosi. — Bolivia, or Upper 
Peru, as it was called at the time, was the first of the Spanish American colonies to 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



439 



rise ill rebellion against the despotism of old Spain. On the 25th of March, 1S09, 
the citizens of the wealthy and enterprising city of La Paz pstablished a provisional 
junta. The city of La Paz was attacked by the royalists from Buenos Ayres, and, 
after a heroic defense, was forced to surrender, when many of the unfortunate 
inhabitants suffered death on the scaffold. The people of La Paz revolted a second 
time, but were again subdued. The neighboring cities of Cochabamba and Potosi, 
which had also risen in insurrection, were likewise reduced. 

Liberation of Bolivia — The Bolivian Constitution. — The bloody wai 
between the patriots and the royalists in Upper Peru continued with various success 
until the close of 1824, when the memorable battle of Ayacucho put an end to 
Spanish authority in South America, and Upper Peru became an independent 
republic, and was named Bolivia, in honor of the great Colombian president and 
dictator, General Simon Bolivar, who framed a constitution for the vepublic. 

THE REVOLUTION IN CHILI (1810-1818). 

Insurrection at Santiago — The Carreras and O'Higgins. — -The revolu- 
tionary movement in Chili began in July, 1810, when the people of Santiago de- 
posed their Captain-General, and put another in his place. A junta was formed, 
which assembled a Congress to consider the condition of the country. Disturbances 
took place in 1811, which resulted in the exile of the opponents of the Revolution. 
The three ambitious brothers named Carrera soon overthrew the Congress, and took 
the government of Chili into their own hands. In 181 2, a Spanish army invaded Chili 
from Peru, and, through the dissensions of the Chilian leaders, O'Higgins and the 
Carreras, the authority of the royalists was reestablished in Chili. 

San Martin in Chili — Battles of Chacabaco and Maypu — Emancipation 
of Chili. — In 1S17, the struggling Chilians found a deliverer in the valiant and 
patriotic San Martin, who, after crossing the Andes from Buenos Ayres at the head 
of a patriot army, overthrew the Spaniards in the battle of Chacabaco, which was 
fought on the 12th of February, 1817, and which gave independence to Chili. 
The Spaniards reconquered Chili, but their power was hopelessly broken, and the 
mdependence of Chili permanently secured, in the decisive battle of Maypu, fought 
on the 5 th of April, 1818, 

THE REVOLUTION IN PERU (1820-1824). 

San Martin in Peru — Declaration of Peruvian Independence. — Peru, 

the land of the Incas, was the last of the Spanish American colonies to strike for 
freedom. The Government of Chili, convinced that Chilian independence was not 
secure so long as the royalists held Peru, sent an army under San Martin into Peru, 
in 1820, for the purpose of expelling the Spaniards, and encouraging the Peruvians 
to throw off the Spanish yoke. A Chilian squadron, under the command of the 
English admiral. Lord Cochrane, whose standard was joined by many Englishmen 
and Americans, harassed the royalists on the coast of Peru, capturing many Spanish 
vessels. On San Martin's appearance in Peru, the Peruvians rose almost unani- 
mously; and the independence of Peru was declared. The Chilians everywhere 
defeated the Spaniards; and San Martin, after nobly proving his disinterestedness 
by declining the proffered dictatorship, returned to Chili. 



440 MODERN HISTORY. 

The Colombian Army in Peru — Battles of Junin and Ayacucho — Eman- 
cipation of Peru. — The Spaniards soon regained Iheir lost power in Peru, which 
they held until the Colombian army, under Bolivar, marched to the rescue of the 
Peruvians. On the 6th of August, 1824, the Colombians, under General Sucre, 
gained a victory in the battle of Junin; and, on the 9th of December of the same 
year (1824), Sucre annihilated the Spaniards in the decisive battle of Ayacucho; 
which secured the independence of Peru, and which swept away forever every 
/Citige of Spanish power on the American continent. In 1826, Callao, the last 
stronghold of the Spaniards in South America, surrendered to the Peruvians, and 
Spanish America became free, 

SOUTH AMERICA SINCE THE REVOLUTION. 

The Portuguese Colony of Brazil becomes an Independent Empire. — 

Brazil peacefully secured a political separation from Portugal in 1822, with Don 
Pedro I., of the royal House of Braganza, as Emperor. In 1 831, the Brazilians, 
becoming dissatisfied with the government of Don Pedro I., compelled him to ab- 
dicate his crown in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., who was then only five years 
old. During the minority of Don Pedro II., the Government of Brazil was con- 
ducted by a regency. 

Spanish American Congress at Panama. — General Bolivar cherished the 
grand design of the formation of a confederation of all the Spanish American Re- 
publics, with himself at its head as dictator; and, in 1826, a Congress composed 
of representatives of all the Spanish American Republics convened at Panama, on 
the Isthmus of Darien. The deliberations of this Congress were not attended with 
any important result; and the plan of a Spanish American confederacy failed. 

War between Brazil and La Plata — Formation of the Republic of 
Uruguay. — For several years, war raged between the Empire of Brazil and the 
Republic of La Plata, or the Argentine Confederation, respecting the possession of 
the Banda Oriental, situated between the two countries. Through the mediation 
of Great Britain, peace was concluded in 1828, by which it was agreed to erect the 
Banda Oriental into an independent republic, under the name of Uruguay. The 
dictator. General Rosas, governed the Argentine Confederation from 1835 to 1855. 
Both the Argentine Republic and Uruguay have been much disturbed by civil wars. 

■War between Colombia and Peru — Dissolution of the Republic of 
Colombia. — A war l;roke out between the Republics of Colombia and Peru in 
1S29, which resulted in the defeat of the Peruvians. General Bolivar's ambition 
created for him many enemies, and greatly weakened his popularity with his coun- 
trymen; and a civil war was only prevented by his death, in 1830. In 1 831, the 
Republic of Colombia was dissolved, and its three great divisions, — New Grenada, 
Venvizuela, and Ecuador, — became separate republics. Since their separation, each 
:f thtse republics, like all the other Spanish American States, have been distracted 
ty almost constant revolutions and civil wars. In 1861, the title of New Grenada 
«\as changed, and that republic has since been known as "The United States of 
Colombia." 

The Republic of Paraguay under the Dictator, Dr. Francia. — Paraguay 
declared its independence in 1810; and in 1812, Dr. Irancia made himself die- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 441 

tator, and ruled with almost absolute and despotic power until 1840, when he died. 
Under the government of Dr. Francia, foreigners were not permitted to travel in 
Paraguay, and every inhabitant was compelled to learn to read and write. Fran 
cia's rule, though despotic, was beneficial to Paraguay. 

Peru-Bolivian Confederation — War between the Confederation and 
Chili. — In 1836, Peru and Bolivia were united in a league, called "The Peru- 
Bolivian Confederation," at the head of which was General Santa Cruz as dictxtor. 
In 1836, a war broke out between this Confederation and Chili. The Chilians 
defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Yungay, on the llth of July, 1839. Gen- 
eral Santa Cruz was overthrown and obliged to flee from Peru, whereupon the 
Peru-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved, and Peru and Bolivia again became 
separate republics. Both these republics have since been the scenes of revolution 
and anarchy. 

War of Peru and Chili against Spain — South American Alliance 
against Spain. — In 1864 a war broke out between Spain and Peru. The follow- 
ing year (1865), Chili joined Peru in the war. The towns on the coast of Chili 
and Peru were bombarded by the Spanish fleets. Valparaiso, in Chili, and Callao, 
in Peru, withstood these attacks. In January, 1866, the Republics of Venezuela, 
Ecuador, and Bolivia concluded an alliance with Peru and Chili in the war. Active 
hostilities closed with the year 1866, but peace was not fomially made until the 
beginning of 1871. 

War of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation against 
Paraguay. — The interference of the Paraguayan dictator, Francisco Lopez, in the 
domestic aflairs of Uruguay, led to a war of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Confederation against Paraguay, in 1864. Bloody battles were fought on Para- 
guayan soil with various results. Under the leadership of their able dictator, the 
Paraguayans fought heroically for the preservation of their national existence, which 
was threatened by the encroachments of their enemies. But Lopez was driven from 
one stronghold to another, and, after an enormous expenditure of blood and treasure, 
this terrible war closed, in the early part of 1870, in the defeat and humiliation of 
Paraguay. The hard-hearted Lopez, refusing to suiTender, was put to death by a 
Brazilian soldier. The conquerors established a provisional government in Par- 
aguay. 

THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL -VICTORIA (182S-1S29), 

Election and Inauguration of President Guadalupe Victoria. — Aftei 
the adoption of the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824, General Guadalupe 
Victoria was elected President of Mexico, with General Nicholas Bravo as Vice 
President. Victoria and Bravo were installed into office on the 1st of January, 
.825. 

The Escoces and the Yorkinos. — The Administration of President Victoria 
was very prosperous, and the Mexican Republic enjoyed a greater degree of 
prosperity than at any previous or subsequent period. The Mexican nation was, 
however, divided into two political parties, — each of which was controlled by a 



442 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Masonic lodge. The Escoces, or aristocratic party, desired a strong central gov- 
ernment, like the Federalists of the United States, and weie accused, by theii 
opponents, of aiming at the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. The York- 
inos, or democratic party, desired the preservation of the Federal system as opposed 
to centralism, like the Jefferson Republicans of the United States, and were charged 
with being anarchists and subverters of public order. 

Election Corruption and Frauds in 1826. — In the Mexican elections of 
I 526, bribery, corruption, and all sorts of disreputable means were resorted to by 
the two great political parties which divided the nation, and many of the elections 
were declared null and void, in consequence of the illegal proceedings by which 
Ihey had been effected. In the same year (1826), the Escoces brought about an 
insurrection against the Government, but the movement was easily suppressed. 

Presidential Election of 1828 — Revolution and Civil War — Flight of 
Pedraza. — Another Presidential election took place in Mexico in the year 1828. 
The candidate of the Escoces, or aristocratic party, was General Pedraza, and the 
nominee of the Yorkinos, or democratic party, was General Guerrero. To the 
surprise of all, Pedraza was elected by a majority of only two electoral votes over 
his opponent. The Yorkinos, thus defeated in the election, which they declared 
to have been accomplished by fraud and bribery, determined to place themselves 
in power by force of arms. The youthful general, Santa Anna, declared that 
the election of Pedraza had been secured by corruption and bribeiy; and, at 
the head of 500 men, he took possession of the castle of Perote, and proclaimed 
Guerrero President. During the last day of November and the first three days of 
December (1828), a sanguinary conflict took place in the Mexican capital, between 
the Government guard and a large body of insurgents, which ended in the flight 
of Pedraza, the President-elect, who, rather than involve his country in civil war 
on his own account, advised his partisans to submit to an unconstitutional President, 
and left the country. Thus revolutionary force was triumphant over the constitu- 
tion and laws of the Mexican Republic. 

ADMIKISTRATIONS OF GUERRERO, BUSTAMENTE, AKD 
PEDRAZA (1820-1833) 

Guerrero Declared President — Spanish Invasion of Mexico — Surren- 
der of the Spaniards. — When the Mexican Congress met, that body declared 
General Guerrero, the defeated candidate of the Yorkinos, President of Mexico, 
he having, next to General Pedraza, the highest number of votes. In 1829, a Span- 
ish army of 4,000 men landed at Tampico for the invasion of the Mexican 
Republic; but, after a four months' occupation, the invading army surrendered to 
Santa Anna, on the lOth of September. (1829.) 

Overthrow of Guerrero and Presidency of Bustamente — Death ot 
Guerrero. — As President Guerrero refused to relinquish the dictatorial powers 
n'hich had been conferred upon him for the purpose of meeting the Spanish inva- 
sion, General Bustamente, the Vice-President, headed a revolution, which resulted 
in the overthrow of Guerrero, and the assumption of the Presidency by Bustamente. 
Guerrero afterwards attempted to recover his authority, but he was made a prisoner, 
and shot as a traitor to the established Government of the Mexic;in Republic. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



443 



Overthrow of Bustamente by Santa Anna and Recall of Pedraza. — 

In 1832, another revolution occurred in Mexico, headed by Santa Anna, who had 
declared against the arbitrary encroachments of President Bustamente. After a 
short contest, the revolution ended in the downfall of Bustamente, who retired to 
France; whereupon the exiled Pedraza, who had been constitutionally elected in 
1828, wa; recalled to sen'e out the remaining three months of his unexpired j)resi- 
dential term. 

PRESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP OF SANTA ANNA. 
(1SSS-18S7). 

THE TEXAN REVOLUTION (1835-1836). 

Santa Anna Made President of Mexico — Unsuccessful Insurrections. 
— Early in 1833, Santa Anna himself was raised to the Presidency of Mexico, with 
Gomez Farias as Vice-President. In less than a fortnight after Santa Anna had 
entered upon the duties of his office, an insurrection broke out within twenty miles 
of the Mexican capital, supposed to have been instigated by the President him- 
self, as the avowed object of the insurgents was to make Santa Anna dictator; but 
he took the command of a large force against the insurgents, whom he completely 
defeated. Not long afterwards, Santa Anna left the executive authority in the hands 
of the Vice-President, Gomez Farias, and retired to his estate, to wait for a more 
favorable occasion to strike a blow for dictatorial power. 

Abolition of the Federal Constitution of 1824— Santa Anna, Dictator. 
— Early in 1S34, Santa Anna, placing himself at the head of the military chiefs and 
the anny, dissolved the Congress and summoned another, and, taking into his own 
hands all the powers of government, he trampled under foot the Constiution which 
he had sworn to defend. The Mexican States were more or less convulsed by these 
arbitrary proceedings, but the Centralist party, headed by Santa Anna, after much 
opposition, succeeded in abolishing the Federal Constitution of 1824, and established 
a " Strong Central Republic." The State Legislatures were declared to be abol- 
ished, and the States were converted into depailments, and placed under the charge 
of military commanders, who were to be responsible to the chief authorities of the 
Mexican nation. The supreme power was to be centralized in the hands of a single 
individual whose will was law. At the head of this new Government, republican 
only in name, was Santa Anna as President. Gomez Farias, who, at the head of 
the Federalist party, supported the Constitution of 1824, was thrown into prison; 
and General Barragan, r. .ending Centralist, was made Vice-President. Several of 
the Mexican States rose in arms to uphold the Federal Constitution, but all, with 
the exception of Texas, were speedily reduced by the arms of Santa Anna. 

Beginning of the Texan Revolution — Santa Anna's Invasion of Texas 
— Fall of the Alamo. — The arbitrary and usurping conduct of Santa Anna led 
to a rebellion of the province of Texas, which was inhabited almost exclusively by 
emigrants from the United States. These emigrants refused to submit to Santa 
Anna's military rule, and began a rebellion for the purpose of achieving their inde- 
pendence of Mexican authority. The Mexican troops who invaded Texas were 
repulsed by the Texans at Gonzales, on the 2d of October, 1835. Before the end 
of the year (1835), the Texans captured the strong fortress of Goliad and the Alamo- 



444 



MODERN HISTORY. 



The following year (1836), Santa Anna invaded Texas, with 8000 Mexican troops. 
For two weeks, 4000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, had vainly besieged the Alamo, 
when at length, on the 6th of March (1836), they assaulted the fortress, which they 
only entered over the dead bodies of the 150 Texans who had defended it. 

Texan Declaration of Independence — Battle of San Jacinto — Captiv- 
ity of Santa Anna. — On the 2d of April, 1S36, a convention of delegates assembled 
It Washington, on the Colori^do, declared Texas independent. In the meantmie, a 
Mexican force, under General Urrea, was committing the most shocking atrocities 
along the coast of Texas, massacring small bodies of Texans after they had surren- 
dered. On the 2 1 St of April, 1836, was fought the celebrated battle of San Jancinto, 
in which 1600 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, were defeated by 783 Texans com- 
manded by General Samuel Houston, after a fierce struggle of twenty minutes. On 
the day after the battle, Santa Anna was found in the woods by the victorious Texans, 
and made a prisoner. On being brought before General Houston, Santa Anna ex- 
claimed, "You were born to no ordinary destiny: you conquered the Napoleon of 
the West." 

Santa Anna's Release — Texas an Independent Republic. — In order to 
obtain his release, Santa Anna ordered the Mexican army to retire beyond the Rio 
Grande, and acknowledged the independence of Texas ; but the Mexican Congress 
refused to confirm the agreement which Santa Anna had made with the Texans, and 
even Santa Anna himself, on his arrival in Mexico, disavowed all treaties which he 
had made while a prisoner. Although Mexico refused to acknowledge the independ- 
ence of Texas, she did not make another vigorous effort to reconquer her lost province. 
Texas remained an independent republic for nine years, recognized by France, 
England, and the United States, after which it became a State of the American 
Union. (1845.) 

BUSTAMENTE'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841). 

Bustamente Made President of Mexico — Retirement of Santa Anna. 

— After Santa Anna's departure from Mexico for the invasion of Texas, the execu- 
tive authority of the Mexican Republic devolved upon the Vice-President, General 
Barragan; and after the death of the latter, soon afterward. General Bustamente, 
who had just returned from France, was invested with the functions of the Presi- 
dency; Santa Anna, by his failure to subdue the Texans, having lost the confidence 
and favor of the Mexican people, was obliged to retire to private life, until another 
revolution in his unhappy country restored him to power. 

General Mexia's Rebellion and Death — Vera Cruz Attacked by a 
French Fleet. — A rebellion which broke out in Mexico in 1838, was speedily 
quelled by Santa Anna, whom President Bustamente had entrusted with the com- 
mand of the Government anny, and General Mexia, the leader of the rebellion, 
was shot after he had surrendered. In November of the same year (1838), a French 
fleet appeared before Vera Cruz, and when the Mexican authorities rejected a 
demand for the reparation of the losses sustained by French subjects during the 
domestic convulsions in Mexico, the fleet blockaded the harbor of Vera Cruz, and 
French troops were landed before that city. During the retreat of the invaders 
fi om Vei a Cruz, Santa Anna had one of his legs taken off by a cannon-ball. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



445 



Insurrection of July, 1840, in the Capital — Secession of Yucatan. — In 

July, 1840, an insurrection of the Federalists, headed by General Unea and Gomez 
Farias, broke out in the city of Mexico; and after a bloody contest of twelve days, 
m the streets of the city, between the opposing factions, a universal amnesty was 
agi'eed upon. During the same year (1840), the province of Yucatan seced'd 
from Mexico ; but, after a struggle of three years against the Mexican forces, it 
was again united with Mexico. 

Mexican Revolution of 1841 — Overthrow of Bustamente by Paredes 
and Santa Anna. — In August, 1841, another revolution broke out in Mexico, 
headed by General Paredes and Santa Anna. The revolutionary forces bombarded 
the capital, and, after a struggle of one month, in the streets of the city, the revolu- 
tion ended in the downfall and flight of President Bustamente. 



SANTA ANNA'S SECOND PRESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP 

(1841-184,5). 

Santa Anna, President of Mexico — The Mexican Constitution of 1842. 
— In September, 1841, a convention of military ofiicers at Tacubaya provided for 
the assembling of a Congress to frame a new constitution; but this Congress, which 
met in June, 1842, was soon dissolved by Santa Anna, who had acquired the office 
of provisional pixsident; and in June, 1843, ^ national junta or council selected by 
him framed a new constitution, establishing an intricate representative system of 
government, leaving to the Mexican people but a shadow of power. The Mexican 
Republic was divided into Departments. The Roman Catholic religion was to be 
protected to the exclusion of all others. The executive power was vested in a 
President, to be elected for five years, who was to be assisted by a Council of Gov- 
ernment, composed of seventeen members selected by the President, and whose 
tenure of office was to be perpetual. The legislative power was vested in a Con- 
gress, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. An annual income of 
two hundred dollars was required for the enjoyment of all the rights of citizenship. 
Every 500 inhabitants of a Department were to be allowed one elector ; twenty of 
these electors were to choose one member of the electoral college of the Depart- 
ment; and the electoral college was to elect the members of the Chamber of Depu- 
ties. One-third of the members of the Senate were to be chosen by the Chamber 
of Deputies and the President of the Republic, and the remaining two-thirds by the 
Assemblies of the Departments. Under this complicated representative system, 
Santa Anna was made President, or, with more propriety, virtual dictator of Mexico, 
in 1843. 

Revolution and Civil War of 1844 — Overthrow of Santa Anna by 
Paredes. — The almost absolute government of Santa Anna produced a wide-spread 
secret dissatisfaction throughout the Mexican nation. In October, 1844, Santa 
Anna retired to his farm on private business; and the National Senate appointed 
the Minister of War, Canalizo, to perform the executive duties in the absence of 
the President. In November (1844), General Paredes, the adherent of Santa Anna 
in the revolution of 1 84 1, pronounced against the Dictator, and took the field against 
him. The National Congress siding with Paredes, that body Avas dissolved and 
the members were shut up in prison, by order of Canalizo, the acting President; 



446 



MODERN HISTORY. 



but they were soon released by a body of insurgents ; and in the capital, the revo- 
lutionists caused Santa Anna's amputated leg, which had been buried with military 
honors, to be carried about the streets and broken in pieces. After a short civil 
wai, Santa Anna was made a prisoner by the revolutionists, in Januaiy, 1S45, 
while attempting to escape from the country; and, after an imprisonment of several 
months, the National Congress decreed his perpetual banishment from the country. 

ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, PAREDES, AND SANTA 
ANNA (1845-1848). 

THE -WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES (1846-1848;. 

General Herrera, President — Rupture between Mexico and the United 
States. — After the overthrow of Santa Anna, in January, 1845, General Henera 
was appointed provisional president of Mexico; and in August of the same year, he 
was elected President, and, on the i6th of September, he was sworn into office, in 
the presence of the Mexican Congress. During Herrera's provisional presidency, 
the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States of America (July 4, 1845), 
whereupon General Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washington, demanded his 
passports; and when intelligence of the annexation reached Mexico, President 
Herrera issued a proclamation calling upon the Mexican people to defend the integ- 
rity and unity of their country, which was represented as being seriously threatened 
by the aggressions of the United States. Wrr between Mexico and the United States 
broke out in the spring of the following year. (1S46.) 

Overthrow of Herrera by Parades — General Paredes, President. — When 
President Herrera, convinced of the inability of Mexico to prosecute a successful 
war against the United States, manifested a desire for a peaceful settlement of the 
difficulty between the two Republics, General Paredes, who had the command ot 
the army marching northward to drive the United States forces from Texas, tooic 
the occasion to arouse the patriotism of his countrymen, to prevent the dismember- 
ment of the Mexican Republic, and pronounced against the Administration of Her 
rera. Upon the approach of Paredes to the capital, the army there declared in 
favor of the revolution, and Herrera was driven from power and Paredes elevated 
to the Presidency. 

Opening of the War between Mexico and the United States. — President 
Paredes had no sooner entered upon the duties of his office, than he made the most 
energetic preparations to cany on the war against the United States. The first 
bloodshed between the military forces of the United States and Mexico occurred 
on the 24th of April, 1846, when an American reconnoitering party under Captain 
Thornton was captured by the Mexicans, on the Texas bank of the Rio Grande. 
The Americans under General Taylor defeated the Mexicans under General Arista, 
'in the battles of Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and Resaca de la Palma, May 9; and, 
during the same month, the American and Mexican Governments formally declared 
vrar against each other. On the i8th of May, 1846, the American army under 
General Taylor captured the Mexican city of Matamoras ; and, on the 24th of Sep- 
tember (1846), Monterey, after a defense of four days, also surrendered to Taylor. 

Overthrow of Paredes — Santa Anna's Recall and Restoration to the 
Presidency. — In the midst of her war with the United States, Mexico was not 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



447 



free from domestic dissensions. While President Paredes was engaged in prepara- 
tions to prosecute a vigorous war against the United States, his Administration was 
cut short ; for Santa Anna had been recalled by the revolutionary party, and in 
December, 1846, he was again raised to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. 
Immediately after his elevation to power, Santa Anna,, notwithstanding his former 
professions of a desire for the restoi-ation of peace between the two nations, took 
the field in person against the invading forces of the United States. 

Occupation of Mexico by the United States Army — Peace of Guada- 
loupe Hidalgo. — Disasters befell the Mexican arms in rapid succession. The 
A.mericans conquered New Mexico and Upper or New California * while General 
Taylor, with 5000 Americans, defeated 22,000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the 
'amous battle of Buena Vista, on the 23d of February, 1847. General Scott, with 
an American army of 10,000 men, captured Vera Cruz, March 18; defeated 30,000 
Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the battles of Cerro Gordo, April 25 ; San Anto- 
nio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20; Molino del Rey, September 8; and 
Chapultepec, September 13; and, on the 14th of September (1847), he entered the 
Mexican capital in triumph, and Santa Anna fled from the country. On the 2d of 
February, 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, by which 
Mexico ceded New Mexico and Upper California to the United States. 

ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, ARISTA, SANTA ANNA, 
ALVAREZ, COMONFORT, AND ZULOAGA (1848-1860). 

Administrations of Herrera and Arista — Overthrow of Arista — Santa 
Anna, President. — In the autumn of 1S48, General Herrera again became Presi- 
dent of Mexico, and remained in office until January, 1851, when he was succeeded 
by General Arista. In January, 1853, Mexico again became disturbed by a domestic 
revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of President Arista's Administration by 
Santa Anna, who had just returned to Mexico. 

Santa Anna, President — Revolution of 1854 and Overthrow of Santa 
Anna by Alvarez. — After the overthrow of Arista, Santa Anna was again made 
President of Mexico, but adversity had not curbed his ambition ; and, soon after 
his restoration to the Presidency, he was accused of a design to assume imperial 
power, and the consequence was another revolution in his unhappy countiy. The 
leader of this revolution was General Alvarez, " The Panther of the Pacific." After 
1 short civil war, Santa Anna was hurled from power, and his public career was 
ended forever. 

Administrations of Alvarez and Comonfort — New Constitution — Civil 
War of 1858. — After the overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855, General Alvarez, his 
antagonist, was invested with the office of President, but Alvarez was soon succeeded 
by General Comonfort. On the I ith of March, 1857, a new constitution was promul- 
gated by the Mexican Congress; but President Comonfort, supported by the army, 
violently opposed this constitution, because it greatly restricted the Presidential 
power; and, in January, 1858, Mexico again became a prey to the hon-ors of revo- 
lution and civil war. 

Resignation of Comonfort — General Zuloaga, President — Defeat of 
Juarez. — In 1858, President Comonfort resigned, whereupon General Zuloaga 



448 MODERN HISTOR V. 

made himself President, in utter disregard of the constitutional rights of Benito 
Juarez, who, as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, was the legitimate suc- 
cessor of Comonfort. Civil war continued to distract the unhappy countiy; and 
Juarez being defeated, retired from the country, but he afterward returned, and 
asserted his constitutional rights to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF BENITO JUAREZ (1S60-1872). 

THE FRENCH INVASION AND THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN 

(1861-1867). 

The Civil War between the Liberals and the Conservatives — Benito 
Juarez, President.— The civil war in Mexico, between the Liberals, headed by 
Benito Juarez, and the Conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Miramon, Marquez, 
Almonte, and others, continued throughout i860; but Juarez finally triumphed over 
his enemies, and secured possession of the office of President, to which he had a 
legitimate right, but the defeat of his unprincipled antagonists did not restore peace 
to his distracted country. 

Allied English, French, and Spanish Expedition to Mexico — Occupa- 
tion of Vera Cruz. — During the civil war between the Liberals and the Conser- 
vatives, both parties seized on the property of foreigners in Mexico ; and the Mexican 
Congress passed an act suspending for two years the payment of certain foreign 
obligations of debt. In consequence of this action of the Mexican Congress, the 
Governments of England, France, and Spain concluded, at London, a Triple Alli- 
ance, with the view of forcing Mexico to fulfil her foreign obligations ; and, in 
December, i86i, a combined English, French, and Spanish expedition arrived at 
Vera Cruz. The allied troops occupied Vera Cruz without resistance, that city 
having been previously evacuated by the Mexican forces. The troops of the expe- 
dition suffered severely from the excessive heat of the climate; and negotiations 
were soon opened for a peaceful settlement of difficulties, and the invading army, 
with the concurrence of the Mexican authorities, occupied more salubrious and 
healthful quarters in Cordova, Orizaba, and Tehuacan, with the understanding that 
if hostilities should be renewed the allied expeditionary troops should first retire to 
the positions which they had occupied before the commencement of negotiations. 

Witl^rawal of the English and Spanish Troops from Mexico. — At a 
meeting of the representatives of the three allied nations in Mexico, just previous 
to the opening of the peace negotiatons, the French Minister to Mexico presented 
the enormous Jecker claim. This surprised the English Minister and General Prim, 
the Spanish commander; and the presentation of this claim, with other disclosures 
made to them, leading to the belief that the Emperor Napoleon III. intended to 
interfere in the domestic affairs of the Mexican nation, caused the British ambassador 
and the Spanish commander, on the 9th of April, 1862, to declare the Convention 
of London transgressed, and to withdraw the English and Spanish troops from 
Mexico; from which time the invasion and military occupation of Mexico was con 
tinued by the French alone. 

Siege and Capture of Puebla by the French. — After the withdrawal of the 
English and Spanish troops, hostilities were renewed by the French and the Mexi- 
cans; but the French did not return to their original positions, as agreed upon 



NINE TEE NTH CENTVR Y. 



449 



with the Mexican authorities, but retained possession of Orizaba. On the 24th of 
February, 1863, the French marched from Orizaba to Puebia, to which they laid 
siege on the i8th of March. Finally, on the i8th of May, 1863, after a vigorous 
siege and a heroic defense of two months, during which the gaiTison repulsed many 
of the assaults of the besiegers, Puebia and its garrison of 17,000 men, under General 
Ortega, were surrendered to the French. 

Occupation of the City of Mexico by the French — Action of General 
Forey's Junta. — On the loth of June, 1863, the French, under General Forey, 
entered the city of Mexico, after it had been evacuated by the Republican forces under 
President Juarez, who retired to San Luis Potosi, afterwards to Monterey, and still 
later to Chihuahua. Soon after the capture of the Mexican capital by the French, 
General Forey established a junta of thirty-five Mexicans, which junta selected an 
"Assembly of Notables," which assembly, by a vote of 231 to 19, declared that the 
future government of Mexico should be a limited hereditary monarchy, with a 
Roman Catholic prince for sovereign, to bear the title of Emperor, and the crown 
to be offered first to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, of the imperial House of 
Hapsburgh. 

The Archduke Maximilian of Austria Proclaimed Emperor of Mexico, — 
The French were now firmly established in the heart of Mexico, but the Juarists were 
still dominant in the Southern and Western portions of the country ; and the contest 
between the Juarists and the Imperialists continued with various success until the early 
part of 1864, when the Archduke Maximilian of Austria arrived in the Mexican capi- 
tal, and was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian had been placed on the 
Mexican throne through the instrumentality of the Emperor Napoleon III. of 
France, and his throne was upheld by the French expeditionary troops and their 
Austrian auxiliaries, and by the Mexican Imperialists; but the Juarists, or Mexican 
Republicans, kept the field in defense of their free institutions, and waged a san- 
guinary guerrilla warfare against their foreign and domestic foes, having with them 
the sympathy of the friends of republican government everywhere. The war was 
carried on with great barbarity by both parties, the shooting of prisoners being of 
frequent occurrence. 

Capture of Matamoras by the French and Surrender of Cortina's Army. 
— The year 1864 was an eventful one in the history of Mexico. The French cap- 
tured the city of Matamoras ; and the whole Mexican army under General --Cortina 
were forced to surrender themselves prisoners of war. This misfortune to the Lib- 
eral cause, together with disasters to the arms of the Juarists in other quarters, 
seemed to leave the cause of the Mexican Republic hopeless; and Maximilian's 
Empire appeared to be on a fair way to become secure. 

Decline of the Imperial Cause — Evacuation of Chihuahua ty the 
Imperialists. — With the downfall of the Great Rebellion in the United States, 
tlie vitality of Maximilian's Empire decayed; and President Juarez, who had been 
in the meantime driven into the extreme north-western limits of Mexico, gathered 
new strength, and by the autumn of 1865, he had recovered a large amount of 
territory from the Mexican Imperialists, and their French and Austrian allies. In 
November, 1865, the Imperialists evacuated Chihuahua, which was soon taken 
possession of by the Juarists. 
29 



45 o 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Position of the United States Government — Withdrawal of the French 
Foi'ces. — ^The progress of events in Mexico was watched with interest by the 
Government and people of the United States, as the conduct of the Emperor of the 
French, in attempting the establishment of a Latin Empire on the American conti- 
nent, was in defiance of "The Monroe Doctrine," proclaimed by the President of 
he United States at the time of the emancipation of Spanish America from the 
yoke of Spain. But the United States Government, engaged in a gigantic struggle 
igainst ciomestic foes for its own preservation, was not in a position to oppose the 
unj)rincipled schemes of the French Emperor from the beginning; but after having 
crushed the Great Rebellion against its own authority, the United States Govern 
ment resolved upon the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine, and demanded of the 
Emperor Napoleon III. the withdrawal of the French expeditionary forces from 
Mexican territory. After some negotiation, Napoleon III. agreed to abandon the 
cause of his dupe, Maximilian, and the French troops, about 26,000 in number, 
were gradually withdrawn from Mexican soil. Early in 1867, Marshal Bazaine, 
with the last French contingent, evacuated Mexico, thus leaving Maximilian and 
the Mexican Imperialists alone to contend against the Juarists. 

Capture of Queretaro by the Juarists. — Capture and Execution of 
Maximilian. — After the depai-tureof the French forces from Mexico, Maximilian's 
Empire rapidly tottered to its fall. Vera Cruz, Puebla, and the capital were be- 
sieged by the Liberals ; and the Imperialists were gradually hemmed in at Quere- 
taro, which city the Republican forces entered on the 15th of May, 1867, making 
prisoners of Maximilian, his staff, and the small remnant of his army. On the 19th 
of June, 1 867, Maximilian was shot at Queretaro by the triumphant Juarists. The 
two Mexican Imperial generals, Miramon and Mejia, were also shot. On the 15th 
of July (1867), President Juarez returned to the capital, amid popular rejoicings, 
and issued a memorable and eloquent address to his countrymen. 

Re-election of Juarez — Revolutionary Movements. — On the 6th of Octo- 
ber, 1867, Benito Juarez was reelected President of Mexico, over the opposing 
candidate. General Porfirio Diaz; and in December of the same year, the Mexican 
Congress was again assembled for the first time in three years. After Mexico's 
triumph over her enemies, the nation rapidly recuperated under the wise adminis- 
tration of Juarez, but this prosperity of the Republic was continually disturbed by 
revolutionary movements of more or less importance. A strong combination was 
formed against Juarez in May, 1868, when Rivero pronounced against the President, 
but the revolutionists frittered away their strength, and the movement failed. 

Re-election of Juarez — Rebellion of 1871-72. — In the spring of 1871, another 
Presidential election took place in Mexico. There were three rival candidates in 
the field, — namely. President Benito Juarez, General Porfirio Diaz, and Lerdo de 
Tejada. Bribery, corruption, and all sorts of frauds, were resorted to by each party. 
to secure the election of its favorite candidate; but, as none of the three candidates 
had received a majority of votes, the duty of choosing the President devolved upon 
tne National Congress, which reelected President Juarez, who was installed on the 
1st of October, 1871. On that day, a sanguinary insuiTection burst forth in the 
capital ; but the revolt was quelled by General Rocha, who attacked and captured 
the citadel, after a severe conflict ; and about 250 insurgents were shot after their 
surrender. The partisans of the unsuccessful candidates throughout the countT 



NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 



451 



arose in arms, and involved the Republic in the horrors of another civil war. Mili- 
tar}' chiefs in various States pronounced against Juarez, and took the field at the 
head of revolutionary bands; and many of the Mexican States pronounced in favor 
of the revolution. The N.ational Congress gi-anted dictatorial powers to Juarez, to 
enable him to quell the rebellion. In December, 1 87 1, the city of Oaxaca was 
taken by the Government forces under General Rocha, after a stubborn resistance 
on the part of the insurgents. The city of Zacatecas was reduced by the rebels 
un ler General Guerra, on the 13th of Januar)', 1872. A battle was fought at Sar 
I.uis Totosi, and Matamoras was captured by the revolutionists. The revolutionary 
general Trevino defeated the Juarist general Cevalles at Monterey. 

Death of President Juarez — Lerdo de Tejada, President — End of the 
Rebellion. — On the l8th of June, 1872, President Juarez died of apoplexy; and 
Lerdo de Tejada, as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, became President 
of the Mexican Republic. P>om the time of the death of Juarez, the rebellion de- 
clined; the revolutionary chiefs gradually laid down their arms; and in a few 
months, the whole country was quiet, and Mexico was once more relieved from 
anarchy and restored to peace. In the autumn of 1872, Lerdo de Tejada was 
almost imanimously elected President; and December i6th, he entered upon his 
regular term. 




COAT OF ARMS OF EACH STATE 



IX THK 




MERICAN ©NION 




sii ssfei*' 



Alabama. 




Connecticut. 



California. 




Florida. 



Georgia. 




Kansas. 




Indiana. 



■?J 



v¥- 




^1i/^?.i 



*'""^wwr**t 




Louisiana. 




Massachusetts. 




Maryland. 



Missouri. 



Minnesota. 



Michigan, 




Mississippi. 



New York. 




y/ 



1 




d 




New Jersey. 






New Hannpshire 




-y 





North Carolina. 




Oregon. 




ffi 




Rhode Island. 





South Carolina. 



Tennessee. 




Texas. 




Virgin! 



Wisconsin. 




West Virginia. 



THE 



HISTORY 



First One Hundred Years 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 



INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT 



CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (A. D. 1775- 

1789). 

CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 

Growth of Democratic Ideas in the Anglo-American Colonies. — DeniO- 
cratic ideas had a slow and steady, but solid growth, in England's North American 
colonies, from the time of the establishment of those colonies. Those who left their 
homes in Europe to settle in the New World, were animated with a desire for the 
enjoyment of pure civil, political, and religious freedom. The republican spirit of 
of the English American colonists was manifested in popular resistance to obnoxious 
acts of the British Parliament, and to the tyranny of the royal governors sent from 
England to America to administer the government of the colonies. The claim of 
the English Parliament to legislate for the colonies was boldly denied by the colo- 
nists, who finally rebelled against the mother country, and, after a war of seven 
years, achieved their political independence, and established a democratic republic, 
under the name of " The United States of America." 

Wants of the British Treasury. — The long wars against France oppressed 
England with an enonnous debt and exhausted the British treasury, and the Impe- 
rial Government resolved to procure money from the North American colonies by 
either direct or indirect taxation. The colonists denied the right of the Imperial 
Parliament to ta^v them, as they were not allowed any representation in that body, 
and maintained that "Taxation without representation is tyranny." 

Writs of Assistance — Opposition of the Colonists — ^James Otis. — The 
British Government first attempted to exercise the asserted right to tax the colonies 
by issuing search-warrants to persons appointed by the king to enforce the revenue 
laws. These wan^ants, called " Writs of Assistance," authorized the Government 
officials in the colonies to search for suspected goods which had been imported into 
the colonies, and on which the duty had not been paid. The colonists firmly resisted 
this encroachment on their liberties. The legality of the writs was boldly denied 
by the Americans; and in February, 1 76 1, the matter was brought before the Gen- 
eral Court in Boston, where James Otis, then Advocate-General of the colonies, and 
an able lawyer, appeared on the side of the American people, and denied the right 
of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. 

Passage of the Stamp Act — Opposition to It in the Colonies — Patrick 
Henry. — In February, 1765, George Grenville, who was then at the head of the 
British Ministry, introduced into Parliament a bill requiring the Anglo- American 
colonists to purchase for specified sums, and place on all written documents, stamps 
furnished by the British Imperial Government. This was a measure which no 
former British Ministry had the courage to attempt. The passage of this bill, known 
as "The Stamp Act," in 1765, produced universal indignation in America. Most 
of the colonial legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the measure, and James 
Otis in Massachusetts and Patrick Heniy in Virginia thundered forth eloquent 
denunciations of the act. 

Boldness of Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly — " Sons of 
Liberty." — While speaking in the Virginia Assembly, at Richmond, of the fate of 

455 



456 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

tyrants of former periods, Patrick Henry exclaimed, " Ctesar had his Brutus, Qiarles 
I. his Cromwell, and George III." — Here the speaker was interrupted by cries of 
" Treason ! treason ! " from some of the members, and Mr. Henry, after pausing 
a moment, said, "May profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most 
of it." A part of some bold resolutions which Henry had introduced, were adopted ; 
and the colonists were aroused to a firm stand to defend their rights; and thedeter- 
n.ination was made to resist the execution cf the odious Stamp Act. Associations, 
called " Sons of Liberty," were formed, and the stamps were seized on their arrivaS 
in the colonies, and secreted or burned. The officers, called " Stamp Distributoi-s," 
who had been appointed to sell the stamps, were so much despised and insulted that 
they soon relinquished their business; and on the day appointed for the Stamp Act 
to go into effect, there was not an officer who had the courage to attempt the 
enforcement of the law. 

Stamp Act Congress— Indignation of the American People. — A conven- 
tion of delegates, known as "The Stamp Act Congress," assembled in New York 
City, on the 7th of October, 1765. This convention, or congi-ess, which was in 
session fourteen days, drew up a " Declaration of Rights," which denied the right 
of Parliament to tax the colonies, and adopted a petition to the king, and mem- 
orials to Parliament. On the ist of November, 1765, the appointed day for the 
Stamp Act to go into effect, universal silence prevailed in English America: all 
business was suspended; the courts were closed ; the bells were muffled and tolled; 
and the vessels in the harbors displayed their flags at half-mast. Suddenly the 
Anglo-Americans manifested their indignation in an open disregard of the law. 
The houses of British officials in American cities were assailed by mobs, and loy- 
alists were burned in effigy. The colonists agreed to import no more goods from 
the mother country, until the obnoxious law should be repealed. 

Repeal of the Stamp Act — The Declaratory Act. — The detemiination of 
American merchants not to import British goods into America, alarmed the British 
merchants so much, that they united with the colonists in petitioning Parliament 
to repeal the Stamp Act. The British Ministiy found that it must either compel 
the colonists to submission, or have the odious act repealed. After long and angry 
debates in Parliament, the act was repealed, on the- 6th of March, 1766. The 
repeal was hailed with manifestations of joy, in both England and America. The 
colonists testified their gratitude to William Pitt and Edmund Burke, the great 
friends and champions of the Americans in Parliament. The fires of discord 
were soon kindled anew. For the purpose of securing the repeal of the Stamp 
Act, Pitt had accompanied the repeal with a " Declaratory Act," which asserted 
that the Parliament had "the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 

New Measures of Oppression. — Under the sanction of the Declaratory Act, 
the British Parlianient passed new acts, as obnoxious in principle to the Anglo- 
Americans as the Stamp Act had been. To intimidate the colonists, British troops 
were sent to America, in June, 1766, and the Parliament passed a "Mutiny Act," 
requiring the colonists to furnish food and shelter to these royal troops. In June, 
1767, a tax was imposed 'on several articles imported into the colonies. In July ot 
the same year, an act was passed, creating a board of trade and commissioners of 
customs in the colonies, independent of the colonial assemblies' and another act 
was passed which suspended the legislative power of the assembly of New York, 



UNITED STATES. 



457 



because that body had refused to supply the royal troops in that colony with food 
or quarters. These tyrannical measures highly exasperated the Americans. 

Non-Importation Leagues — Boldness of the Massachusetts Assem- 
bly. — New non-importation leagues were now formed in the colonies; and pamphlets 
and newspapers instigated the American people to oppose the oppressive measures 
of the British Ministry and Parliament. In Februaiy, 1768, the Massachusetts 
Assembly issued a " Circular Letter" to the assemblies of the other Anglo-Anieri- 
:;an colonies, soliciting their cooperation in endeavors to procure a redress of g'-iev 
aiices; and before the close of the year, almost every colonial assembly had assc.teJ 
that the Imperial Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies. The British 
Ministry, highly exasperated at this boldness, ordered the Massachusetts assembly, 
in the name of the king, to rescind the Circular Letter ; but the Assembly, by an 
almost unanimous vote, refused to rescind. 

Commissioners of Customs — A Mob. — The new commissioners of customs, 
who arrived in Boston, in May, 176S, were detested by the colonists. In June, 
1768, the commissionei'S seized a sloop belonging to John Hancock, because that 
individual had refused to pay the duty on the cargo on the amval of the vessel 
When the seizure had become known, the commissioners were assailed by a mob and 
compelled to flee for refuge to Castle William (now Fort Independence), in Boston 
harbor. 

Royal Troops in Boston. — At the call of Bernard, the royal governor of 
Massachusetts, 700 royal troops, under General Thomas Gage, were brought to 
Boston, for the purpose of frightening the people into submission. On a quiet Sun- 
day, in September, 1768, these troops entered the city, with charged muskets and 
fixed bayonets, with drums beating and flags flying, and with all the insolence of a 
conquering army taking possession of a captured city. As the indignant Bostonians 
refused to furnish the troops who had been sent among them as instruments of 
slavery, with provisions or quaiters. Governor Bernard caused some of them to be 
quartered in the State House, some in Faneuil Hall, and others in tents on the city 
common. Early in 1769, the British Parliament revived an old law of the time of 
Henry VIII., which required the governor of Massachusetts to send the leaders of 
the late disturbances in Boston to England, for trial on a charge of treason. 

Riot in Boston — "The Boston Massacre." — The exasperated people of 
Boston could with difficulty be restrained from committing acts of violence. The 
soldiers and citizens quarreled almost daily; and on the 2d of March, 1770, sev- 
eral citizens were beaten by some of tlie troops. This created gi-eat excitement 
among the inhabitants, and on the evening of the 5th (March, 1770), several hundred 
collected in the streets, for the avowed purpose of driving the troops from the city. 
A fight ensued, in which three of the citizens were killed, and two badly wounded. 
The mob retired before the troops. The city bells rang an alarum, and very soon 
several thousand of the citizens assembled under arms. Governor Hutcliinson 
made his appearance, and appeased the excited people by promising that justice 
«li">n]d be rendered in the morning. At the demand of the Bostonians, the soldiers 
were removed from the city; and Captain Preston and eight of the troops, who had 
fired on the mob, were tried for murder. The captain and six of the troops were 
acquitted. The other two were found guilty of manslaughter. Those Bostonians 
who were killed in the riot were considered martyrs to liberty; and "The Boston 



45 8 CENTENNIAL ^ HISTOR V. 

Massacre," as the affray was called, was for many years kept alive by anniversa^ 
orations in Boston and its vicinity. 

The English East-India Company and the Du^y on Tea.- -The disturb- 
ances in America, and the complaints of the British merchants, whose interests were 
injured by the operation of the American non-importation leagues, induced the 
British Ministry to propose, on the very day of the Boston Massacre, the repeal of 
ill the obnoxious tax laws, except the duty on tea. The tax on tea was retained 
for the double purpose of aiding the English East-India Company, and maintaining 
the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies. Lord North, who was 
then Prime-Minister of Great Britain, not comprehending the fact that the colonists 
were contending for a great principle, and that they considered the imposition, by 
the British Parliament, of a tax on a single article as a stroke at their liberties just 
as much as if a hundred articles were taxed, believed that they would not complain 
of a small duty on one article of luxury. The Anglo-Americans therefore continued 
their non-importation leagues against the purchase and use of tea. 

The Regulators of North Carolina — Destruction of the Gasp'e. — In 
1771, the exactions of British Government officials produced rebellion in the inte- 
rior of North Carolina. The insurgents, whose object was to redress the grievances 
of the people, called themselves "Regulators." In a bloody skirmish on the Ala 
mance Creek, on the i6th of May, 1771, the Regulators were conquered by Gov- 
ernor Tryon, and six of their number were hanged for treason ; but the spirit of 
opposition among the people was not crushed, and was frequently manifested in 
popular outbreaks. On the 9th of June, 1772, a party of sixty -four armed men 
from Providence, Rhode Island, burned the British schooner " Gaspe," which had 
run aground while cruising in Narraganset bay for the purpose of enforcing the 
revenue laws. 

Tea-ships Sent to America — Destruction of Tea in Boston Harboi. — 
As the Americans refused to use or purchase tea so long as a duty remained on 
that article, Lord North, who was still unwilling to relinquish the right of Par- 
liament to tax the colonies, agreed to permit the East-India Company to send over 
their tea on terms that would make it cheaper in America than in England. This 
attempt to bribe the colonists into submission by means of cheap tea only aroused 
their indignation so much the more, and they refused to receive a cargo of tea. 
Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, in defiance of the popular will, ordered the 
landing of several cargoes which arrived at Boston in December, 1773. The peo- 
ple of Boston held meetings in Fanueil Hall, and resolved that no tea should be 
landed; and on the night of the i6th of December, 1773, a party of about sixty 
men, disguised as Indians, went on board of the tea-ships, and broke open three 
hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and emptied their contents into the waters of 
the harbor. 

The Boston Port Bill and other Retaliatory Measures. — So highly exas 
peratcd at the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was the British Ministry thai 
they resolved upon retaliatory measures. On the 7th of March, 1774, Parlia 
ment passed an act called the Boston Port Bill, which ordered the port of Boston 
to be closed against all commerce, and removed the seat of the colonial government 
of Massachusetts to ^alem. Another act was passed on the 28th (March, 1774). 



UNITED STATES. 459 

which virtually subverted the colonial charter of Massachusetts. This was followed 
by another act on the 2ist of April, providing for the trial in England of any person 
charged with murder in the colonies in support of the Imperial Government. A 
fourth act authorized the quartering of royal troops in the colonies; and a fifth 
conceded great privileges to the Roman Catholics in the newly-acquired province 
of Canada. These tyrannical measures aroused the most intense indignation in 
.'Vmerica, which was increased when General Thomas Gage, who had just been 
appointed Governor of Massachusetts, went to Boston with troops, to enforce the 
obnoxious acts of Parliament. Under his direction, the port of Boston was closed 
on the 1st of June, 1774. 

Committees of Correspondence — Whigs and Tories. — Committees of Cor- 
respondence had been formed in some of the colonies in 1773. These commit- 
tees were diligent in their work of uniting the colonies by an interchange of views 
and intelligence. The Anglo-American colonists were now divided into two par- 
ties. The few who sustained the British Government were called "Tories;" and 
the great body of the American people, who opposed the despotic measures of the 
Government, were called "Whigs." 

The First Continental Congress. — Soon after the closing of the port of Bos- 
ton, the Assembly of Massachusetts met at Salem, and issued an invitation to the 
other Anglo-American colonies to elect delegates, who should meet in a Continental 
Congress in Philadelphia, in September following. This invitation was accepted; 
and the First Continental Congress convened in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, 
on the 5th of September, 1774. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, 
were represented. The Congress chose for its president, Peyton Randolph, of 
Virginia, and for its secretary, Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania. The Congress 
approved the conduct of Massachusetts, in her opposition to the oppressive meas- 
ures of the British Ministry and Parliament; agreed upon a "Declaration of 
Rights ;" recommended non-intercourse with Great Britain so long as the ob- 
noxious laws of Parliament remained unrepealed; and voted , a petition to the 
king, and an address to the people of Great Britain and Canada; after which they 
adjourned, to meet on the ensuing loth of May (1775), unless the British Govern- 
ment should, in the meantime, redress the grievances complained of by the colo- 
nists. 

Spirit of the New England People. — During the summer of 1774, the 
people of English America, and particularly those of Massachusetts, were earnestly 
preparing for the inevitable struggle with the mother country. They engaged 
daily in military exercises, chose leaders, and held themselves ready to fly to arms 
at a moment's warning. On this account, they were called "Minute-men." Mar- 
Mai exercises continued throughout the ensuing autumn and winter; and public 
speakers everywhere encouraged the colonists to resist the tyrannical measures of 
the British Parliament. General Gage, Governor of Massachusetts, and British 
commander-in-chief in America, becoming alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, ajid 
seized great quantities of ammunition, found in the New England colonies. A 
false rumor, which spread over New England in September (1774), that British 
war-ships were cannonading Boston, produced such excitement that within two 
days 30,000 armed men were on their way to that city. In Octciber, the Assembly 



46o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

of Massachusetts convened at Cambridge, and resolved itself into a Provincial Con- 
gress, with John Hancock as president, and made provisions for raising an army. 

New Oppressive Measures of Parliament. — As the British Parliament, 
early in 1775, rejected a conciliatory measure, proposed by Mr. Pitt, and passed an 
act prohibiting the colonists from fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, thus strik- 
ing a severe blow at the prosperity of New England, the colonists saw that they 
must either defend their rights and liberties by force of arms, or slavishly submit to 
Js2 oppressive acts of Parliament. They chose the former alternative; and, rely- 
ing upon the justice of their cause and the aid of an All-Ruling Providence, they 
rt'soved to bid defiance to the military and naval power of Great Britain. 

THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 
(A. D. 1775-1783). 

EVENTS OF 177S. 

British Troops in Boston — Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord — Its 
Effects. — On the 1st of April, 1775, there were 3,000 British troops in Boston; 
and on the night of the 1 8th, General Gage sent 800 troops, under Lieutenant- 
Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the stores of ammunition which the 
colonists had gathered at Concord, about sixteen miles north-west from Boston. 
Although this movement was made secretly, the people were aroused by the vigil- 
ant Dr. Joseph Warren and Paul Revere, who had obtained a knowledge of the 
designs of Gage; and when, on the morning of the 19th (April, 1775), Pitcairn 
approached the village of Lexington, six miles from Concord, he found eighty 
armed Minute-men ready to oppose him. Pitcairn, riding forward, exclaimed, 
" Disperse you rebels! lay down your arms and disperse!" and when they refused 
obedience, his troops, according to his orders, fired upon the patriots, killing eight 
of them. This was the first bloodshed in the great American Revolution. After 
the short skirmish at Lexington, the British immediately proceeded to Concord, 
killed several more Minute-men in a skirmish there, and destroyed the stores of 
ammunition. The king's troops then hastily retreated to Boston, fired upon along 
the whole route of their retreat by the people, from behind trees, stone-fences, and 
buildings; and by the time they reached Boston^ in the afternoon of the same day 
(April 19, 1775), they had lost in killed and wounded 273 men, while the American 
loss was only 103 men. The intelligence of the bloodshed at Lexington and Con- 
cord produced the greatest excitement throughout the Anglo-American colonies, 
and everywhere aroused the colonists to action. Before the close of April, a patriot 
army of 20,000 men was surrounding the British troops in Boston ; and before the 
close of summer, the power of eveiy royal governor, from Massachusetts to Geor- 
gia, was at an end. 

Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Committee of Safety. — On 

the loth of May, 1775, some New Hampshire Militia, under Colonel Ethan Allen, 
seized Fort Ticonderoga. Two days later (May 12, 1775), Colonel Benedict Arnold, 
w ith Connecticut militia, took possession of Crown Point. With the capture of 
these two fortresses, the Americans obtained forty pieces of artillery, and secured 
the command of Lake Champkin, thus opening the way for an invasion of Canada. 
A Committee of Safety, appointed by the Provincial Congress of Massachusett?, 



UNITED STATES. 461 

hekl its sittings in Cambridge, regulated military operations, and appointed General 
Artemas Ward commander-in-chief of the provincial forces, and Richard Gridley 
chief engineer. 

British Reinforcements. — On the 25th of May, 1775, large reinforcements 
for General Gage arrived from England, under the command of Generals "William 
Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne. The British army in Boston, thus in- 
creased to 12,000 men, prepared to drive the rebellious provincials from the vicinity 
of the city. Gage issued a proclamation, declaring all Americans in arms to be 
rebels and traitors, and offering an amnesty to all who would submit to British 
authority, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, whom he intended to seize 
and send to England to be hanged. 

Fortification of Breed's Hill — Battle of Bunker's Hill. — On the night 
of the 1 6th of June, 1775, General Artemas Ward sent 1,000 provincial troops, 
under Colonel William Prescott, to take possession of, and fortify Bunker's Hill, in 
Charlestown. By mistake, in the darkness of the night, Prescott and his troops as- 
cended Breed's Hill, on which they erected a strong redoubt before morning. 
When the astonished British commanders saw this redoubt, on the morning of the 
17th (June, 1775), they opened upon it, from Copp's Hill, in Boston, and from 
the ships-of-war in the harbor, a fierce cannonade, which continued until noon 
with little effect. The Americans had received a reinforcement of 500 troops 
during the forenoon, thus increasing their force in the redoubt to 1,500 men. About 
noon, 3,000 Bi-itish troops, under Generals Howfe and Pigot, crossed the Charles 
river from Boston, and marched up the hill to attack the redoubt, firing cannon 
as they ascended. When the British column had approached within ten rods of 
the redoubt. Colonel Prescott gave the order to fire, which his troops executed with 
such terrible effect, that the advancing enemy were driven back with heavy loss. 
The British again advanced and assailed the redoubt, but met with a second disas^ 
trous repulse. They ascended the hill a third time, and the battle raged fiercely, 
until the Americans, having exhausted all their ammunition, were driven from the 
redoubt, and compelled to reti-eat across Charlestown Neck. As the Americans re- 
treated, one of their number, the heroic General Joseph WaiTen, was shot dead. 
The British took possession of, and fortified Bunker's Hill, while the Americans 
intrenched themselves on Prospect Hill. The Americans lost 450 men in killed, 
wounded, and missing, while the British lost 1,054. During the battle, Charles- 
town was set on fire by order of General Gage, and 500 houses were destroyed. 
Although fought on Breed's Hill, this memorable engagement, which was the first 
real battle of the War of the American Revolution, is known as " The Battle of 
Bunker's Hill." 

The Revolution in Virginia and North Carolina. — In the meantime, while 
the events just related were occurring in New England, the Revolution was pro- 
gressing rapidly in the Southern colonies. In the Virginia Assembly, at Richmond, 
Patrick Henry concluded a masterly speech with the words, " Give me Liberty, cr 
give me Death !" When Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, seize 1 3 
quantity of powder belonging to the colony, the patriot Henry demanded and 
obtained full indemnity, and Dunmore was forced to seek refuge on a British man- 
of-war, in Norfolk harbor. In May, 1775, a convention of delegates, sitting at Char- 
lotte, Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, declared their constituents absolved 



462 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

from all allegiance to the British crown. This is known as " The Mecklenburg 
Declaration." 

Second Continental Congress — Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — 
In the meantime, while English America was in one blaze of excitement over the 
the events at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress assembled 
in Philadelphia, on the lOth of May, 1775. Although expressing its desire for a 
reconcilation with the mother country, the Congress voted to raise an army of 20,000 
cisn; and on the 15th of June, 1775, that body elected George Washington, z dele- 
gate from Virginia, commander-in-chief of all the forces raised, or to be raised, for 
the defense of American liberty. On the 3d of July (1775), Washington took com- 
mand of the American army at Cambridge. With this force, numbering 14,000 
men, Washington began a siege of Boston, which was still occupied by the British 
army under General William Howe. 

Invasion of Canada — Capture of St. Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. 
— During the summer of 1775, some New England and New York troops, under 
General Philip Schuyler, went down Lake Champlain. Owing to illness, Schuyler 
was obliged to relinquish the command of his troops to General Richard Montgom- 
ery, who, on the 3d of November, captured St. Johns, on the Sorel or Richelieu 
river, after a siege of more than a month. While the siege of St. Johns was pro- 
gressing. Colonel Ethan Allen, who, with eighty men, had attacked Montreal on 
the 25th of September, was made a prisoner and carried to England in irons. 
Colonel Bedell, with some American troops, captured Chambly; and, on the 13th 
of November, Montgomery took possession of Montreal. 

Siege of Quebec — Defeat of the Americans. — At Point au Trembles, twenty 
miles above Montreal, Montgomery was joined by 750 Americans under Colonel 
Benedict Arnold, who had left Cambridge, Massachusetts, in September, 1775, and 
marched along the Kennebec and Chaudiere rivers to the St. Lawrence, suffering 
almost incredible hardships on the way. On the 5th of December, the American 
forces, under Montgomery and Arnold, laid siege to Quebec. For three weeks the 
Americans had besieged Quebec, when, on the 31st of December (1775), they at- 
tempted to take the city by assault. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, 
and their troops were repulsed with great loss. In the month of June, 1776, the 
American invaders were entirely driven out of Canada. 

The War in Virginia — Defeat of Governor Dunmore. — W^lile the 
Americans were suffering misfortunes in Canada, the Virginians were prosecuting 
the Revolution with zeal and success. Governor Dunmore, at the head of a force 
of Tories and negroes, ravaged South-eastern Virginia, but was repulsed in an attack 
upon Hampton, on the 24th of October (1775); and, after proclaiming open war, 
he was defeated by the Virginia militia, in a severe battle near the Dismal Swamp, 
twelve miles from Norfolk. For the purpose of revenging himself upon the rebel- 
lious Virginians, Dunmore burned the city of Norfolk, on the 1st of January, 1776 
but after committing other atrocities on the sea-board, he was finally driven away 
and went to England. 

EVENTS OF 1776. 

Siege and Evacuation of Boston. — As the British Government, early in 
1776, made extensive arrangements to crush the rebellion against its authority in 




INDEPENDENr^ HALL 




PATRICK HENRV. 




THCMAS JEFFERSON. 



UNITED STATES 



463 



North America, the Continental Congress urged General Washington to attack the 
the British army under General Howe in Boston. On the evening of the 2d of 
March, 1776, Washington, having 14,000 men under his command, opened a heavy 
cannonade upon the British works around that city; and, on the night of the 4th, 
a portion of Washington's army, under General John Thomas, intrenched itself 
upon Dorchester Heights, now South Boston. The siege continued until the 17th, 
when Howe and his troops were allowed to evacuate the city. The British army 
sailed to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, with the families of 1,500 Tories, and Washing- 
ton's army immediately took possession of the city, to the great joy of its delivered 
inhabitants. 

Lee and Washington in New York. — During the winter, General Charles 
Lee had been sent by Washington to take command of troops for the defense of 
New York against any attack which might be made upon that city'by Sir Heniy 
Clinton, who had left Boston in January, with a part of Howe's army. After the 
evacuation of Boston, Washington proceeded to the Hudson, and fortified the 
passes of the Highlands. 

The War in South Carolina — British Repulse at Fort Moultrie. — In 

the meantime. Sir Henry Clinton, with British land troops, in conjunction with a 
fleet from England under Sir Peter Parker, was on his way to attack Charleston, 
South Carolina. The South Carolinians made ample preparations to defend their 
chief city against any attack of the enemy. On Sullivan's Island, near the city, a 
fort was built of palmetto logs, and garrisoned by 500 Americans under the gallant 
Colonel William Moultrie ; and before the British were prepared to attack the city, 
General Charles Lee arrived in Chaideston, and took the chief command of the 
American troops there. The English fleet under Parker, and the land troops under 
Clinton, opaned a furious assault upon Port Moultrie, on the 28th of June (1776). 
After a stubborn conflict of ten hours, the British army was repulsed with heavy 
loss, and sailed away for New York, leaving the Southern colonies free from the 
turmoil of war for more than two years. General Clinton joined Howe's army at 
New York, on the ist of August. 

Declaration of Independence. — A few days after the repulse of the enemy 
at Charleston, the Continental Congress, sitting in the old State House, in Phila- 
delphia, immortalized itself by a glorious act. The Congress had been for some 
time discussing the question of proclaiming the independence of the Anglo-Amer- 
ican colonies. All hopes for a reconciliation with the mother country had passed 
away. The British Parliament had not repealed its obnoxious acts. The British 
Ministry had sent large armies to America to force the colonists to submit ; and 
hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to assist in crushing liberty in America. 
These proceedings widened irreparably the breach between England and her North 
American colonies; and sentiments of independence filled the hearts of the Anglo- 
Americans. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered 
the following resolution of independence, in the Continental Congi'ess: — "Resolved, 
That diese united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indeperdent 
States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all 
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to 
be, totally dissolved." This resolution was warmly debated in the Congress, many 
of the delegates opposing it as premature, and others as treasonable; and a com- 



464 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

mittee of five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massa-' 
chusetts, Dr. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, 
and Robert R. Livingston of New York, were appointed to draft a declaration of 
independence, in accordance with Lee's resolution. The declaration was written 
by Jefferson, the chairman of the committee, and was reported on the 2d of July, 
on which day Lee's resolution was passed; and on the 4th (July, 1776), the Con- 
gress adopted the gi-eat Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed the Anglo- 
American colonies free and independent States, under the name of "The United 
States of America," and which also defined the rights of all mankind. This action 
of the Congress was approved everywhere throughout English America ; and the 
4th of July, 1776, has ever since been remembered by the American people as their 
country's birth-day, and the annual recurrence of the day has been always celebrated 
with every demonstration of public enthusiasm. 

British Forces near New York — Peace Propositions. — A few days before 
the Declaration of Independence, Genei-al Howe appeared on Staten Island, with 
a powerful British force. There, on the 12th of July, he was joined Ijy his brother, 
Admiral Lord Howe, with a large fleet from England ; and, on the 1st of August, by 
Sir Henry Clinton and his land forces from Charleston. In August, 30,000 British 
troops stood opposed to the American army of 17,000 men. Admiral and General 
Howe were jointly commissioned to treat for peace; but only on the condition that 
the Americans should lay down their arms and submit to the authority of the British 
Government ; and, as the Americans refused to agree to such a peace, the British 
officers prepared to crush the rebellious colonists at one blow. 

Battle of Long Island — Escape of the Americans. — On the 22d of August, 
1776, a British force of 10,000 men landed on Long Island, near Brooklyn; and 
on the 27th (August, 1776), a bloody battle was fought between the British com- 
manded by Generals Grant, Cornwallis, Clinton, and De Heister, and several 
thousand Americans under the chief command of General Israel Putnam. The 
Americans were disastrously defeated, with the loss of 1,600 men in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners. Among the Americans who were made prisoners were General Sul- 
livan and Lord Stirling. Several days after the battle, General Putnam was joined 
by Washington, with the main body of the American army, from New York City; 
but on the 30th (August, 1776), the whole American army recrossed from Brooklyn 
to New York. 

Washington's Retreat up the Hudson — Skirmish on Harlem Plains. 
— On the 15th of September (1776), Washington's army evacuated New York City, 
and retreated up the Hudson, for the purpose of seizing and fortifying Harlem 
Heights, twenty-two miles above the city. The British pursued, and on the same 
day a severe skirmish occurred on Harlem Plains, in which the Americans were 
victorious, but at the cost of the lives of Colonel Knowlton, of Connecticut, and 
Major Leitch, of Virginia. 

Battle of White Plains — Capture of Fort Washington. — On the 28th 
cf October (1776), Howe defeated Washington in the battle of White Plains; aftei 
which Washington retreated further northward; and, on the 4th of November, he 
crossed the Hudson river into New Jersey, for the purpose of saving Philadelphia, 
where the Congress was sitting. On the i6th of November (1776), For* Washing- 
ton was captured by the Hessian general Knyphausen, after a furious assault, in 



UNITED STATES. 



465 



winch he lost 1,000 men. The 2,000 American troops under Colonel Magaw, who 
Ijd gairisoned the (ort, became prisoners to the victorious Hessians. 

Flight of Washington's Army across New Jersey. — Two days after the 
(ill of Fort Washington (November 18, 1776), Lord CornwalHs, with 6,000 British 
troops, crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, in pursuit of Washington's shattered 
army. For three weeks, Washington, with only 3,000 men under his command, 
retreated before the pursuing hosts of Cornwallis, until he reached the Delaware, 
on the 8th of December, and crossed that stream into Pennsylvania. Howe orderel 
CornwalHs to wait until the river was frozen over, and then cross on the ice. 

Battle of Trenton — Its Effects. — Taking advantage of the delay of the ene- 
my, and having increased his army to 5,000 men, Washington secretely recrocsed 
the Delaware into New Jersey, on Christmas night, and on the foIlo^ying morning 
(December 26, 1776), he attacked and captured 1,000 Hessians at Trenton. The 
Hessian commander. Colonel Rahl, fell mortally wounded in the streets of the city. 
This sudden victory raised the spirits of the desponding patriots, and alarmed Gen- 
eral Howe, who had supposed that the rebellion was at an end. Howe immediately 
sent Cornwallis with a considerable force to capture Washington's army. 

EVENTS OF 1777. 

Battle of Princeton — Guerrilla Warfare. — On the evening of the 2d of Jan- 
uary, 1777, Lord Cornwallis appeared at Trenton, with a strong British force, and 
encamped close to Washington's army, which he expected to capture on the follow- 
ing morning. Washington, however, escaped secretly during the night, and the next 
morning (January 3, 1777), he defeated a British detachment, under Colonel Maw- 
hood, at Princeton. Among the Americans who were killed was the heroic General 
Hugh Mercer. After the battle of Princeton, Washington marched to the hills of 
North-eastern New Jersey, and established his camp at Morristown. He sent out 
detachments, which, by a system of guerrilla warfare, so annoyed the British that 
they soon left New Jersey. 

British Depredations in Connecticut. — About the middle of April, 1777, 
Governor Tryon, at the head of 2,000 British and Tories, invaded Connecticut, and 
devastated the southern part of that State. The Connecticut militia, under Generals 
Wooster, Silliman, and Arnold, attacked Tryon's force at Ridgefield, on the 27th 
of April (1777). Wooster was killed in the engagement, but the enemy were 
compelled to retreat hastily to New York. 

Foreign Officers in America. — During the year 1777, the young Marquis de 
Lafayette, a wealthy French nobleman, nineteen years of age; the Baron DeKalb, 
also a Frenchman; and the two brave Poles, Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kos- 
ciuszko, arrived in America, to serve the cause of freedom. In the following year, 
the Baron de Steuben, a skillful Prussian military officer, arrived, and brought effi 
ciency to the American army. 

Movements of Howe and Washington. — The main armies of the British and 
the Americans commenced active operations in June. In the latter part of that 
month, Howe's army left New Jersey, and was conveyed by the British fleet down the 
Atlantic, to the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, and up that bay to its head, where it 
disembarked; after w'lich it marched eastward, in the direction of Philadelphia. 
30 



466 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Washington, in the meantime, had crossed the Delaware river, and advanced west- 
ward to meet Howe. 

Battle of Brandywine — -Massacre of Paoli. — On the banks of the Brandy- 
wine creek, in Chester county, Pennsylvania, a bloody battle was fought, on the 
nth of September, 1777, between the armies of Washington and Howe. Wash- 
ington was defeated, with the loss of 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
while Howe lost only 800 men. The next day, the shattered American army re- 
freuted to Philadelphia. In this battle, the young Marquis de Lafayette was severely 
wounded. On the night of the 20th (September, 1777), General Anthony Wayne, 
with 1,500 American troops, was attacked at Paoli, by a British force under General 
Grey. Wayne lost 300 men. This is known as " The Massacre of Paoli." 

Howe's Army in Philadelphia. — After the battle of Brandywine, Washing- 
ton made no stand for the defense of Philadelphia against Howe's advancing forces. 
The Congress left the city, and went first to Lancaster, and then to York, where it 
assembled on the 30th of September (1777), and where it remained in session until 
the following summer. General Howe took military possession of Philadelphia on 
the 26th of September, 1777; and the British army established its winter-quarters 
in the Quaker City. 

Battle of Germantown — Whitemarsh and Valley Forge. — On the 4th of 
October (1777), a severe battle was fought at Germantown, near Philadelphia, be- 
tween the armies of Washington and Howe. The Americans were defeated, with 
the loss of 1,200 men, while the British lost only half that number. The campaign 
between the main armies closed with the battle of Germantown, and Washington 
went into winter-quarters at Whitemarsh; but he afterwards removed to Valley 
Forge, on the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia, which 
city was occupied by the enemy until the following June. 

British Fleet in the Delaware — Assault on Forts Mifflin and Mercer. 
— While the events just related were occurring on land, the British fleet sailed round 
to Delaware bay, which it afterwards ascended, on its way to Philadelphia; but its 
passage was obstructed by Fort Mifllin, on the Pennsylvania shore of the Delaware 
river, Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey shore, and heavy chevaux-de-frise, in the channel 
of the river. The forts were unsuccessfully assailed by land troops sent by General 
Howe to cooperate with the fleet. Fort Mifflin, which was defended by a small 
American force under Colonel Christopher Greene, repulsed an attack of 2,000 
Hessians under Count Donop, who was mortally wounded during the attack. Fort 
Mercer, garrisoned by a body of American troops under Lieutenant- Colonel Smith, 
also repulsed the assaults of the enemy; but about the middle of November (l777)> 
both forts were evacuated by their gamsons, and the British fleet sailed up to Phil- 
adelphia. 

Burgoyne's Invasion of New York — Schuyler's Retreat to the Mohawk 
— While the Americans met with misfortunes in Pennsylvania, General Burgoyne, 
V ilh 10,000 British troops, was marching southward from Canada, along the Westeic 
coast of Lake Champlain, toward Albany. Burgoyne took possession of Ticonde 
roga, on the 2d of July, the American troops under General Arthur St. Clair, who 
had garrisoned the fortress, having fled, on the invader's approach, to Fort Edward, 
which was then held by 3,000 American troops under General Philip Schuyler. 



UNITED STATES. 467 

St. Clair'; rear division was defeated by the enemy at Hubbardton, in the present 
State of Vermont. The shattered forces of St. Clair joined General Schuyler at 
Fort Edward, on the 12th of July (1777); and the whole American army of the 
North, then under the command of Schuyler, retreated to the Mohawk river, •j.nd 
established a fortified camp in the vicinity of the Cohoes Falls. 

Battle of Bsnnington — Burgoyne, after reaching Fort Edward, on the 3d of 
fuly, sent out a body of Hessians, under Colonel Baum, to seize provisions and 
oattle which the Americans had collected at Bennington, in the present State of 
Vermont. Baum's Hessians were defeated, on the i6th of August, 1777, by the 
Greer Mountain Boys, under Colonel John Stark, about five miles from Benning- 
ton. On the same day, another British detachment was defeated by a spiall Amer- 
ican force under Colonel Seth Warner. 

Invasion of the Mohawk Valley — Siege of Fort Schuyler — Battle of 
Oriskany. — While Burgoyne was advancing from the North, a strong force of 
Canadians, Tories, and Indians, under Colonel St. Leger, John Johnson, John 
Butler, and Joseph Brandt, the famous Mohawk chieftain, invaded the Mohawk 
Valley, and besieged Fort Schuyler (now Rome), on the 3d of August. General 
Herkimer, while hastening, with a body of New York militia, to the relief of Fort 
Schuyler, was defeated and killed in the battle of Oriskany. When Colonel Bene- 
dict Arnold approached Fort Schuyler, with an American relief force, the besiegers 
were driven away and dispersed. 

Battles of Bemis's Heights and Saratoga — Surrender of Burgoyne. — In 
fhe meantime, General Horatio Gates superseded General Schuyler in the command 
jf the American army of the North, which had been increased, by a heavy rein- 
forcement of New England militia under General Benjamin Lincoln, to 13,000 men. 
On the 19th of September, 1777, a bloody, but indecisive, engagement was fought 
at Bemis's Heights, near Saratoga, between the armies of Gates and Burgoyne. 
On the 7th of October (1777), another sanguinary battle took place between the same 
armies, at Saratoga. Ten days afterward (October 17, 1777), Burgoyne surrendered 
his whole army of 6,000 men to the American general. This great victory pro 
duced the liveliest joy in America, and fell like a bombshell into the midst of the 
war party in the British Parliament. It strengthened the peace party in England, 
and greatly influenced the French Court in favor of the struggling Americans. 

Clinton on the Hudson — Capture of Forts Clinton and Montgomery. — 
In the meantime, a strong British force, under Sir Henry Clinton, was marching up 
the Hudson river, to cooperate with Burgoyne. Clinton captured Forts Clinton 
and Montgomery, at the passes of the Highlands, but when he heard of Burgoyne's 
surrender, he hastily retreated down the Hudson to New York. 

Articles of Confederation. — In November, 1777, the American Congress, r.t 
York, in Pennsylvania, agreed to an instrument of union, known as " The Articles 
>f Confederation." By these articles, the American States were united into a con- 
federacy for common defense, and the power of declaring and carrying on war, tJid 
also the right of concluding treaties, were delegated to the Congress. Under this 
form of government, the United States continued until the adoption of the present 
National Constitution in 1789, — a period of nearly twelve years. 



468 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

EVENTS OF 1778. 

Encampment of Washington's Army at Valley Forge. — During the 
severe winter of 1777, '78, Washington's army was encamped at Valley Forge, on 
the banks of the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia. Many 
of the troops were without shoes, and left bloody footprints in the snow. But having 
faith in the justice of their cause, the patriots patiently endured all their haidships, 
and were resolved to sacrifice eveiything for the liberties of their country. An un 
su xessful attempt was made by some American officers, with General Conway ai 
their head, to transfer the chief command of the American armies from Washingtor 
to general Charles Lee. 

Franco- American Alliance — Peace Propositions. — The surrender of Bur- 
goyne convinced the French Court and Government that the Americans were able 
to defend their liberties, and accordingly that Government concluded a treaty of 
alliance with, and recognized the independence of, the United States of America. 
This act of the French Government led to a war between France and England. 
The English Cabinet was now anxious for a reconciliation with the rebellious 
Americans, and sent commissioners to America, to induce the Americans to consent 
to a peace on the condition that they should return to their allegiance to the British 
Government, and that Parliament in return should repeal all its obnoxious acts, 
and surrender its pretensions to legislate for the Americans. But the Americans 
now refused to treat for peace, unless Great Britain should withdraw her fleets 
and armies, and unconditionally acknowledge the independence of the United States; 
and so the war continued. 

British Evacuation of Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth. — When it 
was known that a powerful French fleet under the Count D'Estaing was on its way 
to the Delaware, the British army, under Sir Henry Clinton, who had in the mean- 
time succeeded .General Howe as British commander-in-chief, evacuated Philadel- 
phia, on the 1 8th of June, 1778, and fled into New Jersey, toward New York. 
Washington pursued Clinton with 12,000 men; and at Monmouth Court House, 
on a hot Sabbath day, June 28th, 1778, a sanguinary, but indecisive, battle was 
fought. The battle had continued nearly the entire day; and after midnight, 
Clinton and his army fled to New York. Washington crossed the Hudson into 
New York, and encamped at White Plains until late in autumn, when he again 
passed into New Jersey, and went into winter-quarters at Middlebrook, on the 
Raritan river. 

Events in Rhode Island — Battle of Quaker Hill. — The French fleet under 
the Count D'Estaing appeared in the Delaware early in July; but the British fleet 
under Lord Howe having sailed to New York, D'Estaing sailed to Rhode Island, 
to cooperate with the American army under General John Sullivan, in an attempt 
to expel the British from that State. On the 9th of August, Sullivan landed with 
a strong force on the island of Rhode Island, and Howe's fleet appeared off" the 
island on the same day. D'Estaing intended to attack Howe; but both fleets being 
disabled by a terrible storm, they were obliged to seek port for repairs. D'Estaing 
appeared at Newport on the 20th, when Sullivan was near there; but the French 
admiral refused to give any aid to the American general; whereupon Sullivan re- 
treated northward, and was pursued by the British, who attacked him at Quaker 
Hill, on the agtii of August (1778). Sullivan repulsed the attacks of the enemy, 



UNITED STATES. 469 

but he was obliged to evacuate the island, as the British had just been reinforced 
by 4,000 troops under General Clinton. 

Tory and Indian Raids — Massacre of Wyoming— Cherry Valley. — 
During the year 1778, the Mohawk, Schoharie, and Cheny Valleys, in New York, 
and the Wyoming Valley, in Pennsylvania, were the scenes of the most shocking 
cruelties, perpetrated by the Indians under Joseph Brandt, and the Tories under 
C<;iouels John Johnson and John Butler. At the beginning of July, 1,100 Indians 
iT.i 'd'ories, under John Butler, entered the lovely valley of Wyoming, over which 
they spread desolation, setting fire to dwellings, and massacring several hundred 
men, women, and children. The few soldiers and settlers who had sought refuge 
in a fort were forced to surrender; and about 300 of the inhabitants of the valley, 
who had fled to the neighboring mountains, were hunted by the savages and their 
white allies, and massacred in cold blood. This horrible tragedy is known as " The 
Massacre of Wyoming." In November (177S), Cherry Valley, in New York, was 
nsited by a band of Tories and Indians, under Butler and Brandt, and many of the 
inhabitants were killed, or carried into captivity. 

Campbell's Invasion of Georgia and Capture of Savannah. — In Novem- 
ber, 1778, Sir Henry Clinton sent 2,000 of his troops, under Colonel Campbell, to 
invade Georgia, thus transferring the seat of actual war to the Southern States. On 
the 29th of December (1778), Campbell entered Savannah, the American troops, 
under Colonel Robert Howe, having evacuated the town, on the approach of the 
British, and fled up the Savannah river. Royal authority was now temporarily 
reestablished in Georgia, and that State remained under the power of the British 
until near the end of the war. 

EVKiSTS OF 1779. 

Movements in Georgia— Battle of Brier Creek — Battle of Stono Ferry. 

— On the 9th of January, 1779, the British army, under General Prevost, captured 
Sunbury, in Georgia. On the 14th of February (1779), a band of Tories, under 
Colonel Boyd, was annihilated by a Whig force, under Colonel Andrew Pickens, 
m the battle of Brier Creek. The British, under Colonel Campbell, who had just 
marched up the Georgia side of the Savannah river, then fled toward the sea-coast, 
pursued by 2,000 American troops, under General James Ashe. At Brier Creek, 
Ashe was defeated, on the 3d of March, 1779, by the British under General Prevost. 
After the battle of Brier Creek, Prevost invaded South Carolina, and marched against 
Charleston. An American force, under General Benjamin Lincoln, hastened to the 
relief of Charleston, whereupon Prevost retreated with great haste toward Savannah. 
On the 20th of June (1779), a severe battle took place at Stono Ferry, between 
detachments of the two armies, which resulted in the repulse of the Americans. 

British Depredations in Virginia, New York, and Connecticut.- --An 
expedition, composed of 1,500 British and Hessian troops, under Governor Tryon, 
uiade a destructive raid into Connecticut, in April, 1779. After defeating the 
Americans, under General Putman, at Greenwich, Tryon retreated westward to 
New York, pursued by Putnam, who retook some of the enemy's plunder. In 
May (1779), Sir George Collier, with a small British squadron, and General Mat- 
thews, with an English land force, ravaged the country around Norfolk, in Virginia 
On the 31st of May, Stony Point, on the west side of the Hudson river, was 



470 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



taken by the British, under Sir Henry Clinton, who, on the following day (June I, 
1779), also captured Verplanck's Point, on the opposite side of the river. In the 
beginning of July, Tryon, with 2,000 British troops, made another destructive in- 
vasion of Connecticut, laying the beautiful towns of East Haven, Fairfield, and 
Norwalk in ishes. 

Wayne's Capture of Stony Point and Lee's Capture of Paulus Hook. 
— About midnight, July i6th, 1779, General Anthony Wayne, with a small Ameii- 
can force, recaptured Stony Point, after a short but desperate fight, and made thf 
British garrison, commanded by Colonel Johnson, prisoners of war. The less 01 
the English in killed, wounded, and captured was about 600 men. On the 19th of 
the same month (July, 1779), Major Henry Lee, at the head of a small body of 
Americans, captured Paulus Hook (now Jersey City), opposite New York City, after 
killing, wounding, and capturing 200 of the enemy. In August, a British fleet de- 
stroyed an American flotilla off Castine, on the coast of the present State of Maine. 

The W^ar in the 'West — Daniel Boone — Kaskaskia and Vincennes. — 
During 1778 and 1 7 79, important events were occurring in the vast wilderness west 
of the Alleghany mountains. For several years, Daniel Boone, the great pioneer, 
had struggled with the Indians in the present State of Kentucky. Kaskaskia, on 
the Mississippi, and Vincennes, on the Wabash, were wrested from the British, by 
the Americans, under Major George Rogers Clarke, of Virginia. Vincennes was 
recaptured by the enemy, but Clarke again obtained possession of that post in Feb- 
ruary (1779). 

Sullivan's Expedition Against the Indians in New York. — In the sum- 
mer of 1779, the Americans sent an expedition, under General John Sullivan, to 
punish the New York Indians for their raids and massacres in the Wyoming and 
Cherry Valleys in the previous year. At the head of nearly 5)000 men, Sullivan 
invaded the country of the Six Nations, in Western New York, where, in the space 
of three weeks, he destroyed the crops of the Indians and forty of their villages. 

Siege of Savannah. — The American army, under General Lincoln, aided by 
the P'rench fleet, under the Count D'Estaing, commenced to besiege the English at 
Savannah, on the 23d of September, 1 779. A heavy assault upon the British 
works, on the 9th of October, was repulsed, after five hours of fighting, in which the 
Americans and French lost 1,000 men; the brave Pole, Count Pulaski, being among 
the slain. D'Estaing sailed with his fleet to the West Indies, and Lincoln was 
obliged to raise the siege and retreat to Charleston. 

John Paul Jones' Great Naval Victory off the Coast of England. — On 
the 23d of September, 1779, the Bonhomme Richard, an American vessel, com- 
m.anded by John Paul Jones, gained a brilliant victory off Flamborough Head, on 
the eastern coast of England, over the English vessel Serapis, after a bloody fight 
of several hours. The 6>rrt/?j- surrendered; and the Bonhofntne Richard was so 
much injured that she sunk sixteen hours after the engagement. 

War between England and Spain. — Another power was now added to the 
enemies of England. With the hope of recovering the rock of Gibraltar, Spain 
declared war against Great Britain, in June, 1779. A combined French and Span- 
ish armament attempted an invasion of England, in August, and a united Fieuib 
an I Spanish naval foi ce laid siege to Gibraltar. 



UNITED STATES. ^yj 

EVENTS OF 1780. 

Clinton's Expedition against Charleston — Siege and Fall of Charleston. 

— At the close of 1779, Sir Henry Clinton sailed, with 5,000 troops, in Admiral 
Arbuthnot's fleet, from New York, for Charleston, South Carolina, which city was 
then garrisoned by the American army under General Lincoln. On the glh of 
April, 1780, Arbuthnot, with the British fleet, passed up Charleston harljor, and both 
lie and Clinton, who landed troops on the islands below Charleston, laid siege to the 
;ity. On the 14th of April, a party of Americans, under Colonel Huger, was 
defeated by the British cavalry, under Colonel Tarleton, at Monk's Corner, seme 
distance north from the city. After the siege had lasted a month, and after the city 
ha ^, suffered heavy bombardments and been on fire in many places, Lincoln sur- 
rendered Charleston, together with his army and many citizens, 6,000 in number, 
and 400 pieces of cannon, to Clinton, on the 12th of May, 1780. 'Early in the 
following month, Clinton sailed with the greater part of the British army for New 
York, leaving Lord Cornwallis with a small force to complete the subjugation of 
the Southern States. 

British Occupation of South Carolina — Guerrilla Warfare. — Already 
Cornwallis had marched up the Santee to Camden; Lieutenant-Colonel Cruger, 
with a small British force, marched to, and garrisoned, Fort Ninety-Six; and Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Smith, with another British detachment, marched to, and gaixisoned, 
the town of Augusta, in Georgia. At the Waxaw Creek, the British cavalry, under 
Colonel Tarleton, captured and massacred a small force of American infantry, under 
Colonel Buford. All of South Carolina was now at the mercy of the British; and 
Cornwallis prepared for the reestablishment of royal authority in that State. Soon, 
however, when it was known that General Horatio Gates was advancing sotith- 
ward with an American army, for the aid of the patriots of the Carolinas, guerrilla 
leaders, like Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, Andrew Pickens, and George Rogers 
Clarke, appeared in the field, at the head of small detachments, falling upon and 
annoying bands of British and Tories. Sumter was repulsed at Rocky Mount, on 
the 30th of July; but he afterwards almost annihilated Tarleton's cavalry at 
Hanging Rock. 

Gates in South Carolina — Battle of Sanders' Creek — Sumter's Defeat 
— In August, 1780, the American army under General Gates entered South Caro- 
lina from the North. Oi*. the l6th of that month, Gates's army was thoroughly 
defeated and dispersed by the British forces under Lords Cornwallis and Rawdon, 
in the battle of Sanders' Creek, near Camden. The Americans lost 1,000 men, 
the brave Baron De Kalb being among the slain; and General Gates fled to Char- 
lotte, North Carolina. Two days after the defeat of Gates, Colonel Sumter's force 
«-:is almost broken up by the British cavalry imder Colonel Tarleton, on Fishing 
Creek. These American misfortunes again prostrated South Carolina at the feet 
»if the eneniy. 

Tyranny of Lord Cornwallis— Battle of King's Mountain. — C'ornwallis 
attempted to restore British authority in South Carolina by harsh measures; but his 
tyranny pi'evented a reconciliation, and inflamed the patriots with deadly hatred of 
English rule. On the 7th of October (1780), a body of 1,500 Tory militia, under 
Major Patrick Ferguson, was completely defeated by backwoods patriots, under 



472 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Colonels Cxxfupbell, Shelby, Cleveland, Sevier, Winston, McDowell, and Williams, 
on King's Mountain, in the north-western part of South Carolina, the patriots 
taking 800 prisoners and 1,500 stand of arms, and Major Ferguson being among 
the slain. The activity of the guerrilla leaders. Colonels Sumter, Marion, Pickens, 
and Clarke, alarmed Cornwallis, and caused him to retire from Nor'h Carolina, 
which State he had just invaded, and to return to South Carolina. 

Invasion of New Jersey — Arrival of a French Fleet and Army. — In 
June, 17S0, a British force of 5,000 men, under General Matthews, invaded New 
Jersey, from New York city. After being defeated in a skirmish at Springfield, by 
the Americans under General Nathaniel Greene, the invaders again retired from 
New Jersey, and returned to New York. At the close of 1780, a French fleet, 
under Admiral de Ternay, carrying 6,000 French land troops, under the Count de 
Rochambeau, landed at Newport, Rhode Island. 

Treason of Benedict Arnold — Capture and Execution of Major Andre. 
— While General Washington was in New England, conferring with the French 
officers, General Benedict Arnold was bargaining with Sir Henry Clinton, for the 
surrender of the important post of West Point, on the Hudson river, into the hands 
of the enemy. Arnold, who had incurred vast debts by his extravagance, had been 
charged by the Congress with fraudulent transactions while military governor in 
Philadelphia. As a punishment, the Congress sentenced him to a reprimand from 
Washington. Arnold determined to have revenge by plotting treason against his 
country and aiding its enemies. His correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton was 
carried on through the young and accomplished Major John Andre, Clinton's adju- 
tant-general. The treasonable correspondence between Arnold and Clinton had 
been carried on fbr more than a year, when, in September, 1780, Arnold and Andre 
met personally for the first time, at Haverstraw, on the West side of the Hudsop 
river. When their bargain was closed. Major Andre prepared to return to Clinton's 
headquarters, at New York. On his way, Andre was stopped and made a prisoner 
by three young American militia-men; and on the 2d of October (1780), he was 
hanged as a spy by the Americans. Arnold succeeded in making his escape to the 
enemy; and he received a commission of brigadier-general in the British army, 
and 50,000 dollars as a reward for his treason to his country. 

War between England and Holland — " Armed Neutrality." — When 
it became known to the British Ministry that a secret commercial treaty had been 
concluded between Holland and the United States, the British Parliament declared 
war against Holland, on the 20th of December, 1780. Thus England had now to 
contend, without any assistance, against France, Spain, Holland, and her rebellious 
colonies in North America. At about the same time, the Empress Catharine II. 
of Russia induced the Governments of Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Germany, and 
Portugal, to unite with her in a maritime alliance, called "The Armed Neutrality," 
The alleged object of this powerful league was the f efense of the neutral powei"* 
against the right of search claimed by England; but its real object was to deprive 
Great Britain of her maritime superiority. 

EVENTS OF 1781. 

Mutiny of Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops. — On the ist of January, 
1781, about 1,300 Pennsylvania troops left Washington's camp at Morrislown, New 



UNITED STATES. 473 

Jersey and marched toward Philadelphia, for the purpose of compelling the Con- 
gress to provide che soldiers with pay and clothing, which duty had long been 
neglected. When the mutineers arrived at Princeton, British emissaries sent by 
General Clinton tried to bribe them to enter the king's service; but the mutineers, 
indignant at the implied doubt of their patriotism and devotion to the cause of free- 
dom, handed the emissaries over to General Wayne for punishment as spies. At 
Princeton, the mutineers were also met by a committee from the Congress, promis- 
ing that that body would provide for their necessities as soon as they returned I0 
fluty. The Pennsylvania mutineers accepted the promise and returned to camp. 
On the iSth of the same month (January, 1 781,) some of the New Jersey troops 
at Pompton, in the same State, also mutinied; but this disorder was suppressed by 
militaiy force, and six of the ringleaders were hanged as a punishment for their 
mutiny. 

Arnold's Invasion of Virginia. — Early in January, 1781, Arnold the traitor, 
with 1,600 English and Tories, invaded Virginia, went up the James river, and 
destroyed much property at Richmond. In March, General Lafayettte was sent, 
with 1,200 Americans, to oppose Arnold's further advance in Virginia; but the 
traitor was soon reinforced by 2,000 English troops under General Phillips, when 
he went up the James river on another marauding expedition. Soon afterward, 
Arnold left Virginia, and Phillips died at Petersburg. 

General Greene in South Carolina — Battle of Cowpens — Greene's 
Retreat. — The Southern States were the chief theatre of war in 1781. General 
Nathaniel Greene was entrusted with the command of the American armies in the 
South, at the close of 1780. On the 17th of January, 1781, a part of Greene's army, 
under General Daniel Morgan, defeated Tarleton's cavahy, in the battle of the 
Cowpens, in the north-western part of South Carolina, on which occasion Colonels 
William A. Washington, of Virginia, and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, be- 
haved very gallantly. After the battle, Morgan retreated toward Virginia with his 
500 prisoners, and was pursued by the British army under Lord Cornwall is. Greene 
soon joined Morgan, and the whole American army made a safe retreat across 
North Carolina, into Virginia. After the Americans had crossed the Dan river, 
Cornwallis, greatly dispirited, gave up the pursuit, and took post at Hillsborough, 
in North Carolina. 

Battle of Guilford Court-House— Battle of Hobkirk's Hill. — After a short 
rest in Virginia, Greene marched into North Carolina, to oppose Cornwallis. A 
bloody battle was fought at Guilford Court-House, near Hillsborough, on the 15th 
of March, 178 1. Greene was driven from the field, but the army of Cornwallis 
suffered severely, and after the battle, it retired to Wilmington, on the Cape Fear 
river. After the battle of Guilford Court-House, Greene advanced into South 
Carolina, to oppose the Britisli under Lord Rawdon. On the 19th of April, Greene 
wa"; defeated by Rawdon, in the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden. Aliout 
the middle of May (1781), four important military posts in South Carolina fell ii-to 
the hands of the Americans. 

Siege of Fort Ninety-Six— Siege and Capture of Augusta.— On tne 22d 

of May (17S1), Greene laid siege to Fort Ninety-Six. After vainly attempting for 
nearly a month to take the fort, Greene relinquished the siege and retired from the 
place, on the 19th of Jrne, and marched to the High Flills of Santee. American 



474 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

troops, under Colonels Pickens, Clarke, and Henry Lee, captured Augusta, in 
Georgia, on the 5th of June, 1781, after a siege of twelve days. 

High Hills of Santee— Battle of Eutaw Springs— British Posts.— 
During the summer of 1781, Greene encamped on the High Hills of Santee. On 
die 8th of September, he fought with the English under Colonel Stuart, the battle 
of Eutaw Springs. Greene was driven from his position, but during the night, the 
British fled to Charleston, and the American army reoccupied the battle-field. The 
American guerrilla parties, under Colonels Marion, Sumter, and Heniy Lee, coii. 
lined the enemy to tne sea-board; so that at the close of 1 78 1, Charleston auvi 
Savannah were the only posts held by the British south of New York. 

Lord Cornwallis in Virginia— Fortification of Yorktown. — Lord Corn- 
wallis left Wilmington, North Carolina, on the 25th of April, 1 781, and arrived at 
Petersburg, Virginia, on the 20th of May, where he took command of the troops of 
the deceased General Phillips. Cornwallis moved beyond Richmond, destroying 
a vast amount of property, but he was compelled to retire before the Americans 
under General Wayne, Lafayette, and Baron Steuben. Soon afterward, Cornwallis 
retired to the sea-coast and fortified Yorktown, on the York river, near its mouth. 

The Allied Armies — Arnold in Connecticut — Washington's March for 
Virginia. — Early in July, 1781, Washington's army was reinforced by French 
troops under the Count de Rochambeau ; and an attempt was about to be made to 
expel the English army, under Sir Henry Clinton, from New York city ; but when 
Clinton was reinforced by 3,000 fresh troops from England, Washington resolved 
to march into Virginia, for the purpose of driving the British under Cornwallis from 
that State. After Washington had marched through New Jersey, Clinton sent the 
traitor Arnold on a plundering expedition into Connecticut, for the purpose of in- 
ducing Washington to turn back. Although Arnold burned New London, and 
massacred the American garrison under Colonel Ledyard, at Fort Griswold, Wash- 
ington continued his march for Virginia. 

Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — -Clinton's Movements.— 
On the 2Sth of September, 1 781, the allied American and French armies, under Gen- 
eral Washington and the Count de Rochambeau, appeared before Yorktown. The 
Count de Grasse, with a powerful French fleet, arrived in the mouth of the York 
river, from the West Indies. A vigorous siege of the English works was soon 
commenced. The besiegers opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works on 
the 9th of October, and two of the British redoubts were captured by American and 
French storming parties under Lafayette. Reduced to great extremities, (>om- 
wallis attempted to escape, on the l6th, with his army, and join Clinton at New 
York, but was prevented from so doing by a terrific storm; and three days after- 
ward (October 19, 1781), he surrendered Yorktown and his entire army of 7,000 
men to General Washington, and his shipping to the Count de Grasse. A few da3's 
after the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton appeared at the moutL 
of the Chesapeake bay, with 7,000 English troops, to assist Cornwallis; but, being 
too late, he soon returned to New York, astonished and chagnned. Washington'* 
army returned to the Hudson, while the French troops passed the winter in Vir- 
ginia. The capture of Cornwallis was hailed by the Americans as a harbinger of 
peace. 



UNITED STATES. 475 

EVENTS OF 1782 AND 1783. 

The Peace Party in England — End of Lord North's Administration.— 

Intelligence of the surrender of Cornwallis struck terror and amazement into the 
hearts of Lord North and his supporters in the British Parliament. The English 
people were now fully convinced of the utter impossibility of restoring England's 
colonial empire in North America. Lord North and his Cabinet were obliged to 
resign, and a new Ministry, headed by the Marquis of Rockingham, came into 
power, and took measures for the restoration of peace. On the 4th of March, 1782, 
Ihe British House of Commons resolved to end the war in America, and orders 
were sent to the British commanders to cease from hostilities against the Americaits. 

Preliminary Peace of Paris — Definitive Peace of Paris. — On the 30th 
of November, 1782, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by English 
and American commissioners; and on the 20th of January, 1783, French and 
English commissioners also signed a preliminary treaty. A definitive^ treaty of 
peace was concluded at Paris, on the 3d of September, 1783, by British and Amer- 
ican commissioners, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of 
the United States, to which all the country south of the Great Lakes and east of 
the Mississippi, as far south as the Spanish possessions on the Gulf of Mexico, was 
ceded. On the same day, definitive treaties of peace were concluded between 
England, France, Spain, and Holland; and the United States took its place as an 
acknowledged power among the nations of the earth. 

British Evacuation of America — American Army Disbanded — Wash- 
ington's Resignation. — The British evacuated Savannah on the nth of July, 
17S2, Charleston on the 14th of December of the same year, and New York, on the 
25th of November, 1783. On the 3d of November, 1783, the American army was 
disbanded, and the American soldiers returned to their homes, to enjoy the freedom 
which their valor had won, and to receive the grateful benedictions of their country- 
men. After an affectionate parting with his officers in New York City, on the 4th 
of December, Washington proceeded to Annapolis, in Maryland, where the Con- 
gress was in session; and on the 23d of December (1783), he resigned, into the 
hands of that body, his commission of commander-in-chief of the armies of the 
United States ; after which he returned to his farm at Mount Vernon, on the banks 
of the Potomac, carrying with him the esteem and giatitude of his countrymen, and 
the admiration of the world. Thus Washington, like Cincinnatus, after delivering 
his country from its enemies, returned to private life, 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Weakness of the General Government of the United States after the 
War. — When the War of American Independence was ended, and external dan- 
gers had passed away, the Americans perceived that the Articles of Confederation 
allowed the exercise of too much sovereign and independent power by the States, 
and too little by the Congress, thus preventing a Union of States sufficiently strong 
to entitle the American people to the character or rank of a nation. The Congress 
had no power to dispose of the immense foreign and domestic debt with which the 



476 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

country was burdened; and the States, all financially exhausted by the war, found 
it exti'emely difficult to provide means for the payment of the soldiers of the Revo- 
lution. 

The Constitutional Convention — Framing of the National Constitu- 
tion. — In May, 1787, delegates from all the United States, except Rhode Island, 
assembled in convention, in the State House, in Philadelphia, with General Wash- 
ington as president, for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation, so 
IS to give greater powers to the General Government. Convinced of the utter 
lefects of the Articles of Confederation, the Convention abandoned its former pur- 
pose of amending them, and applied itself to the task of framing an entirely new 
instrument. The Convention was impressed with the conviction that a centraliza- 
tion of greater power in the General Government was essential to the public wel- 
fare; and, in September, 1787, after four months secret deliberation and much con- 
tention, many conflicting opinions and interests having to be reconciled, and the 
Convention at one time seeming about to dissolve without accomplishing its grand 
object, the National Constitution, under which the United States has ever since 
been governed, was framed, and the Convention submitted the instrument to the 
States for ratification, 

THE CONSTITUTION. 

Three -fold Powers of Government. — The National Constitution invests the 
Government of the United States with three-fold powers, — legislative, executive, 
and judicial, — each of which is independent in its own sphere, and each is a coor- 
dinate branch of the General Government. The legislative power is to enact laws; 
the executive power to execute them; and the judicial power to interpret them. 

The Legislative Power — The Senate and House of Representatives. — 
The Constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of the United States, 
which consists of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The 
House of Representatives, or Lower House, consists of members chosen for two 
years by the people of the several States, the Representatives to be apportioned 
according to the population, which is ascertaiued every ten years. The Senate, or 
Upper House, consists of two members from each State, chosen for six years, by the 
Legislatures of the States. The States retained the power of domestic legislation; 
but the Congress is invested with the power to declare war; to raise and support 
armies; to levy and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises; to coin money; to 
establish post-offices and post-roads; to provide and maintain a navy; to call out the 
militia for the purpose of suppressing insurrection and repelling invasion; to admit 
new States into the Union; and to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regu- 
lations respecting the territory and other public property of the United States. All 
bills for raising the revenue originate in the House of Representatives, and that 
branch of the Congress has the sole power of impeachment; but the Senate has 
the sole power to try all impeachments, and to confirm all ti eaties and all executive 
ippointments. 

The Executive Power — The President and Vice-President. — The Con- 
stitution vests the executive power in a President of the United States, who, with 
the Vice-President, is chosen for a term of four years, by Electors, equal in number 
for each State to all its Senators and Representatives in the National Congress No 



UNITED STATES. /^-j-j 

bill passed by the Congress can become a law without the President's signature, 
unless repassed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of that body. The President 
IS also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. Pie must 
be a native-born citizen; and, before he can enter upon the duties-of his office, he 
nrist solemnly swear, or affirm, that he will faithfully execute the office of President 
of the United States, and will, to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend 
the Constitution of the United States. The President has the power, by and with 
the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, and to appoint ambassadois 
and other public ministers and consuls. Judges of the Supreme Court,, and othet 
officers of the United States. The duty of the Vice-President is to preside over the 
Senate of the United States, but he is allowed no vote unless the Senate is equally 
divided, in which case he must give the casting vote; and in case of the death, 
resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President must perf®rm the duties 
of President of the United States. 

The Judicial Power — The Supreme Court and Inferior Courts. — The 
Constitution vests the judicial power in a Supreme Court of the United States, con- 
sisting of a Chief-Justice and several Associate-Justices, and in such inferior courts 
as the Congi-ess may establish. The judges of both the supreme and inferior courts 
nold their offices during good behavior. The judicial power of the United States 
extends to all cases arising "under the Constitution and laws of the United States, 
and treaties made with foreign powers; to all cases of maratime jurisdiction; to all 
controversies to which the United States is a party; to all controversies between 
States; between citizens of different States; between a State and citizens of another 
State; between a State, or its citizens, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 

Various Provisions of the Constitution. — The Constitution defines treason 
against the United States to consist in levying war against them, or in adhering to 
their enemies; and it provides for the removal of the President and all other civil 
officers of the United States, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, 
and other misdemeanors. Provision is also made for the amendment of the Con- 
stitution; and for guaranteeing to every State of the Union a republican form of 
government, and for the protection of each against invasion or domestic violence 
The Constitution is the Supreme Law of the Land, and all civil officers of the 
United States, and of the several States, are bound thereby. 

ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Opposition to the Constitution. — The National Constitution was to go into 
effect as the Organic Law of the Republic upon its ratification by conventions of 
the people in nine States. The new instrument met with violent opposition from 
a large portion of the American people, and two parties were quickly formed upon 
the question of its adoption or rejection. Those in favor of its adoption were called 
Federalists, and those opposed to such action were designated Anti-Federalists, 
Some of the States very reluctantly yielded their assent to the new instrument, and 
some of the greatest men in America, such as Thomas JefTerson and Patrick Henry, 
of Virginia, were strenuously opposed to its adoption, because it deprived the States 
of too many of their former rights, and centralized too much power in the National 
Government; but the articles in "The Federalist" in favor of its adoption, written 
by Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, of New York, and James Madison, of Virginia, 
had a powerful effect upon the public mind. 



47S CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Ratification and Adoption of the Constitution — Expiration of the Con- 
tinental Congress. — After much opposition, the Constitution was finally ratified 
in 1788, by the conventions in eleven States, whereupon it became the Supreme 
Law of the American Republic ; and on the 4th of March, 1 789, the old Contmental 
Congress expired, and the new National Government went into full operation. 
Then the Republic of the United States of America commenced its glorious career. 



THE GROWING AMERICAN UNION. 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 30, 1789— 
MARCH 4, 1797). 

Organization of the Government under the National Constitution. — 
After the National Constitution, by receiving the approval of the people of the requi- 
site number of States, had become the Supreme Law of the land, George Washing- 
ton was chosen, by the unanimous vote of the Electors, the first President of the 
United States, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. The 
inauguration of Washington took place, on the 30th of April, 1789, in New York 
City, in the presence of an immense body of spectators. The First Congress under 
the new Constitution established three Executive Departments, — War, Treasury, 
and Foreign Affairs, — the heads of which were to be styled Secretaries, instead of 
Ministers, as in other countries, and who were to constitute the President's Cabinet, 
and could be appointed and dismissed at his pleasure. .A national judiciary was 
established, consisting of a Supreme Court, having a Chief Justice and several 
Associate Justices; also Circuit and District Courts, which had jurisdiction over 
certain specified cases. Henry Knox was appointed Secretary of War; Alexander 
Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign 
Affairs. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. 

Financial Measures — National Bank and Mint. — During the second ses- 
sion of the First Congress, early in 1790, on the recommendation of Mr. Hamilton, 
Secretary of the Treasury, the National Government assumed the public debt con- 
tracted during the War of the Revolution; also the debts which the several States 
had incurred during the same period. Congress, during this session, passed an act 
to remove the seat of the National Government from 'New York to Philadelphia, 
where it should continue until the expiration of ten years from that date, when it 
should be removed to a suitable place on the Potomac. Agreeably to the recom- 
mendation of Mr. Hamilton, Congress, during its third session, in 1791, authorized 
the establishment of a national bank and a mint for coinage, both of which were 
located at Philadelphia. 

Admission of Vermont and Kentucky — Settlements in the West. — 
A.lready Rhode Island and North Carolina had become members of the Union, by 
adr^pting the National Constitution; and the number of States was further mcrefised 
by the admission of Vermont, in February, 1791, and Kentucky, in June, 1792, into 
the Union. I'he vast wilderness west of the Alleghany mountains, which was 
embraced in the North-west Territory and the Territory South-west of the Ohio, was 
already becoming peopled. 



UNITED STATES. 



479 



Indian War in the West. — In the summer of 1790, the Indians north-west 
of the Ohio, encouraged by British emissaries, began a war against the United 
States. After vainly attempting to secure peace, the President sent General 
Harmer with a consideral)le force against the Indians. In Octoi^er, 1790, Harmer 
was severely defeated by the Indians, in two battles, near the present town of Fort 
Wayne, in Indiana. A year later, General St. Clair, Governor of the North-west 
Territory, marched against the Indians, but was defeated on the 4th of November, 
1791. and driven back with the loss of 600 men. General Wayne, who succeeded 
St. Clair, defeated the Indians so badly, on the 20th of August, 1794, near the 
present Maumee City, Ohio, that they humbly sued for peace. In August, 1795. 
a treaty was concluded at Greenville, by which the Indians ceded to the United 
States a vast extent of territory. From this time until the commencement of the 
war of 1 81 2 with Great Britain, the North-western Indians lived at p^ace with the 
United States. 

Federalists and Republicans — Washington Re-elected. — Before the 
second Presidental election took place, in the fall of 1792, two political parties had 
been organized. The one, called the Republican or Democratic party, headed by 
Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Sate, advocated the distribution of power among the 
States and the people. The other, called the Federalist party, headed by Alex- 
ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, advocated the concentration of great 
power in the National Government. In the election of 1792, Washington was 
again the unanimous choice of the Electors for the office of President of the Repub- 
lic, and John Adams was reelected Vice-President. 

Troubles with the French Minister. — The Republican party sympathized 
with the Revolutionaiy party in France, which had executed King Louis XVI., 
abolished monarchy, and established the political equality of all classes in that 
country. The French Republic sent as its minister to the United States, M. Genet, 
who, soon after his arrival in America, fitted out privateers in American ports to 
prey upon the commerce of England, Spain, and Holland, against which countries. 
Republican France had declared war. ^Vhen Washington, anxious to keep the 
United States free from the complications of European politics, issued a proclama- 
tion of neutrality, declaring it to be the duty and the interest of the people of the 
United States to observe a perfectly neutral attitude in regard to the European 
struggle, Genet tried to arouse the American people agamst their Government; but, 
at the request of Washington, the French Republic recalled its imprudent minister, 
and sent M. Fouchet in his place. 

Whisky Insurrection. — In 1791, Congress passed an act imposing heavy 
duties upon liquors distilled in the United States. This measure was very unpop- 
ular, and, in 1794, the people of Western Pennsylvania rose in arms, resisted tlie 
Government officers sent to collect the tax, robbed mails, and committed many 
othei outrages. After issuing two proclamations ordering the insurgents to lay 
down their arms and obey the laws, the President sent General Heniy Lee, of 
Virginia, with a military force sufficient to quell the insurrection. The insurgents 
immediately submitted, and quiet was restored. This rebellion is known in histciy 
as "The Whisky Insun-ection." 

Difficulties with Great Britain — ^Jay's Treaty. — Unfriendly relations be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain thieatened to end in war, in 1794. The 



48o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

•United States accused Great Britain of violating the treaty of 1783, by retaining 
passession of military posts in the North-West Territor)% and by withholding in- 
demnification for negroes carried away at the close of the Revolution; and com 
plaint was also made that British emissaries had excited the Indians of the North- 
West to hostilities against the American people, that to retaliate on France 
American vessels had been seized by British cruisers, and that American seamen 
had been impressed into the British naval service. Great Britain complaine 1 that 
tlie United States did not comply with treaty stipulations respecting the property of 
Tories, and also in relation to the recovery of debts contracted in England before 
the Revolution. To settle these difficulties, John Jay was appointed a special envoy 
to Great Britain. He negotiated a treaty which was violently opposed in the 
United Sta*.s but it was finally ratified by the United States Senate, on the 24lh 
of June, 1794. 

Algerine Pirates. — For several years, American commerce in the Mediterra- 
nean sea had suffered from the depredations of Algerine pirates, who seized the 
merchandise, and held the seamen as slaves, for the purpose of obtaining ransom 
money. To put a stop to these outrages, Congress, in 1794, made appropriations 
for the organization of a navy. In 1795, the United States was obliged to make a 
treaty of peace with the Dey of Algiers, by which an annual tribute was to be paid 
for the liberation of captive American seamen. 

Admission of Tennessee — Election of John Adams. — In June, 1796, Ten- 
nessee was admitted into the Union of States. The Presidential campaign of 1796 
was an exciting one. The candidate of the Federalists was John Adams, and the 
nominee of the Republicans was Thomas Jeffei'son. Adams was elected President 
and Jefferson was chosen Vice-President. 

JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1797- 
MARCH 4, 1801). 

Adams' Inauguration — Difficulties with France. — Mr. Adams was inaugu- 
rated on the 4th of March, 1797, as second President of the United States. On 
account of the unfriendly character of the relations between the United States and 
France, the President summoned Congress to meet in extra session on the 15th of 
May following. In July (1797), Congress appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinck- 
ney, John Marshall, and Ell^ridge Gen-y envoys to France for the adjustment of 
all difficulties. The French Government refused to receive them until they should 
pay a large sum of money into the French treasury. This insolent demand was 
refused with indignation; and two of the envoys, Messrs Pinckney and Marshall, 
who were Federalists, were ordered to leave France, while Mr. Gerry, who was a 
Republican, was permitted to remain. 

Preparations for War with France. — The year 1798 was signalized by pre- 
parations, on the part of the United States, for war with the French Republic. In 
May of that year, a large provisional army was authorized; and Washington wa« 
appointed commander-in-chief. A small naval armament was raised, and hostih'ties 
were begun on the ocean. The American schooner Retaliation was captured by 
the French frigate Iiisiirgente, but the latter was afterwards captured by the Ameri- 
can frigate Constellation, commanded by Commodore Truxtun. The firm course 



UNITED STATES. 



481 



pursued by the United States Government, caused the French Directory to propose 
a settlement of all difficulties between the two nations. The President sent three 
envoys, who, late in 1799, concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon Bonaparte, 
who had a short time previous overthrown the Directory, and made himself ruler 
of France, with the title of First Consul. 

Alien and Sedition Laws — Virginia and Kentucky Resolution^. — The 
Federalist party was greatly weakened by the passage of two extremely ur.jxjpulai 
icts by Congress, and their approval by President Adams. These were the Alien 
and Sedition Laws. The Alien Law authorized the President to expel from the 
United States any alien whose presence he might deem dangerous to the Republic, 
The Sedition Law authorized the suppression of publications which tended tc 
weaken the authority of the National Government. The Legislatures of Virginia 
and Kentucky asserted the dangerous doctrine of State Rights, by passing, in 
opposition to the Alien and Sedition Laws, resolutions in which they declared the 
rights of the States to judge how far the National Government had a right to go* 

Death of Washington — Seat of Government at Washington City. — 
At the close of 1799, the Nation was called upon to mourn the loss of the illustrious 
Washington, who died at Mt. Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. In the 
summer of 1800, the seat of the Government of the United States was removed 
from Philadelphia to the new city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. 

Election of Jefferson. — In 1800, the Federalists nominated John Adams and 
Charles Cotesworth Pinakney for the Presidency, while the Republicans nommated 
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. This time the Republican party was success- 
ful; but, as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes, the election was 
carried to the House of Representatives, when, after thirty-five ballotings, Jefferson 
was chosen President, and Burr was declared to be elected Vice President. 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1801- 
MARCH 4, 1809). 

Inauguration of Jefferson — Admission of Ohio— Purchase of Louisiana. 

— Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801; and he commenced 
the administration of affairs with great vigor and ability. In 1802, Ohio was ad- 
mitted into the family of States; and in 1803, the United States purchased from 
France, for fifteen millions of dollars, the immense territory of Louisiana, then ex- 
tending from the Mississippi river to the Rocky Mountains, and from the British 
poisessions to the Gulf of Mexico. 

War with Tripoli — Decatur's Bold Exploit — Eaton and Hamet's Ex- 
pedition. — The insolent conduct of the piratical Barbary States of Northern Africa 
caused the United States to stop paying tribute to them in 1801, whereupon the 
Bashaw, or ruler of Tripoli, declared war against the United States. The American 
frigate George Washington, under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, 
was sent to the Mediterranean sea, to protect American commerce; and, in 1803, a 
small American squadron, under Commodore Preble, appeared before Tripoli, where 
one of his vessels, the Philadelphia, commanded by Captain William Bainbridge, 
grounded, and was captured by the Tripolitans. In February, 1804, seventy-six 
Americans, with Lieutenant Stephen Decatur at their head, went into the harbor 
31 



482 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

of Tripoli, boarded the Philadelphia, drove the pirates from her deck, and then, 
under a heavy cannonade from the shore, set the vessel on fire. Decatur did not 
lose a single man in this bold exploit. A severe naval battle w^as fought on the 3d 
of August (1804), which resulted in an American victory; and the city of Tripoli 
suffered heavy bombardments from the American squadron. The Bashaw of Tripoli, 
alarmed at the rapid progress of the victors, made peace with Mr. Lear, the Ameri- 
can consul-general on the Mediterranean. (June 4, 1805.) 

Reelection of Jefferson — Aaron Burr's Trial for Treason and Acquittal , 
— In the autumn of 1804, Jefferson was reelected President, and George Clintonj 
of New York, was chosen Vice President. The great South-west was rapidly be- 
coming peopled. In 1806, Aaron Burr, who, by killing Alexander Hamilton in a 
duel, in July, 1804, had come to be detested by a majority of the people of the 
United States, secretly organized a militaiy expedition in the Ohio region, with the 
professed object of establishing an independent empire in Northern Mexico, with 
himself as Emperor. Being suspected of the design of separating the country west 
of the Alleghany mountains from the Union, he was arrested and brought to trial 
on a charge of treason, at Richmond, Virginia, in 1807; but, his guilt not being 
proven, he was acquitted. 

Robert Fulton and Steam Navigation. — The experiments of Robert Fulton, 
a Pennsylvania, in the application of steam to purposes of navigation, resulted in 
success, in a voyage from New York to Albany, in August, 1807. 

Condition of Europe — Napoleon, Emperor. — Em-ope was still convulsed 
by the wars resulting from the French Revolution ; and at this time the gi-eater 
part of Continental Europe was under the control of the powerful and victorious 
Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been created "Emperor of the'French," in 1804. 
While France was triumphant on land, Great Britain, which was engaged in a long 
and fierce war with her old enemy, was undisputed master of the seas. 

American Commerce Injured by France and England. — The measures 
of the two belligerent powers for each other's destruction produced great injury to 
the commerce of the United States. For the purpose of destroying the commerce 
of France, Great Britain, by an order-in-council, declared the coast of Continental 
Europe from the mouth of the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, to be in a 
state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by issuing a decree at Berlin, in November, 
1806, declaring the blockade of the ports of the British Islands. American vessels 
were seized by both English and French cruisers, and American commerce was 
swept from the ocean. In January, 1807, England, by an order-in-council, pro- 
hibited the coast trade with France. The American merchants, whose interests 
were injured by the measures of the two belligerent powers, demanded redress and 
protection ; and great excitement prevailed in the United States. France and Eng- 
land still continued their desperate commercial game, regardless of the rights of 
neutral powers. On the nth of November, 1807, Great Britain, by an order-in- 
council, forbade neutral nations from trading with France or her colonies, unless 
tl.ey first paid tribute to England. In retaliation. Napoleon, by a decree issued 
at Milan, on the 17th of December, 1807, forbade trade with England or her colo- 
nies, and authorized the confiscation of any vessel that had submitted to English 
search 01 paid English tribute. 




ROBERT FULTON. 




SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. 



UN r TED STATES. 



4^3 



Search and Impressment — The Chesapeake and the Leopard. — Great 

Britain, denying that any of her subjects could become citizens or subjects of any 
other nation, claimed the right to search American vessels, and take from them Tier 
native born subjects for her navy. This right was denied by the United States. 
On the 22d of June, 1807, an event occurred which increased the excitement in the 
United States, and created intense indignation against Great Britain. Four men on 
board the American frigate Chesapeake, being claimed as deserters from the British 
armed ship Melampus, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refusing to sur- 
render them, the Chesapeake was attacked by the British frigate Leopard, oif the 
coast of Virginia. Taken completely by surprise, the Chesapeake sun-endered after 
having lost eighteen men killed and wounded. The four men were taken on board 
the Leopard, and the Chesapeake returned to Hampton. The matter was investi- 
gated, when it was proven that three of the seamen were native Ajnericans, and 
that the fourth, after being impressed into the British service, had deserted. 

Embargo and Non-intercourse. — In July, 1807, the President issued a 
proclamation, ordering all British armed vessels to leave the waters of the United 
States, and forbidding any to enter until Great Britain should render full satisfac- 
tion for the outrage upon the Chesapeake ; and, on the 22d of December (1807), 
the National Congress decreed an embargo, which prevented both American and 
foreign vessels from leaving American ports. Because the embargo was very un- 
popular in the United States, especially with the merchants, to whose interests it 
was very injurious, and because it failed to obtain justice from France and England, 
it was repealed on the ist of March, when all commercial intercourse with those 
countries was forbidden, yntil they should either modify or rescind their injurious 
measures. 

Election of Madison. — The Presidential election of 1808 resulted in the 
choice of the Republican candidate, James Madison, of Virginia, for President, 
and the reelection of George Clinton as Vice-President. 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1809- 
MARCH 4, 1817). 

Inauguration of Madison. — Mr. Madison entered upon the duties of President 
of the United States, on the 4th of March, 1809, when the relations of the Repub- 
lic with England and France were of the most unfriendly character. On account 
of the unfavorable aspect of affairs. Congress, at the summons of the President, was 
assembled in extra session on the 22d of May. 

Erskine's Assurances of Peace Fail. — Soon after his inauguration. President 
Madison was assured by Mr. Erskine, the British ambassador at Washington, that 
a special envoy from Great Britain would soon make his appearance in the United 
States, to negotiate for a settlement of all the subjects of dispute between the two 
Governments. Relying upon this assurance, the President proclaimed a renew.il 
of commercial intercourse with England, but the British Government disavowed 
Erskine's act, and the President again proclaimed non-intercourse. 

Continued Injury to American Commerce. — Both France and England 
continued their desperate commercial game for the ruin of each other, regardless 
of the interests of other nations. Great Britain refused to rescind her obnoxious 



484 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

orders-in-counc:l, and Bonaparte firmly adhered to his Berhn and Milan deciees, so 
injurious to American commerce; and American vessels continued to be seized by 
both English and French cruisers. In 1811, Great Britain went so far as to send 
armed vessels to the coast of the United States, to seize American merchant vessels, 
and lake them to England as lawful prizes. 

The President and the Little Belt.— On the i6th of May, 181 1, an event 
occurred which increased the bitter feeling in the United States against England, 
The British sloop-of-war Little Belt, Captain Bingham, was met and hailed by the 
American frigate President, Captain Rodgers, off the coast of Virginia. The Lit- 
tie Belt immediately answered by a cannon-shot. A short engagement ensued; 
and when the Little Belt had thirty-two men killed and wounded, her commander 
gave Captain Rodgers a satisfactory answer. Both Governments approved the 
acts of their respective officers. 

Indian Hostilities — Battle of Tippecanoe. — During the spring of 181 1, the 
Indians of the North-West, led by Tecumseh, a famous Shawnoese chief, and in- 
stigated by British emissaries, began a war against the United States, for the purpose 
of expelling the white people from the country north of the Ohio river. In the 
autumn of the same year, General William Henry HaiTison, Governor of Indiana 
Territoiy, led aljout 2,000 troops up the W^abash river, to the mouth of Tippecanoe 
creek, where the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh, had assembled many Indian 
warriors. The Prophet proposed a conference for peace ; but Harrison, suspecting 
treachery, caused his troops to sleep on their arms that night. (November 6, 1811.) 
Before daylight the next morning, the Indians attacked Harrison's camp, but, after 
a desperate conflict, which lasted until dawn, they were repulsed. This engage- 
ment is known as the battle of Tippecanoe, and it occurred on the 7th of Novem- 
ber, 181 1. 

-WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN— EVENTS OF 1812. 

Declaration of War against Great Britain — Doings of Congress. — All 

efforts made by the United States Govei-nment for a peaceful settlement of the 
difficulties with England having failed, the President of the United States, by 
authority of Congress, issued a proclamation, on the 19th of June, 1812, declaring 
war against Great Britain. The contest which then began is known as " The War 
of 1 81 2." Congress made appropriations for carrying on the war, and authorized 
the President to enlist 25,000 men, to accept the services of 50,000 volunteers, and 
to call out 100,000 militia for the defense of the sea-coast and the frontiers. Gen- 
eral Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed commander-in-chief. The 
other leading generals were James Wilkinson, Wade Hampton, William Hull, and 
Joseph Bloomfield. These officers had all served in the War of the Revolution. 

Invasion of Canada — Hull's Surrender at Detroit. — The war crmmenced 
with an invasion of Canada, from Detroit, in Michigan Territory, in July, 1812, by 
about 2,000 American troops under the command of General William Hull, Gov- 
ernor of Michigan Territory. When informed that Fort Mackinaw, a strong 
American post in the North-west, had been surprised and captured by a party of 
British and Indians, on the 17th of July, and that a small American force under 
Major Van Home had been defeated on the River Raisin, on the 5th of August, 
Hull hastily returned to Detroit. Sir Isaac Brock, at the head of 1,300 British and 



UNITED STATES. 485 

Indikns, pursued Hull, and, appearing before Detroit, demanded the surrender of 
that post and Hull's army, threatening in case of a refusal to allow the Indians the 
unrestrained exercise of their barbarous system of warfare. Hull, greatly alarmed, 
complied with the demand of the British general ; and his army, and the fort at 
Detroit and the Michigan Territory, fell into the hands of the enemy. 

Movements on the Niagara Frontier — Battle of Queenstown. — Aftei 
Hull's surrender at Detroit, the Americans made an attempt to invade Cancuia or 
the Niagara frontier. On the 13th of October (1812), a party of Americans crossed 
the Niagai a river into Canada, to attack the British at Queenstown. The invaders 
captured a battery and made themselves masters of Queenstown Heights; bar 
when the enemy were reinforced by 600 men under Sir Isaac Brock, the British 
commander-in-chief, and when many of the American militia refused to go to the 
relief of their countrymen, the Americans were defeated with the loss of 1,000 men 
in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among those who were taken prisoners by the 
enemy were Colonel Winfield Scott and Captain John Ellis Wool, who had distin- 
tinguished themselves by their gallantry. Among the killed on the side of the 
British was Sir Isaac Brock, their able and heroic commander-in-chief. 

Victories of the American Navy. — The Americans, though defeated on land, 
were successful on the sea. On the 13th of August, 1812, the American frigate 
Essex, Captain David Porter, defeated and captured the British sloop-of-war Alert. 
On the 19th of the same month (August, 1812), the United States frigate Constiitt- 
tion. Captain Isaac Hull, defeated, captured, and burned the British frigate Giier- 
riere, off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the iSth of October (1812), the United 
States sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, compelled the British brig Frolu 
to surrender, after a severe conflict, off the coast of North Carolina ; but, in the after- 
noon of the same day, both the Wasp and the Frolic were taken by the British ship 
Poitiers. On the 25th of October, the American frigate United States, Captain 
Stephen Decatur, was captured by the British frigate Macedonin, off the Azores 
Islands. On the 29th of December, the American frigate Constitution, Captain 
William Bainbridge, compelled the British frigate Java to strike her colors, after a 
desperate fight of three hours, off the coast of Brazil. 

Federalist Opposition to the War — Re-election of Madison. — The Fed- 
eralists were violently opposed to the war ; but they failed in their endeavors to 
make it unpopular, as the war spirit of the great majority of the people of the 
United States was fully demonstrated, in the autumn of 1812, by the reelection of 
Madison as President, with Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice President. 

EVENTS OF 1813. 

The American Armies. — The Americans had organized three armies on the 
Canada frontier, for the campaign of 1S13. " The Army of the West," under Gen- 
eral William Hemy Harrison, was near the W^estern end of Lake Erie; "The 
Aimy of the Centre," under General Henry Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, was 
on the Niagara frontier; and " The Army of the North," under Genera) Wade 
Ham;jton, wi>.s near Lake Champlain. 

Massacre of Frenchtown. — The people of the West were resolved to recover 
Michigan Territdry; and so many volunteers from Ohio and Kentucky offered their 



486 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

service:! tha* General Harrison found himself obliged to issue an order against further 
enlistnen's On the loth of January, 1813, General Winchester, with 800 Ken- 
tuckiai -s, reached the Maumee Rapids, and, after a portion of this force had driven 
the British from Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, in Michigan, on the 18th of 
Januaiy, Winchester arrived with the remainder of the troops on the 20th (January, 
1813). General Proctor, with 1500 British and Indians, attacked the Americans at 
Frenchtown, on the 22d of January, and Winchester surrendered, on condition thai 
Lis troops should be protected from the Indians; but J'roctor, in disregard of h^s 
piomise, marched away, leaving the sick and wounded Americans to be masr;acred 
by the Indians. From that-time the war-cry of the Kentuckians was, " Remember 
die River Raisin!" 

Fort Meigs Twice Besieged. — In February, 1813, General Harrison built 
Fort Meigs, at the Maumee Rapids, where he was besieged at the beginning of 
May, 1813, by 2000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, who were 
finally driven away on the 5th of May, when Harrison was reinforced by a body of 
Kentuckians, under General Green Clay. On the 21st of July, 18 13, about 4000 
British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, again besieged Fort Meigs, but 
the garrison, then under the command of General Clay, repulsed the enemy and 
compelled them to retire. 

Attack on Fort Stephenson Repulsed. — After their second repulse before 
Fort Meigs, Proctor and Tecumseh marched against Fort Stephenson, at Lower 
Sandusky, which they attacked on the 2d of August, but the garrison of 150 men, 
under Major Croghan, a gallant officer only twenty-one years of age, bravely resisted 
the assaults of the enemy, who were at last obliged to flee in confusion. 

Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — During the summer, the Americans con- 
structed, at Erie, in Pennsylvania, a squadron of nine vessels, carrying fifty-five 
guns, which they placed under the command of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. 
The British had prepared a squadron of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns, 
commanded by Commodore Barclay. A terrible battle was fought between these 
two squadrons near the West end of Lake Erie, on the loth of September, 1813. 
Each squadron had about 500 men. During the battle, which began about noon. 
Perry was obliged to abandon his flag-ship, the Lawrence, and to transfer his flag 
to another ship, in the midst of a severe fire from the enemy. Such terrible broad- 
sides were poured upon the enemy's fleet, that at four o'clock in the afternoon, 
eveiy British vessel had surrendered to Perry. Perry's dispatch to General Harrison 
was, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

Canada again Invaded^Battle of the Thames— End of the War in the 
West. — After the victory, on Lake Erie, Perry's fleet conveyed General Harrison 
and his army across the Lake to Canada. Harrison advanced upon Fort Maiden, 
which he found deserted. He pursued and overtook the fleeing British and Indi- 
ans, under Proctor and Tecumseh, and, at the Moravian Town, on the Thames, he 
anr.ihilated the whole force of the enemy, on the 5th of October (1813). Tecumseh 
wf>^ among the killed. The consequences of this brilliant victory were the recovery 
of Michigan and the termination of the war in the North-west. 

Capture of York or Toronto. — On the 27th of April (1813), General Dear- 
born, after being conveyed across Lake Ontario in Commodore Chauncey's fleet. 



UNITED STATES. 



487 



landed with 1 700 troops at York, now Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, and 
an important depot of British supplies. The place was immediately abandoned by 
the enemy, who blew up their magazine, thus killing 200 Americans, among whom 
was the gallant General Zebulon N. Pike, who led the troops against the town. 

Capture of Fort George — Battle of Stony Creek. — On the 27th of May, 
the army under Dearborn and the fleet under Chauncey attacked the British at Fort 
George, in Canada, at the mouth of the Niagara river, and drove them westward 
fcir many miles. On the night of the 6tli of June, the enemy were repulsed in a 
sudden attack upon the pursuing Americans, at Stony Creek; but Generals Chandlei 
and Winder, the American commanders, were taken prisoners. 

Battle of Sackett's Harbor— Battle of Chrysler's Field. — On the 29th of 
May, 1813, Sir George Prevost, with 1000 British soldiers, landed at Sackett's Harbor, 
but they were repulsed in an attack upon the town, by the American militia, under 
General Jacob Brown, and compelled to return hastily to their ships. In August, 
Dearborn was succeeded in command by General James Wilkinson, who, with 7000 
troops, went down the St. Lawrence in boats, early in November, for the purpose 
of attacking Montreal. Wilkinson landed troops near Williamsburg, on the Canada 
shore of the St. Lawrence, a little below Ogdensburg, when an indecisive action, 
known as " The Battle of Chrysler's Field," was fought with the enemy, on the nth 
of November (1813). Wilkinson proceeded farther down the river; but when 
General Wade Hampton refused to cooperate with him, he relinquished his inten- 
tion of attacking Montreal, and went into winter-quarters at French Mills. 

Desolation of the Niagara Frontier.— General George McClure, who then 
commanded American troops on the Niagara frontier, was so hard pressed by the 
enemy that he destroyed Fort George, and the neighboring village of Newark, on 
the loth of December, 1813 ; and on the 12th, he fled to Fort Niagara, on the New 
York side of the Niagara river. The British and Indians crossed the river, cap- 
tured Fort Niagara on the 29th of December, and laid six towns, including Buffalo, 
in ashes. 

War with the Creek Indians — Subjugation of the Indians. — In the 
meantime, trouble had arisen in the South, where the Creek Indians, instigated by 
Tecumseh, had commenced a fierce war against the white people. On the 30th 
of August, 1813, the Creeks surprised and destroyed Fort Mimms, on the Alabama 
river, and put to death 400 men, women, and children, who had sought refuge 
within its walls. This atrocious deed aroused the indignation of the white people; 
and General Andrew Jackson marched into the Creek country, at the head of 2000 
men, chiefly Tennesseeans, and, in a series of coiiflicts, beginning in the early part 
of November, 1813, and ending with the battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, 
al the close of March, 1814, the Creeks were so thoroughly defeated, and their 
power was so completely broken, that they were compelled to accept a humiliating 
peace. 

The War on the Ocean. — The ocean was the theatre of desperate engage 
(oents in 1813. On the 24th of February, the American sloop-of-war Hornets 
(japtain James Lawrence, captui ed the British brig Peacock, off the coast of Jamaica 
after a sharp action of fifteen minutes. The Peacock sunk soon after the fight, 
carrying with her to the bottom of the sea nine British and three American seamen. 



488 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Captain Lawrence, soon after his return to the United States, was promoted to the 
command of the frigate Chesapeake ; and on the 1st of June, he was defeated and 
killed, after a bloody struggle of fifteen minutes with the British frigate Shannon, 
off Boston harbor. Forty-eight of the officers and crew of the Chesapeake were 
killed, and ninety-eight wounded. As the heroic Lawrence was carried below, he 
exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship!" The American brig Argus, Captain Allen, 
after capturing many British vessels off the English coast, was herself captured, on 
the 14th of August, 1813, by the British brig Pelican. On the 5th of September, 
1813, the American brig Enterpj-ise, Lieutenant Bun-ows, captured the British brig 
Boxer, off Portland, Maine. The commanders of both vessels were killed, and 
their remains were interred, with militaiy honors, in one grave, in Portland. 

Cockburn's Depredations on the Atlantic Coast. — During the spring and 
summer of 1 813, Lewistown, on Delaware bay, and Havre de Grace, Frenchtown, 
Fredericktown, and Georgetown, on Chesapeake bay, were plundered and burnfd 
by a British squadron, under the command of the infamous Admiral Cockburn, 
After being repulsed in attacks upon Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, in June, 
1813, and after committing great outrages at Hampton, Cockburn carried many 
negroes away from the Carolina coasts, and sold them in the West-Indies. 

EVENTS OF 1814 AND 1813. 

Battles at Oswego. — On the 5th of May, 18 14, the town of Oswego, in New 
York, on Lake Ontario, after a fierce engagement, was captured by the British, 
who, however, withdrew from the town two days afterward. (May 7, 1814.) 

Battle of Chippewa. — On the 3d of July, 1814, the American army under 
General Jacob Brown, on the Western frontier of New York, crossed the Niagara, 
with General Winfleld Scott and General Ripley, and captured Fort Erie on the 
same day. Brown advanced northward, along the west bank of the Niagara river, 
and, on the 5th (July, 1814), he gained a brilliant victory at Chippewa, over the 
British army, under General Riall. 

Battle of Lundy's Lane. — The British army, under the command of Lieu- 
tenant-General Drummond, advanced toward the Niagara, and, at sunset on the 
25th of July, 1814, met the American army, under General Brown, at Lundy's Lane, 
near the thundering cataract of Niagara, where a sangunary battle ensued, which 
ended at midnight, without a decisive result. Each party had lost over 800 men. 
Generals Brown and Scott, the American commanders, were both wounded. On 
the 26th (July, 1814), the American army retired to Fort Erie. 

Siege of Fort Erie. — On the 15th of August, the British army under Drum- 
mond attempted to take Fort Erie by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of 
1,000 men. After the British had besieged the fort for more than a month, they 
were driven from their intrenchments, on the 17th of September, by a party of 
Americans who sallied from the fort. The enemy then retreated to Chippewa; 
and in November, the Americans destroyed Fort Erie, and recrossed to the New 
York side of the Niagara river. 

Invasion of New York — Battles at Plattsburg. — WHien informed that 
General Izard, the American commander at Plattsburg, in New York, on Lake 
Champlain, had gone to the Niagara frontier with 5,000 of his troops to reinforce 



UNITED STATES. 489 

General Brown, leaving only 1,500 under General Macomb at Plattbburg, Sir 
George Prevost, who commanded 14,000 veteran troops on the St. Lawrence, ad- 
toward Plattsburg, before which place he appeared on the 6th of September. 
Each party had, during the summer, constructed a small squadron on Lake Cham- 
plain. On Sunday morning, September llth, 1814, the British squadron, under 
Commodore Downie, attacked the American squadron, under Commodore Mac 
donough, off Plattsburg; and after a fierce engagement of several hours, every 
British vessel surrendered to Macdonough. Gn the same day, the British land 
force of 12,000 men under Prevost, which had attacked the little American army 
under M.tcomb, at Plattsburg, was defeated and compelled to retreat hastily toward 
Canada. 

Bombardment of Stonington. — In the meantime, the British had blockaded 
the whole New England coast, and had taken possession of Eastport, Machias, and 
Belfast, in Maine. A British squadron under Commodore Hardy had bombarded 
and cannonaded Stonington, in Connecticut, for four days, when the enemy finally 
withdrew on the 14th of August. Property on the New England coast was de- 
stroyed by British marauding parties. 

Invasion of Maryland — Capture of Washington. — About the middle of 
August, 1814, a British fleet under Admiral Cochrane sailed up the Patuxent, and 
landed 5,000 troops under General Ross, who defeated the Americans under 
General Winder, at Bladensburg, on the 24th of August, and, entering Washing- 
ton City on the same day, burned the Capitol, the President's House, and other 
public and private buildings, and then quickly returned to their shipping. 

Attack on Baltimore Repulsed. — Encouraged by their success at Washing- 
ton, the enemy threatened Baltimore with an attack. With about 8,000 British 
troops, Ross landed at North Point, on the 12th of September, 1S14, and, after a 
desperate engagement, seven miles from Baltimore, on the same day, in which 
Ross was killed, the Americans, under General Strieker, were compelled to fall 
back behind the defenses of Baltimore. The British squadron which had ineffect- 
ually bombarded Fort McHenry, garrisoned by a few Americans, under Major 
Armistead, a few miles below Baltimoie, finally withdrew with the land troops, 
on the morning of the 14th (September, 1S14), and the attempt to take Baltimore 
was abandoned. 

Jackson's Invasion of Florida and Capture of Pensacola. — The subjuga- 
tion of the Creek Indians by General Jackson did not put an end to the war in 
the South. The Spaniards of Florida permitted the British to make the town of 
Pensacola a base of operations. From this point, a force of British troop? and fugi- 
tive Creek warriors marched into Alabama, and attacked Fort Bowyer (now Fort 
Morgan), below Mobile, on the 15th of September, 1 814, but were repulsed with 
heavy loss. Failing to obtain satisfaction from the Spanish Governor of Florida 
lor sheltering the enemies of the United States, Jackson marched from Mobile, 
with 2,000 Tennesseans, against Pensacola, which he seized on the 7th of Novem- 
ber, aftsr driving the British to their shipping, 

Invasion of Louisiana — Battles near New Orleans. — After returning to 
Mobile, Jackson was called to New Orleans, to defend that city against an expected 
attack from the British army and navy. On the 14th of December, 1814, a British 



49° 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



fleet captured an American flotilla in Lake Borgne. A British army of 12,000 men, 
under General Pakenham, lauded in Louisiana, and soon appeared below New Or- 
leans. After being repulsed in an attack upon the British camp, on the night of 
the 23d of December, 18 14, Jackson placed his little army of 3000 men, mostly 
Tennessee militia, behind strong intrenchments, three miles below New Orleans, 
and extending from the Mississippi river to an impenetrable cypress swamp, where 
he was soon reinforced by about 3000 Kentucky militia, increasing his army to 
6000 men. The British opened a cannonade on the American works on the 28tt 
of December, 1814, and again on New Year's day, in 1815. At length, on (he 8th 
of January, 1815, the whole British arniy, 12,000 strong, with Pakenham at its head, 
advanced to open a grand attack upon the Ainericans, who opened a deadly 
musketry and artillery fire on the advancing enemy. The British troops at length 
wavered and began to flee, and, while endeavoring to rally them. General Paken- 
ham was killed. The whole British army retreated to their ships, and this sanguin- 
aiy battle ended in a glorious victory for the Americans. The British lost 2000 
killed and wounded, while the Americans lost only seven killed and six wounded. 
This victory produced the liveliest joy in the United States. 

The War on the Ocean. — The war was still continued with vigor on tlie 
ocean, during the years 1814 and 1815. On the 2Sth of March, 1S14, the American 
frigate Essex, Captain Porter, was captured off the port of Valparaiso, on the coast 
of Chili, in South America, by the British frigate Phoebe and sloop-of-war Chefub. 
On the 29th of April, 1814, the American sloop-of-war Peacock, Captain Warring- 
ton, captured the British brig Epervier, off the coast of Florida. The American 
sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Blakeley, was lost at sea, after capturing thirteen British 
vessels, among which were the Reindeer, taken on the 28th of June, and the Avon, 
on the 1st of September, 1814. On the i6th of January, 181 5, the American frigate 
President, Commodore Decatur, was captured off Long Island, by a British squadron. 
On the 20th of February, 1815, the American frigate Constitution, Commodore 
Stewart, captured the British sloops-of-war Cyane and Levant, off Lisbon, in Portu- 
gal, after a spirited engagement. On the 23d of March, 1815. the American sloop- 
of-war Ilortiet, Captain Biddle, captured the British brig Penguin, in the South 
Atlantic Ocean. 

Hartford Convention — Peace of Ghent. — The Federalists had all along been 
strenuously opposed to the war, and had thrown every obstacle in the way of its 
prosecution by the Administration. At length, in December, 1814, a convention 
composed of delegates from all of the New England States, and called on the recom- 
mendation of the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut, assembled at Hart- 
ford, Connecticut, to consider the grievances of the people caused by the war, and 
to adopt measures to bring about its speedy termination. The proceedings of this 
convention, which were secret, were regarded by many as treasonable. Soon after 
the adjournment of the convention, the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connec- 
ticut passed several laws which were in direct opposition to the laws of die United 
States; and a feared collision between the governments of the States and the 
National Government was only prevented by the arrival of intelligence that a treaty 
of peace had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium, on the 24th of December, 1 814, by 
American and British commissioners. The President proclaimed peace on the i8th 
of February, 1815. The treaty left unsettled all the issues which had led to the war. 



UNITED STATES. 4(^1 

War with Algiers— Commodore Decatur Humbles Algiers. — No sooner 

was the war with England terminated, than the United States was obliged to engage 
in a short war with the piratical Barbary State of Algiers, in Northern Africa. 
Under the impression that the navy of the United States had been almost destroyed 
by that of Great Britain, the Algerines had become extremely insolent, and com- 
mitted depredations upon American commerce in the Mediterrranean sea. Com- 
modore Decatur, who was immediately sent to the Mediterranean with a United 
States squadron, captured two Algerine vessels on the 17th of June, 1815; and, on 
tlie 28th (June, 1815), he appeared before the city of Algiers, and demanded tha' 
all Americans held as prisoners should be set at liberty, that all destroyed American 
property should be indemnified, and that all claims to tribute from the United States 
in future should be relinquished. Two days afterward (June 30, 1815), the Dey, 
or ruler of Algiers, greatly alarmed, assented to Decatur's conditiohs, and a treaty 
of peace was signed. Decatur also obtained satisfaction from the rulers of Tunis, 
Tripoli, and Morocco; and thenceforth American commerce was not disturbed in 
the Mediterranean sea. The United States was the first power that made any 
determined efforts to stop the piratical proceedings of the Barbary States. 

Admission of Louisiana and Indiana— Election of Monroe. — Two new 
States were admitted into the Union during the Administration of Mr. Madison; 
— Louisiana, in April, 181 2, and Indiana, in December, 1816. In the autumn of 

1816, the Republican candidate for President, James Monroe, of Virginia, was 
elected by a large majority, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice- 
President. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1817- 
MARCH 4, 1825). 

Inauguration of Monroe. — Mr. Monroe was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 

1817. He selected a Cabinet of able men; and entered upon the duties of his 
office with vigor, at a time when the Republic was recovering from the effects ot 
the late war with England, when American commerce and manufactures were re- 
viving, and when the nation was starting on a new and glorious career of prosperity, ' 
wealth, power, and greatness. 

Emigration to the West. — During the war with England, the prices of 
various commodities had become so high that the numerous manufacturing estab- 
lishments in the United States had enjoyed a great degree of prosperity; but when, 
en the return of peace, British goods flooded the country at low prices, these estab- 
lishments ceased to flourish, and thousands were compelled to seek other occupa- 
tions. This sudden change in the pecuniaiy condition of so many thousands, led 
to so large and rapid an emigration to the vast region west of the Alleghanies, 
which awaited the industry of the agriculturist, that in less than ten years, four new 
and prosperous States had grown up in the recent vast wilderness. 

Indian War in the South — Cession of Florida. — In the latter oart of 1817, 
tha Scmin jle and Creek Indians began a series of murderous attacks upon th«i 
white settlers of Southern Georgia. General Jackson, with some Tennessee troops, 
marched against the hostile Indians. With the belief that the Creeks were pro- 
tected by the Spanish authorities of Florida, Jackson marched into that country. 



492 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



captured the post of St. Mark's, sent the Spanish authorities to Pensacola, and 
afterwards to Havana, in Cuba, and hanged Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. 
Ambrister, British subjects, who were known to have excited the Indians to war. 
These proceedings led to a treaty, by which Spain ceded all of the Floridas to the 
UrJted States; and, in February, 1821, that country was organized as a Territory. 
In 1818, a treaty with Great Britain fixed the boundary line between the United 
States and British America at forty-nine degrees north latitude, from the Lake of 
liie Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 

Admission of Five New States — " Missouri Compromise." — Five new 
Siates were admitted into the Union during Monroe's Administration: Mississippi, 
in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1819; Maine, in 1820; and Missouri, in 
1821. When the proposition for the admission of Missouri was brought forward 
in Congress, in 1819, angry debates arose as to whether it should be admitted as a 
Free or a Slave State. This was the first great contest for supremacy in the Repub- 
lic, between the friends and the opponents of slavery. It was finally agreed, in 
1820, by a compromise, that Missouri should be admitted as a Slave State, and that 
slavery should be allowed in all territory south of its southern boundary, thirty-six 
degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, and prohibited in all temtory north and 
west of these limits. This is known as "The Missouri Compromise." Under this 
compromise, Missouri became a State on the 21st of August, 1821. 

Re-election of Monroe — " The Monroe Doctrine." — In the autumn of 
1820, Monroe and Tompkins were reelected President and Vice-President, by an 
almost unanimous Electoral vote. The old Federalist party was almost extinct, and 
the Administration was very popular. Among the important events of the Admin- 
istration of Monroe, was the recognition of the independence of Mexico and the 
South American Republics by the United States, when the President declared, as 
a principle, "that the American continents are not henceforth to be considered as 
subjects for future colonization by any European power." This is known as "The 
Monroe Doctrine." 

Visit of Lafayette to the United States. — In August, 1824, the beloved 
^Lafayette arrived in the United States, as the guest of the nation for whose inde- 
pendence he had fought so valiantly nearly half a centuiy before. During a 
period of eleven months, he visited twenty States of the Union, being everywhere 
received with demonstrations of gratitude. When he was ready to leave the Amer- 
ican shores, the frigate Bj-andywine, in compliment to him, conveyed him back to 
his delightful France. 

Election of John Quincy Adams. — In the Autumn of 1824, there were four 
candidates in the field for the Presidency. As not one of them had received a 
majority of the Electoral vote, the election was carried to the House of Represen- 
tatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, son of President Jonn Adams, 
was chosen President, and John Cadwell Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected 
•/ice-President. 



UNITED STATES. ^p, 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 
4, 1825-MARCH 4, 1829). 

Inauguration of John Quincy Adams — The Georgia Controversy. — 
'ohn Quincy Adams was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1825, when the United 
States was at peace with all the world. In the earlier part of his Administra- 
tion, there was a conti-oversy between the National Government and the State of 
'Georgia, concerning the removal of the Indians within the borders of that State. 
The Natonal Government had agreed to remove the Indians to the region west of 
the Mississippi river, when it couid be done peaceably. The Governor of Georgia, 
assuming State supremacy, threatened to remove them Immediately; the National 
Government interfered in behalf of the Indians, and the difficulty would perhaps 
have ended in civil war, had not the Indians, in consideration of ,a large annuity 
which was to be paid to them from the National treasury, agreed to remove peace- 
fully to the country west of the Mississippi. 

Erie Canal — First Railroad in the United States. — John Quincy Adams's 
Admimistration is celebrated for various internal improvements. The great Erie 
Canal, which connects the Hudson river with Lake Erie, in the State of New York, 
was completed in 1825, through the exertions of the distinguished De Witt Clinton. 
The first railroad in the United States was finished in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 
1827. 

A Strange Coincidence. — The fiftieth anniversary of American Independence, 
or the 4th of July, 1826, was made memorable by a strange coincidence, which 
made a profound impression throughout the United States. On that day, John 
Adams died at Quincy, Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, Vir- 
ginia. These two statesmen had been the most earnest advocates of independence, 
each had signed the great Declaration, each had been a member of the Congress, 
afterwards Vice-President, and lastly President of the United States. 

The American System. — It was during the Administration of John Quincy 
Adams, that the principle of encouraging home manufactures by imposing duties 
on foreign articles of the same kind, became a settled national policy in the United 
States, and was called " The American System." That policy was very popular 
with the manufacturers of the Northern section of the Union ; but the planters of 
the cotton-growing States, who found a ready market for their cotton in England, 
opposed it. A tariff enacted in 1828, was made to appear very unjust to the Southern 
planters, by John C. Calhoun and other Southern politicians, who taught the doc- 
ti-ines of "State Rights" and "NulHfication." 

Election of Jackson. — In the Presidential election of 1828, General Andiew 
Jackson, of Tennessee, was chosen President of the United States, and John C. Cal- 
houn, of South Carolina, was reelected Vice-President. 

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1829- 
MARCH 4, 1837). 

Inauguration of Jackson— His Collision with the Supreme Court. — 
General Jackson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1829, seventh President of 
the United States. He formed a Cabinet from his political friends ; and entered 



494 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



upon the duties of his exalted station with a determined will, and with incoiTuptible 
integrity. In 1832, President Jackson came into collision with the Supreme Court 
of the United States, respecting the removal of the Creek and Cherokee Indians 
from Georgia. The authorities of Georgia threatened to remove them by force ; 
and when the Supreme Court decided against the claims of that State, the President 
sided with the authorities of Georgia, and procured the removal of the Indians 
fjeyond the Mississippi I'iver. 

The United States Bank — Removal of the Public Money. — In his first 
annual message to Congress, in December, 1829, President Jaclcson expressed him- 
self strongly against a renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, which 
would expire in 1836; and, although Congress refused to authorize the removal 
of the public funds from the United States Bank, as recommended by the President, 
he caused the Secretary of the Treasury to remove them, in 1833. The result of 
this measure was great excitement and a terrilile financial and business convulsion 
throughout the country. 

Black Hawk War. — In the spring of 1832, the Sac, Fox, and Winnebago In- 
dians, in Wisconsin Territory, led by the famous chief. Black Hawk, commenced a 
destructive war on the frontier settlements of Northern Illinois. The Indians were 
completely subdued in August of the same year (1832), by United States troops 
under General Scott and Illinois militia under General Atkinson. Black Hawk 
was made prisoner, and taken to the principal Eastern cities, in order that he might 
be impressed with the number and power of the white people. 

Trouble with France — Re-election of Jackson. — At the close of Jackson's 
first term, a serious difficulty between the United States and France threatened to 
end in a war between the two nations. The French Government did not promptly 
comply with the agreement to indemnify the United States for French spoliations 
on American commerce during the wats of Napoleon. But the resolute stand taken 
by President Jackson caused France to pay the claims justly demanded by the 
United States; and the difficulty ended. In the autumn of 1832, Jackson was 
reelected President, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as Vice-President. 

Rebellion in South Carolina — Compromise Tariff. — The tariff-law of 
1828 was still a source of bitter complaint in the Southern States; and in November, 
1832, South Carolina, through a State convention assembled at Charleston, declared 
the tariff-laws to be unconstitutional, null and void. Assuming that the enforce- 
ment of those laws would be a sufficient cause for South Carolina to separate herself 
from the Union, that State prepared to resist the collection of duties in the port of 
Charleston by force of arms. At this crisis, President Jackson issued a proclama- 
tion against the South Carolina nuUifiers, with John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. 
Hayne at their head, declaring that he would enforce the laws of the United States 
by military power, if necessary. The threatened civil war was prevented by a 
compromise prepared by Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the author of the Missouri Com- 
promise, and one of the warmest friends of the tai'iff system ; and, on the 3d of 
March, 1833, a law went into operation which greatly reduced the duties so obnox- 
ious to the Southern planters. 

War with the Seminole Indians in Florida — »' Specie Circular," — 
When, in December, 1835, the United States Government attempted to remove the 



-'.Wn' 




ANDREW JACKSON 




JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



UNITED STATES. 495 

Seminole Indians from Florida to the Territories west of the Mississippi, in accord- 
ance with a treaty which had been concluded with a few chiefs, that fierce tribe 
hegan a war against the United States. On the 28th of December, 1835, a band 
of Seminoles, with their famous chief, Osceola, at their head, killed General Thomp- 
son and five of his friends, near Fort King. On the same day, another par'.y of 
Seminoles attacked 100 men under Major Dade, and killed all but four of them. 
On the 30th of December, 1835, General Clinch defeated the Seminoles on the 
banks of the Withlacoochee ; and on the 29th of February, 1836, General Gaines 
defeated them near the same place. On the nth of July, 1836, a circular was 
issued from the Treasury Department, requiring collectors of the public revenue to 
receive only gold and silver in payment. This circular, known as " The Specie 
Circular," created much bitter feeling against President Jackson. 

Admission of Arkansas and Michigan — Election of Van Buren. — Two 
new states were admitted into the Union during the Administration of General 
Jackson; — Arkansas, in June, 1836, and Michigan, in January, 1837. In the 
autumn of 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic candidate for 
the office of President of the United States, was elected. As the people had failed 
to elect a Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen as such 
by the United States SenatCi* 

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1837- 
MARCH 4, 1841). 

« 
Inauguration of Van Buren — Financial Convulsion. — Mr. Van Buren 

was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1837, at a time when the country was on 

the brink of a terrible financial and business convulsion. During March and April 

of that year (1837), there were mercantile failures in the city of New York to 

the amount of over one hundred millions of dollars. The effects of these failures 

were felt throughout the whole country, and credit and confidence were destroyed. 

The banks suspended specie payment. The National Government could not call 

in its deposits, or collect its duties in specie ; and the National treasury was empty. 

The State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida repudiated their debts. 

The Seminole V^^ar. — The Seminole war in Florida still continued. In 
March, 1837, some of the Seminole chiefs made a treaty of peace with General 
Jessup, but it was soon broken by the treacherous Osceola, who was in consequence 
seized by stratagem, in October, 1837, and imprisoned in Fort Moultrie, where he 
died. On Christmas day, 1837, Colonel Zachary Taylor defeated the Seminoles 
near Lake Okechobee. This destructive war ended in 1842, after a continuance 
of seven years. 

Rebellion in Canada. — The peaceful relations between the Governments of 
the United States and Great Britain were disturbed in 1837, by a rebellion in 
Canada, which had for its object the establishment of the independence of that 
country. The leaders of the revolt were Louis Joseph Papineau, in Canada East, 
and William Lyon Mackenzie, in Canada West. Great Britain was offended 
because hundreds of citizens of the United States crossed the borders of New York 
into Canada, to aid the rebellious Canadians. The danger of war was averted by 
the prompt action of the President of the United States and of the Governor ol 



496 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



New York, who issued proclamations declaring that all who crossed the border to 
aid the insurgents, would forfeit all claims to the protection of the Government ot 
the United States. 

The Maine Boundary Dispute. — The peace between the United States and 
Great Britain was also threatened by a dispute about the boundary betv> j'en the 
State of Maine and the British Province of New Brunswick. The inhabitants of 
Maine and New Brunswick were only prevented from settling'the dispute by an 
a] peal to arms, by the conciliatory course of General Scott, who had been sent te 
the border by the United States Government to preserve peace. The boundary 
line was finally settled by a treaty, negotiated at Washington, in 1842, by Daniel 
Weister on the part of the United States, and Lord Ashburton on the part of 
Great Britain. 

Election of Harrison. — The financial convulsions of this and the preceding 
Administration produced such a change in the minds of the people of the United 
States, that the Whig candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in 1S40, Gen- 
eral William Henry HaiTison, of Ohio, was elected by an overwhelming majority, 
with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President. 

HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 
(MARCH 4, 1841-MARCH 4, 1845). 

Harrison's Inauguration and Death. — General Harrison took the oath of 
office on the 4th of March, 1S41, as nintt President of the United States. On the 
17th of March (1S41), the new President issued a proclamation calling an extra 
session of Congi-ess, to begin on the 31st of May, of that year. The hopes of the 
people of the United States that a new career of prosperity was about to dawn upon 
the Nation by a change of policy, were soon dispelled by the death of President 
Harrison, which occurred on the 4th of April, 1841, just one month after his in- 
auguration. 

Tyler Made President — His Rupture with his Party. — In accordance with 
the requirements of the National Constitution, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was 
immediately inaugurated President of the United States. The extra session of 
Congress called by Harrison, commenced on the 31st of May, and ended on the 
13th of September. (1841.) Two bills which had been passed for the re-charter 
of the United States bank were vetoed by President Tyler. All the members of 
the Cabinet, with the exception of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, dissatisfied 
with the action of the President in respect to the bank, charging him with violating 
the pledges which he had made to the party which had elected him to the Vice- 
Presidency, immediately resigned their offices. 

Troubles in Rhode Island. — The year 1842 is noted for domestic troubles in 
Rhode Island, which threatened to involve that State in civil war. The difficulty 
was about the exchange of the old charter, granted by King Charles II. in 1663, 
for a new State constitution. The people of the State were all in favor of the 
adoption of a new constitution ; but with regard to the mode of adoption there were 
two parties, known respectively as the Law and Order party and the Suffrage party. 
The Law and Order party chose Samuel W. King for Governor, while the Suffirage 
party elected Thomas W. Dorr. Each of these claimed to be the legal Govem<*r , 



UNITED STATES. 



497 



and bloodshed was only prevented by United States troops who had been sent there 
to preserve order. A new constitution was adopted the same year (1842), and went 
ir.to operation in 1843. 

The Texas Question— Election of Polk. — The question of the admission, as 
a State of the Union, of the independent Republic of Texas, which had achieved 
its independence of Mexico in the battle of San Jacinto, in April, 1836, after a 
bloody war, was warmly discussed in the United States during the last year uf 
Tyler's Administration. The annexation of this Republic, in which slavery existed, 
was violently opposed in the Northern States, because it would increase the tern- 
torial extent ind political power of slavery; while it was advocated in the Southern 
States for that veiy reason. In the autumn of 1844, James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, 
who was m favor of the nrnexation of Texas, was elected President _of the United 
States, with George Mifflin Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. 

Electro-Magnetic Telegraph — Admission of Florida and Iowa. — The 
first use ever made of the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, — the invention of Professor 
Samuel Finley Breese Morse, — was in 1844, in sending to Washington the account 
of the proceedings of the Democratic National Convention at Baltimore, v/hich 
nominated Mr. Polk as a candidate for the Presidency. On the 3d of March, 1845, 
the day before he retired from the Presidency, Mr. Tyler signed a bill for the 
admission of Florida and Iowa into the Union of States. 

POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1845- 
MARCH 4, 1849). 

Inauguration of Polk — Oregon Boundary Dispute. — Mr. Polk was inaugu- 
rated on the 4th of March, 1845, ^^ ^ period when the United States had a serious 
dispute with Great Britain in regard to the possession of the Territory of Oregon, 
on the Pacific coast. The territory was claimed by both Great Britain and the 
United States ; but the difficulty, which at one time threatened to end in war, was 
settled in 1846, by a division of the territory, giving to Great Britain all that portion 
north of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States all that portion 
south, of these limits. 

Admission of Texas — Rupture with Mexico. — On the 4th of July, 1845, 
the Government of Texas formally approved of the joint-resolution of the Congress 
of the United States for annexation, and that Republic became a State of the 
American Union. Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of 
Texas, a.nd which still regarded that country as a part of her territory, immediate'r 
prepared for war with the United States, and recalled her minister. General Almont'., 
from Washington. 

General Taylor in Texas. — President Polk now ordered General Zacharv 
Taylor to advance into Texas with 1500 troops, to protect that State from invasion, 
nd to take post near the Rio Grande, as an army of observation. In March, 1846, 
Taylor lift his camp at Corpus Christi, and, having established a depot of supplies 
at Point Isabel, advanced to the mouth of the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican 
'ity cf Matamora.s, where he erected Fort Brown. 
32 



498 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

WAR WITH MEXICO (1846-1S4S1. 

First Bloodshed in the War with Mexico. — Being informed that the Mexi- 
c.'.ns were crossing the Rio Grande above Fort Brown, Taylor sent sixty dragoons, 
under Captain Thornton, to reconnoitre. These were surprised, on *Le 26th of 
April, 1846, by the Mexicans, and, after losing sixteen men, were nude prisoners, 
Captain Thornton alone escaping by a leap of his horse. This was "ihe first bloo<l 
^bei in the war between the United States and Mexico. 

Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — Leaving a small garrioon 
m Fort Brown, Taylor marched back to Point Isabel, which was threatened by the 
Mexicans. While on his return to Fort Brown, Taylor, at the head of 2000 men, 
met 6000 Mexicans under Arista, at a prairie called Palo Alto, on the 8th of May ; 
and, after a desperate battle of five hours, during which he lost only fifty-three men, 
Taylor gained a glorious victory. On the following day (May 9, 1846), Taylor 
again defeated the Mexicans with a loss of looo men, at Resaca de la Palma. By 
these two battles the Mexican army was virtually annihilated. 

Declaration of War against Mexico — Plan of a Campaign. — On the nth 
of May, 1846, the Congress of the United 3tates declared that "war existed by the 
act of the Republic of Mexico," and appropinated ten millions of dollars to carry 
on the war, and authorized the President to call out 50,000 volunteers. The Sec- 
retary of War and General Scott planned the military operations. A fleet was to 
sail around Cape Horn and attack the Pacific coast of Mexico; an "Army of the 
West," under General Stephen W. Kearney, was assembled at Fort Leavenworth, 
to invade New Mexico, and to cooperate with the Pacific fleet; an "Army of the 
Centre," under General John Ellis Wool, was collected at San Antonio de Bexar, 
in Texas, to invade Mexico from that point; and "The Army of Occupation," 
under General Taylor, was largely reinforced by the new volunteers. 

Invasion of Mexico — Capture of Matamoras and Monterey. — On the 
1 8th of May, 1846, General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico, and took 
possession of the city of Matamoras. In August (1846), Taylor, at the head of 
6,000 men, marched against the city of Monterey, which, after a siege and assault of 
four days, he captured, on the 24th of September, with its garrison of 9,000 Mexi- 
can troops under General Ampudia. After this triumph, Taylor advanced farther 
into Mexico; and, after being joined by General Wool, he took possession of Vic- 
toria, the Capital of the State of Tamaulipas, pn the 29th of December. 

Battle of Buena Vista. — Early in 1847, ^ large part of Taylor's army was 
sent to assist General Scott in the siege of Vera Cruz, so that Taylor was left in 
command of only 5,000 men, to oppose 20,000 Mexicans gathering at San Luis 
Fotosi, under General Santa Anna. On the 23d of February, a fierce battle was 
fought between the armies of Taylor and Santa Anna, at a plantAtirm called Buena 
Visfn. eleven miles from Saltillo. The Mexicans, although four times as nunieious 
as the Americans, were badly defeated, and compelled to flee during the n-ght and 
leav= their dead and wounded on the field of battle. The Americans were now 
masters of all Northern Mexico; and in September, 1847, Taylor ^^f' ^'^ army 
in command of General Wool, and returned to the United States. 

The Conquest of New Mexico and California. — The Army of the West 
under General Kearney took formal possession of New Mexico, at Santa Fe, its 




WINFIELD SCOTT. 




ZACHARY TAYLOR. 



UNITED STATES. 4c,y 

capital, on the iSth of August, 1846. Leaving the greatei part of his force with 
Colonel Doniphan at Santa Fe, Kearney, at the head of 100 men, hastened to take 
possess'on of the Mexican province of California, on the Pacific coast. While on 
his \va/ to California, Kearney learned, by a messenger, that the conquest of that 
country had already been accomplished by Colonel John Charles Fremont, with a 
few United Slates troops, assisted by the United States navy, under Commodores 
Sloat and Stockton. On the i8th of Februaiy, I §47) Kearney proclaimed the an 
n?\alion of California to the United States. 

Doniphan's Exploits in Mexico — The Conquest of Northern Mexico. 
— In accor lance with the orders of General Kearney, Colonel Doniphan, with 
1,000 Missr ari volunteers, forced the Navajo Indians to make a treaty of peace with 
the United States, on the 22d of March, 1846, and then proceeded to join General 
Wool. Doniphan defeated the Mexicans, under General Ponce de Leon, at Bracito, 
on Christmas day, 1846; and at Sacramento, on the zSth of February, 1847, he 
gained a victory which gave him possession of Chihuahua, a city of 40,000 inhab- 
itants, and the capital of the State of the same name. After a march of 5,000 miles, 
Doniphan joined General Wool at Saltillo, on the 22d of March, 1847. The con- 
quest of Northern Mexico and California was now complete; and General Winfield 
Scott had just commenced, at Vera Cruz, a campaign which ended in the reduction 
of the Mexican capital and the military occupation of the heart of the Mexican 
Republic. 

Siege and Capture of Vera Cruz. — On the 9th of March, 1847, a United States 
army of 12,000 men under General Scott, and a squadron under Commodore Conner, 
appeared before Vera Cruz, and soon completely invested the city. After a vigor- 
ous siege and bombardment, the city of Vera Cruz and the neighboring castle of 
San Juan de UUoa, together with 5,000 Mexican troops and 500 cannon, were sur- 
rendered to Scott, on the 26th of March. (1847.) 

Battle of Cerro Gordo. — After the capture of Vera Cruz, Scott's army marched 
toward the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass, Scott de- 
feated Santa Anna, who was at the head of 12,000 troops strongly intrenched. 
The Mexicans lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners by 
the Americans. The Mexican army was completely broken up, and Santa Anna 
fled on a mule. 

The March toward the Mexican Capital— Rest at Puebla. — After their 
victory at Cerro Gordo, the Americans continued their advance toward the capital 
of the Mexican Republic, took possession of Perote, the strongest fortress in Mex- 
ico, on the 22d of April, 1847, ^.nd on the 5th of May entered Puebla, a city ol 
80,000 inhabitants, where they rested until August, after a series of victories almos' 
unparalleled in the annals of war. 

The March toward the Capital Resumed. — After having received re.n- 
forccments, Scott left Puebla, on the 7th of August, 1847, and resumed his march 
toward the Mexican capital; and on the lOth (August, 1847), the American troopr 
saw the extensive valley of Mexico before them. Lakes, plains, cities, and cloud- 
capped mountains burst upon their gaze. Away in the distance was seen the great 
city of the Montezumas, with its lofty domes and towers. But between that city 
and the American army, were strong fortifications, and a Mexican army of 30,000 
men, under Santa Anna, to be overcome. 



500 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



Battles of Contreras, San Antonio, and Churubusco. — On the 20th of Au- 
gust, 1S47, t^s American army, after 11 bloody struggle, carried the Mexican camp ol 
Contreras by assault. On the same day, the Americans took the strong fortress of 
San Antonio, and gained a brilliant victory over the Mexicans at Churubusco. 
Santa Anna's army, virtually annihilated, fled to the capital. During this bloody day, 
Iha Mexicans lost 4,000 men killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoneiF 
'^v the victorious Americans. 

An Armistice — Treachery of Santa Anna. — Scott now offered the Mexicans 
peace. Santa Anna asked for an armistice, which Scott granted; but, when in 
formed that the treacherous Mexican general was improving the time by strength- 
ening the defenses of the capital, the American commander declared the armistice 
at an end, on the 7th of September. (1847.) 

Capture of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec — Fall of the Capital. — 
The victorious Americans took by storm the strong position of Molino del Rey, on 
the 8th of September, and the lofty fortified hill of Chapultepec, on the 13th of the 
same month; and, on the 14th (September, 1S47), Scott entered the Mexican capi- 
tal in triumph, and by his orders the Stars and Stripes were placed on the National 
Palace. Order was soon restored in the city. Santa Anna and the authorities of 
the Mexican Republic had fled. 

Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. — A treaty of peace between the Governments 
of the United States and Mexico was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, on the 2d 
of February, 1848 ; and President Polk proclaimed peace on the 4th of July of the 
same year. By the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, New Mexico and California 
became Territories of the United States, while the United States Government agreed 
to pay to Mexico fifteen millions of dollars for the ceded territory, and to assume 
the debts due by the Mexican Government to American citizens. 

Admission of Wisconsin — General Taylor Elected President. — In May, 
1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as a State. In the autumn of the 
same year, General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, whose great military achievements 
in Mexico had made him a popular favorite, was elected President of the United 
States, with Millard Fillmore, of New York, as Vice-President. 

SLAVERY AGITATION AND THE CIVIL WAR. 

TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS 
(MARCH 4, 1849-MARCH 4, 1853). 

Inauguration of Taylor — Slavery Agitation. — As the 4th of March, 1849, 
fell on the Sabbath, the inauguration of President Taylor did not take place until 
the 5th. The agitation of the slavery question was revived during the first year of 
Taylor's Administration, by the action of the people of California, who, in a con- 
vention held at San Fi-ancisco, framed a State constitution by which slavery should 
be excluded from California forever after its admission as a State. 

Threatened Dissolution of the Union — A Compromise. — When, in Feb- 
ruary, 1850, the representatives of California petitioned Congress to admit their 
Territory into the Union as a State, the friends of slavery in Congress violently op 




HENRY CLAY. 




DANIEL WEBSTER. 



UNITED STATES. 501 

posed her admission as a Free State, and boldly declared that such a proceeding 
would be a valid reason for the Slave States to secede from the Union. The bold 
threats of the members of Congress from the Slave States alarmed the friends 
of the Union so much that they became ready to acquiesce in any measure, and 
11 cnry Clay brought forward a plan of compromise in the United States Senate. A 
ccmmiltee of thirteen, composed of six Senators from the Free States and six from 
the Slave States, with Mr. Clay as chairman, was appointed to consider the plan 
of compromise; and, on the Sth of May, 1850, Mr. Clay reported a compn mise 
Inll. 

Death of President Taylor — Fillmore Inaugurated President. — While 
the slavery question was absorbing the attention of Congress and the Nation, Presi- 
dent Taylor was attacked by a sudden illness, of which he died on the 9th of July, 
1850. In accordance with the provisions of the National Constitution, the Vice- 
President, Millard Fillmore, took the oath of office on the following day, and 
immediately assumed the duties of President of the United States. 

The Compromise Act — Admission of California. — After four months' 
discussion, Mr. Clay's compromise measures were passed by both Houses of Con- 
gress, and, after receiving the signature of President Fillmore, on the 9th of Sep- 
tember, 1850, became a law of the Republic; and California entered the Union as 
a Free State. The Compromise Act, as it was called, provided, 1st. For the 
admission of California as a Free State ; 2d. For the erection of the Mormon settle- 
ments into a Territory called Utah, without mention of slavery; 3d. For the erection 
of New Mexico into a Territory without mention of slavery, and the payment of 
ten millions of dollars to Texas in purchase of her claims to a large portion of New 
Mexico ; 4th. For the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia ; and 
5th. For the arrest and return to their masters of all fugitive slaves who should 
escape to the Free States. The last measure met with much opposition in the Free 
States, and the execution and violation of the law in several instances led to serious 
results. 

Election of Pierce. — The Presidential election of 1853 was a remarkably quiet 
one, and resulted in the choice of the Democratic nommees, Franklin Pierce, of 
New Hampshire, for President, and William Rufus King, of Alabama, for Vice- 
President. 

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1853— 
MARCH 4, 1857). 

Inauguration of Pierce — Dispute with Mexico. — Mr. Pierce was inaugj 
rated on the 4th of March, 1S53. For a time, during the earlier part of his Admin- 
istration, another war between the United States and Mexico seemed inevitable 
The fertile Mesilla Valley was claimed by both the Territory of New Mexico and 
die Mexican State of Chihuahua ; and Santa Anna, who had again become Presi 
dent of Mexico early in 1854, caused Chihauhiia to take armed possession of the 
disputed territory. The dispute was settled in 1854; and the Mesilla Valley came, 
by purchase, into the possession of the United States. 

Exploring Expeditions — Commercial Treaty with Japan. — During Pierce's 
Administration, naval expeditions were sent by the United States Government to 



502 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



explore the North Pacific Ocean, between the Pacific shores of America and Asia. 
Land expeditions were sent across the continent, to ascertain the most practicable 
route for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. In the summer of 1854, a treaty of 
commerce and friendship was made with the Emperor of Japan, by Commodore 
Matthew C. Perry on the part of the Government of the United States. 

Agitation of the Slavery Question — The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — The 
agitation of the s.laveiy question was suddenly revived in the beginning of 1S54, by 
.1 bill reported in the United States Senate by .Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois. 
Chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, proposing the organization ol 
the vast region between the Missouri river and the Rocky mountains into two Ter- 
ritories, one to be named Kansas and the other Nebraska, and leaving the people 
of those Territories to decide whether or not they would have slavery within their 
borders. The passage of this bill would, in effect, annul the Missouri Compromise, 
and for this reason it was violently opposed in the Free States, where the greatest 
exr:itement prevailed, and where public meetings were held by men of all parties, 
to protest against the measure. The bill was, however, passed, in March, 1854, 
and thus the Missouri Compromise was virtually repealed. The most bitter sectional 
feeling was beginning to be felt between the North and the South. 

Civil War in Kansas. — The pro-slavery men of the Slave States now deter- 
mined to make Kansas slave territory by colonizing it with emigrants from their 
section of the Union, while the anti-slavery men of the Free States resolved to 
secure the Territory to freedom by peopling it with settlers holding their views. A 
heavy emigration to Kansas at once set in from both the Free and the Slave States, 
and, as a natural consequence, there was civil war in the Territory for several 
years. 

Formation of the Republican Party— Election of Buchanan. — The repeal 
of the Missouri Compromise, and the encroachments of the slave power, led to the 
formation of a new political organization, called " The Republican Party," whose 
leading principle was opposition to the extension of slavery into the Territories of 
the Republic. This party, which had its entire strength in the Free States, nomi- 
nated Colonel John Charles Fremont, of California, for the Presidency, in 1856. 
The Democratic party, which had its chief strength in the Slave States, nominated 
James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. The American or Know-Nothing party, which 
was opposed to foreign influence in American affairs, nominated ex-President 
Millard Fillmore, of New York. The result of the election was the choice of James 
Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1857- 
MARCH 4 1861). 

Inauguration of Buchanan— The Dred Scott Decision.— James BuchanaiJ 
was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1S57, fifteenth President of the United 
States. Two days after his inauguration, Chief-Justice Taney gave a decision in 
the Supreme Court of the United States, that no freed negro-slave, nor the descend 
ant of a slave, could become a citizen of the United States, and that "the negro 
had no rights which the white man was bound to respect." This was called "The 
Dred Scott Decision," because it was rendered in the case of Dred Scolt, who 



UN II ED STATES. cot 

ha I once been a slave in Missouri, but who now claimed to be free, on account of 
having been taken by his master into a Free State. 

Threatened Rebellion of the Mormons in Utah. — Early in 1857, the Mor 
nr.ons in the Territory of Utah threatened to rebel against the National Government, 
because Congi-ess refused to admit their Territory as a State of the Union. The 
President sent a body of troops, under Colonel Joseph E. Johnston, to enforce the 
laws of the United States, and to suppress any attempt at rebellion in Utah. The 
lifliculLy was settled, however, without bloodshed. 

The Political Contest in Kansas — Admission of Kansas, Minnesota, 
and Oregon. — The Dred Scott decision aroused the agitation of the slavery 
question in all its intensity, and the greatest excitement prevailed in the Free States. 
In 1857, measures were taken for the admission of Kansas into the Union as a 
State. A State constitution which excluded slavery from Kansas was framed at 
Topeka by the anti-slaveiy party; while the pro-slavery party framed a constitution 
at Lecompton tolerating slavery within the Territory. Although the people of 
Kansas rejected the pro-slavery constitution, in January, 1858, by ten thousand 
majority, the President, in a message to Congress, recommended its acceptance by 
that body. Congress, however, justly decided that it should be left to a vote of the 
people of the Territory, who again rejected it by ten thousand majority; and, on 
the 29th of January, 1 86 1, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a Free State. 
Two other States were admitted into the Union during Buchanan's Administration ; 
— namely, Minnesota, in 1S58, and Oregon, in 1859. 

The Personal Liberty Laws — Reopening of the African Slave-Trade. 
— The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was still obnoxious to the great body of the 
people of the Free States; and, to guard against any abuses of the law, the Legis- 
latures of New York, Ohio, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan, and Wis- 
consin passed what were called "Personal Liberty Laws." During the Adminis- 
tration of Buchanan, efforts were made by influential individuals in the Slave States 
to reopen the African slave-trade. Native Africans were landed on the coasts of 
the Southern States, in defiance of the laws. Li Louisiana attemps were made to 
legalize the trade, under what was called " The African Apprentice System;" and 
the Grand Juiy of Savannah openly protested against the laws when obliged to find 
bills against some persons engaged in the illegal slave-trade. These proceedings 
increased the slavery agitation, and strengthened the Republican party, which was 
opposed to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the United States. 

John Brown's Insurrection in Virginia — Execution of Brown. — In the 
autumn of 1859, great excitement was produced in the Slave States by the foolisn 
attempt of the enthusiastic John Brown, who had been a leading anti -slavery man 
in Kansas, to liberate the slaves of Virginia. On the night of October i6th ( 1S59), 
at the head of a few followers. Brown seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, intend- 
ing to arm such slaves as approached. Brown did not succeed, however, in exciting 
a slave insurrection ; and, being overpowered and made prisoner by Virginia mill 
tia and United States troops under Colonel Robert Edmund Lee, he was tried on 
tlie charges of treason, murder, and exciting slaves to insurrection, and was hanged 
on the 2d of December, 1859, under the laws of Virginia. It was thought oy the 
people of the Slave States that Brown was only the agent of a large party in the 



504 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



Free States who had formed a plot to free all the slaves; and, during the next 
session of Congress, a committee, with Mr. Mason, of Virginia, the author oi the 
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, as chairman, was appointed in the United States Senate 
to investigate the matter, when it was proven that Brown had no other accomplices 
than his immediate followers, fifteen or sixteen in number. 

Election of Lincoln. — There were four candidates for the Presidency in i860. 
The portion of the Democratic party from the Free States nominated Stephen A, 
I )ouglas, of Illinois, while the portion from the Slave States nominated Johr C. 
Breckinridge, of Kentucky. A new party, called " The Constitutional Union Party," 
nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. The Republican or anti-slaveiy party nomin- 
ated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois. The election was decided in favor of Abraham 
Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. 

Conspiracy of Southern Politicians. — No sooner was the election of Mr. 
Lincoln known throughout the United States, than the politicians ot the Slave States 
began to carry out plans, which they had long prepared, for the dismemberment of 
the Union, and the establishment, in their section, of an independent confederacy of 
Slave States. 

Secession of South Carolina and other Slave States. — As in 1832, South 
Carolina took the lead in rebellion against tlie National Government. A State con- 
vention, which had assembled at Charleston, declared, on the 20th of December, 
i860, that State to be separated from the Union forever. Within little more than 
a month from the secession of South Carolina, the example of that State was fol- 
lowed by six other Slave States, — namely, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, and Texas. 

Formation of a Southern Confederacy. — On the 4th of February, 1S61, 
delegates from the seceded States met in a Congress at Montgomeiy, in Alabama, 
and formed a Southern Confederacy, with the title of " The Confederate States of 
America." On the 9th of the same month, this Confederate Congress elected 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President of the Confederacy, with Alexander H. 
Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. 

Seizure of National Property by the Conspirators. — Most of the property 
of the National Government in the seceded States, such as forts, arsenals, mints, 
ships, and custom houses, — were seized by the conspirators, who raised armies to up- 
hold their treason and to subvert the Republic. In February, 1861, General Twiggs, 
who commanded the United States troops in Texas, surrendered his whole force to 
the authorities of that State. Fortress Monroe, in South-eastern Virginia, and the 
forts on the Dry Tortugas, off the southern coast of Florida, remained in the posses- 
sion of the National Government; and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Floiida, was 
saved from falling into the hands of the conspirators by the gallant conduct of its 
commander, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer. Fort Sumter, at Charleston, South 
CaroUna, was held by Major Robert Anderson. On the 9th of January, 1861, the 
Government steamer Star of the West was fired 'upon by South Carolinians, while 
Lringing reinforcements to Fort Sumter. 

Conduct of the Administration— Treason of Cabinet-Officers. — Presiaent 
Buchanan made no effort to check the conspirators in their treasonable work. 
Several of his Cabinet-Officers who were among the conspirators, were doing all in 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 




ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 



II 



UNITED STATES. 505 

their powei to deprive the National Government of all means for its protection 
against armed treason. John B. Floyd, of Virginia, Secretary of War, transferred 
most of the arms from the forts and arsenals in ihe P'ree States to those in the Slave 
States; and Howell Cobb, of Georgia, Secretary of the Treasury, tried to injure the 
public credit and bankrupt the National treasury. 

The Peace Convention— The Crittenden Compromise. — On the 4th of 
February, 1861, an assemblage, known as " The Peace Convention," met at Wash- 
iiigtor, for the professed purpose of preserving peace and saving the Union. Every 
jiist ard reasonable concession for the sake of peace was rejected by the conspirators ; 
, and it was evident that they did not desire a reconciliation, from their rejection o( 
the plan known as " The Crittenden Compromise," proposed by John J. Crittenden 
of Kentucky. 

LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4 1861- 
APRIL 15, 1864). 

THE CIVIL WAR— EVENTS OF 1861. 

Inauguration of Lincoln — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — On tlie 4th 
of March, 1861, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated sixteenth President of the United 
States. The conspirators at Montgomery, having determined upon war, sent several 
thousand troops, under the command of Pierre G. T. Beauregard, to Charleston, 
South Carolina, for the purpose of seizing Fbrt Sumter. Beauregard demanded 
the surrender of the fort. Its commander. Major Robert Anderson, refused to com- 
ply with this demand; and, on the 12th of April, 1861, Beauregard opened a heavy 
bombardment on the fort, which continued the followmg day, and, on the 14th 
(April, 1S61), Anderson and his men evacuated the fort, which was immediately 
taken possession of and garrisoned by the insurgents, and sailed for New York. 
News of this event spread through the loyal States like lightning; and, like the 
attendant thunder-peal, it aroused every loyal heart. 

Troops Called to Suppress the Rebellion. — On the day after the evacua- 
tion of Fort Sumter (April 15, 1861), the President called for 75,000 militia to 
sen^e for three months in suppressing the rebellion. The loyal people warmly re- 
sponded to this call. Within a short time, 200,000 men had offered their services 
to the National Government; and forty million dollars had been contributed to 
carry on the war. 

Secession of Virginia — Seizure of the Armory at Harper's Ferry. — On 
the 17th of April, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union, and became a member 
of the Southern Confederacy. On the following day (April 18, 1861), the United 
States armory at Harper's Feny was seized by the Virginia insurgents. On the 
17th of April (1861), Jefferson Davis, the President of the so-called Confederate 
States of America, issued letters-of-marque and reprisal, to all who would prey upon 
.American commerce. Two days afterward (April 18, 1861), President Lincoln 
"^iC'claimed the blockade of the Southern ports. 

Massachusetts Troops Attacked in Baltimore. — On the 19th of Ap\il, 
1861, the sixth Massachusetts regiment, while passing through Baltimore, on its 
way to Washington, was attacked by a mob of 10,000 men. A tight ensued. 



5o6 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Several of the troops were killed and wounded; and nine of the mob weie killed, 
and many others wounded. 

More Troops Called For — Secession of Other States. — As armed Confed- 
erates were continually pouring into Virginia for the purpose of seizing the National 
capital, the President, on the 3d of May, called for 64,000 more men for the Na- 
tional army, and 18,000 men for the navy. Before the middle of June (i86 
Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee had withdrawn from the Union and 
joined the Southern Confederacy. 

Meeting of Congress — Its Doings. — The President, on the 15th of April, 
i86l, summoned Congress to meet on the 4th of July. When it assembled, there 
were about 300,000 troops in the field to defend the old flag and to preserve the 
integrity of the Union. Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men, and 
appropriated five hundred million dollars to defray the expenses of the war. 

Confederate Troops — Richmond Made the Confederate Capital. — More 
than 100,000 Confederate troops were stationed at various points in Virginia, from 
Harper's Ferry to Norfolk. The chief force of the insurgents was at Manassas 
Junction, about thirty miles from the National capital. On the 20th of July, 1861, 
the seat of the so-called Confederate Government was removed from Montgomery, 
Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. 

Invasion of Virginia — Events in Missouri. — The first invasion of the re- 
bellious States took place on the 24th of May, 1861, when National troops crossed 
the Potomac river from Washington, and took possession of Alexandria and Arling- 
ton Heights, on the opposite side of the river. Before this invasion (May 10, 
1861), Captain Nathaniel Lyon saved Missouri to the Union by the capture of an 
insurgent camp at St. Louis. 

Battles of Philippi, Big Bethel, Romney, and Rich Mountain. — The 
first regular battle of the Civil War occurred at Philippi, in W^estern Virginia, 
where, on the 3d of June, 1861, General Benjamin F. Kelly, with a few National 
troops, routed 500 Confederates. On the loth of the same month, a severe engage- 
ment took place at Big Bethel, in South-eastern Virginia, between the National troops 
under General Pierce and a considerable force of Confederates. In this action the 
National troops were repulsed with the loss of two brave officers, — Lieutenant 
John T. Greble and Major Theodore Winthrop. On the day after the National 
disaster at Big Bethel (June 11, 1S61), a few National troops, under General Lewis 
Wallace, dispersed 500 Confederates at Romney, in Western Virginia. One month 
later (July 1 1, I861), 3,000 Confederate troops, under Colonel Pegram, were defeated 
at Rich Mountain, in Western Virginia, after a spirited action with the National 
troops under General Williaa S. Rosecrans. 

Battle of Bull's Run— Its Effects.— On the iSth of July, i86i,the National 
army of 50,000 men, in Virginia, under General Irwin McDowell, left Fairfax 
Court-House, to attack the Confederates under General Beauregard, at Manassas 
Junction, about thirty miles from Washington. A stubborn contest was fought at 
Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville, on the same day. Three days afterward (July 
21, 1861), a sanguinary and memorable battle was fought at Bull's Run, near Man- 
assas Junction. At the moment that the Confederates were about to lose the field, 
they received reinforcements from the Shenandoah Valley, under General Jo'ieph 



I 



UNITED STATES. 



507 



E. Johnston. The result was that the Confederates gained a complete victory; and 
the National army fled toward Washington in the greatest consternation. For his 
gallant c mduct in this battle, the Confederate General Thomas Jefferson Jackson 
received the name of "Stonewall Jackson." The intelligence of the National 
misfortune at Bull's Run struck the people of the loyal States with dismay; but^ 
instead of discouraging them, it caused them to exert themselves more vigorously 
for the great struggle. Large numbers of volunteers joined the army. On the day 
ifter the battle of Bull's Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in C(<m- 
mand of "The Army of the Potomac," as the forces around the National capital 
were named. 

The War in Missouri — Battles of Carthage, Dug Spring, and Wilson's 
Creek. — In the meantime, the war raged violently in Missouri. On the 5U1 of July, 
1861, the National troops, under Colonel Franz Sigel, defeated the Confederates, 
under Clayborne F. Jackson, the disloyal Governor of Missouri, at Carthage. On 
the 2d of August, a National force under General Nathaniel Lyon defeated the 
Confederates commanded by General Ben McCullough, the famous Texas Ranger, 
at Dug Spring, near the border of Arkansas. On the loth of the same month 
(August, 1861), Lyon, at the head of 5,000 National troops, fought with 20,000 
Confederates, under Generals Stirling Price and Ben McCullough, the battle of 
Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Missouri. In this battle, Lyon was killed while 
gallantly fighting at the head of his troops. The slaughter on both sides was ter- 
rific. The result of the battle was that the National troops were obliged to fall 
back. 

Capture of Hatteras Inlet. — On the 26th of August, 1861, Forts Clarke and 
Hatteras, on Irlatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina, were captured by the 
National army and navy, under General Benjamin F. Butler and Commodore String- 
ham. This victoiy gave the National troops a foothold in North Carolina which 
they never lost. 

Loyalty of the People of West Virginia. — The people of West Virginia 
had from tlie beginning of the Civil War been opposed to secession, and they per- 
sisted in refusing to place themselves under the rule of the Confedate Government 
and the rebel State Government of Virginia. Representatives from about forty of 
the western counties of Virginia met in a convention at W^heeling, on the nth of 
June, 1861; and, on the 17th, they declared West Virginia independent of the 
rest of the State, and elected PVank Pierpont foi theii Governor. 

Confederate Invasion of West Virginia — Battle of Carnifax Ferry. — 
The Confederates of Virginia, having resolved to compel the loyal people of West 
Virginia to submit to their authority and that of the Confederate Government, sent 
large bodies of troops into that region, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, 
late a colonil in the United States army, Henry A. W^ise, ex-Governor of Virginia, 
and John B. Floyd, ex-Secretary of War. Ployd was defeated by the National 
■Toops under General William S. Rosecrans, on the 12th of Septembfr, 1861, al 
C'arnifax Ferry, on the Gauley river, in West Virginia, after a fight of three days. 

Capture of Lexington, Missouri — Battle of Ball's Bluff. — About the 
middle of September, 1S61, the town of Lexington, in Missouri, with its garrison 
of National troops under Colonel Mulligan, was captured by the Confederates. Od 



5o8 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



the l6lii of October (1861 ), Lexington was retaken by a National cavahy force unJel 
Major White. On the 21st of October, 1861, a severe action occurred at Ball's 
Bluff, on. u:e Potomac, above Washington, between the National force under Gen- 
eral Stone and a large body of insurgents under General Evans. The National 
troops were thoroughly defeated and routed, with the loss of many brave men, 
among whom was the gallant Colonel Edward D. Baker, late a United States 
Senator from Oregon. 

Battle of Belmont— Capture of Port Royal. — On the 7th of November, 
1861, a force of National troops, under General Ulysses Simpson Grant, was defeated 
at Belmont, in South-eastern Missouri, on the Mississippi river, by the Confederates 
under General Cheatham. On the day of the battle of Belmont (November 7, 1861), 
Forts Walker and Beauregard, at Port Royal Entrance, on the coast of South Caro- 
lina, below Charleston, were captured by a National naval force under Commodore 
Dupont. The capture of Port Royal gave the National forces possession of the 
Sea Islands of South Carolina, so celebrated for the production of fine cotton. 

McClellan, Commander-in-Chief — Extent of the Civil War — Foreign 
Relations. — On the ist of November, 1861, General McClellan was made com- 
mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, General Winfield Scott having 
resigned that post in October. Only the most important military events have been 
related. There were thousands of conflicts in the refractory States. The relations 
of the National Government with England and France were not of the most pleasant 
character. Both of these nations, as well as Spain, had recognized the insurgent 
Confederates as a belligerent power, in the beginning of the great contest. Russia 
was the only European power that sympathized with the National Government in 
its struggle for life. 

EVENTS OF 1862. 

Battle of Mill Spring. — On the 19th of January, 1862, a National force, under 
General George H. Thomas, defeated a Confederate army under General George 
B. Crittenden, at Mill Spring, near Somerset, Kentucky. The Confederate General 
Felix Zollicoffer was killed. 

Capture of Roanoke Island.— On the 8th of February, 1862, after a hot con- 
flict, Roanoke Island, on the North-eastern coast of North Carolina, was taken pos- 
session of by the National army and navy, under General Ambrose E. Burnside 
and Commodore Louis M. Goldsborough. 

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — On the 6th of February ( 1S62), Fort 
Henry, on the Tennessee river, in Tennessee, was captured by the National army and 
navy, under General Ulysses S. Grant and Commodore Andrew H. Foote. On the 
16th of February, after a siege and assault of three days. Fort Donelson, on the Cum 
berland river, in the same State, was surrendered, with its garrison of 13,000 Con- 
federate troops, to the National army of 40,000 men under General Grant. The 
','onfederate troops that had garrisoned the fort were commanded by General 
jimon Bolivar Buckner. Before the surrender, 5,000 Confederates, under Generals 
Pillow and Floyd, made their escape. 

Battle of Pea Ridge. — On the 6th, 7th, and 8th of March, 1862, the National 
army under General Samuel R. Curtis fought a severe battle with the Confederate 
troops under Generals Earl Van Dorn, Stirling Price, and Ben McCullough, at Pea 



UNITED STATES. ^09 

Ridge, in North western Arkansas. The Confederates were defeated; and among 
their killed was General McCullough. 

Fight Between the Merrimac and Monitor. — On the day of the I-Tational 
irctory at Pea Ridge (Match 8, 1862), the Confederate iron-clad ram Mtrrivtac 
sunk the National frigates Cumberland and Congi-ess, at the mouth of th'.' James 
r.ter. On the following day (March 9, 1862), a newly-invented floating batteiy, 
called the Alonitor, attacked the Merrhnac, disabled her after a severe action, and 
'ompelled her to return to Norfolk. 

Capture of Newbern — Battle of Winchester.— On the 14th of March, 
1862, after a severe fight with the Confederates, General Burnside, with 12,000 
National troops, captured Newbern, in Eastern North Carolina. A National force 
under General Shields defeated the Confederates under " Stonewall Jackson," near 
Winchester, Virginia, on the 23d of March. 

Battle of Shiloh. — On the 6ih of April, 1862, the National army commanded 
by General Grant was attacked at Shiloh church, near Pittsburg Landing, on the 
Tennessee river, in Tennessee, by the Confederates under Generals Beauregard and 
Albert Sydney Johnston. The Confederates were victorious on that day; but on 
the following morning (March 7, 1S62), Grant was reinforced by a strong force 
under General Don Carlos Buell, and the Confederates were defeated and compelled 
to flee toward Corinth, in North-eastern Mississippi. The defeat of the Confeder- 
ates is to be attributed chiefly to the assistance which the National gunboats in 
the Tennessee river rendered to Grant's army. Among the Confederate killed wa.s 
General Albert Sydney Johnston. 

Siege and Capture of Island No. 10. — On the day of Grant's victory at 
Shiloh (April 7, 1862), the strong post of Island No. 10, in the Mississippi river, 
was surrendered to Commodore Foote, whose flotilla had bombarded ^he place for 
three weeks. 

Capture of Fort Pulaski — Capture of Huntsville — Capture of Fort 
Macon. — On the i ith of April (1862), Fort Pulaski, at the moutli of the Savannah 
river, in Georgia, after withstanding a heavy bombardment, surrendered to the 
National troops under Captain Quincy Adams Gillmore. On the same day. Gen- 
eral Ormsby McKnight Mitchell, after a remarkable forced march through Kentucky 
and Tennessee, captured Huntsville, in Northern Alabama. On the 25th of April, 
Fort Macon, on the coast of North Carolina, was surrendered to the National troops, 
after a severe bombardment. 

Bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip — Capture of New Or- 
leans. — In the South-west, an expedition had been organized for the capture of 
New Orleans. The expedition consisted of a gunboat and mortar fleet, under 
Commodores David G. Farragut and David D. Porter, and a land force undei 
General Benjamin F. Butler. After bombarding Forts Jackson and St. Philip, • 
below New Orleans, for six days, Farragut and Porter passed up the river with 
their fleets, and appeared before New Orleans on the 25th of April. The Confed- 
erate troops, 20,000 strong, luider General Mansfield Lovell, who had garrisoned 
the city, fled, and, on the 28th (April, 1862), General Butler, with the National 
army, took possession of the city. The capture of New Orleans was the severest 
blow thus far inflicted upon the Rebellion. 



5IO 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



Movements on the Virginia Peninsula — Evacuation of Yorktown. — 

After compelling the Confederates to retreat from Manassas toward Richmond, the 
Army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, prepared to approach the Confed- 
erate capital by way of the peninsula formed by the York and James rivers. On 
the 4th of April, 1862, McClellan commenced his march up the peninsula, from 
Fortress Monroe. After enduring a short siege, Yorktown was evacuated by the 
Confederates, who fled toward Richmond. (May 3, 1862.) 

Battle of Williamsburg — Fall of Norfolk. — Two days after the evacualioc 
Df V^orktown by the Confederate army (May 5, 1862), was fought the terrible bat- 
tle of Williamsburg, which resulted in a National victory. The Confederates then 
resumed their retreat, and were again pursued by the National forces. On the loth 
of May, 1862, five days after the battle of Williamsburg, Norfolk was evacuated 
by the Confederates, after they had destroyed the Alerrittiac, and the town was 
entered on the same day by National troops under the command of General John 
Ellis Wool. 

Capture of Hanover Court-House — Battle of Fair Oaks. — On the 29th 
of May, Hanover Court-House was captured by a portion of the National army, 
under General Fitz-John Porter, after a spirited conflict. The National army still 
continued its advance toward Richmond. On the 31st of May and the 1st of June 
(1862), a memorable engagement occurred at a place called Fair Oaks, in which 
neither party was victorious. 

Capture of Natchez — Capture of Corinth — Capture of Memphis. — On 
the 1 2th of May, the National fleet under Admiral Farragut captured Natchez, in 
Mississippi, on the Mississippi river. On the 29th of the same month (May, 1862), 
Corinth, in the north-eastern part of the same State, after having suffered a heavy 
bombardment, was evacuated by the Confederates and taken possession of by the 
National army under General Henry W. Halleck. On the 6th of June, 1862, the 
important town of Memphis, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, fell into the 
hands of the National forces, after a severe naval engagement, in which all but two 
vessels of the Confederate fleet were either captured or destroyed by the National 
squadron under the command of Flag-Ofiicer Davis. 

Operations in the Shenandoah Valley — Battles of Cross-Keys and Port 
Republic. — In the meantime, a National force of 4000 men, under General Na- 
thaniel P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, after being defeated near 
Winchester, on the 25th of May, was driven down the valley, and compelled to 
cross the Potomac into Maryland, by 15,000 Confederates under Stonewall Jackson, 
who hastily retreated up the valley. On the 7th of June, General John C. Fremont, 
with National troops, fought with the Confederates an indecisive battle at Cross- 
Keys; and, on the following day. General Shields was beaten by Stonewall Jackscn, 
in a battle at Port Republic. 

The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond — Battle of Malvern Hill. — 
Three weeks after the battle of Fair-Oaks, McClellan prepared to advance up >n 
Richmond. At the same time, he changed the base of his supplies from the York 
to the James river. These movements led to a series of sanguinary battles near 
Richmond, during seven days, commencing on the 25th of Jilne, and ending with 
the repulse of the Confederates at Malvern Hill on the istof July. The most 



UNITED STATES. ^X, 

important engagements were the battle of Oak Grove, June 25; the battle nf 
Mechanicsville, June 26; the battle of Gaines' Mill, June 27; the battle« of Peach 
Orchard Station and Savage Station, June 29 ; the battle of White-Oak Swamp, 
June 30; and the battle of Malvern Hill, July i. Each army numbered about 
100,000 men. The National army lost 16,000 men, and the insurgents about 
20,000; and McClellan's movement on Richmond failed. 

General Halleck, Commander-in-Chief. — On the ist of July, the President 
of the United States called for 300,000 more men for the army; and, on the llth 
of the same month. General Henry \Y. Halleck was appointed commander-in-chief 
of the armies of the United States. 

Battle of Baton Rouge. — On the 5th of August, 1862, ihe Confederates, under 
General John C. Breckinridge, attacked a small National force under General Thomas 
Williams at Baton Rouge, Louisjana. The National troops were victorious, and the 
Confederate ram Arkansas was sunk, but the gallant General Williams was killed 
in the moment of triumph. 

Formation of the Army of Virginia — Battle of Cedar Mountain. — The 
forces under Generals Banks, Fremont, and McDowell, were united on the 25th of 
June (1862), into one army named " The Army of Virginia," the command of 
which was given to General John Pope. This army soon found sufficient employ- 
ment, as the insurgents, flushed with their successes over McClellan's army near 
Richmond, marched northward for the purpose of taking Washington. On the 9th 
of August, a spirited but indecisive action was fought at Cedar Mountain, in Cul- 
peper county, Virginia, between that portion of the Army of Virginia under General 
Banks and a large body of insurgents iinder Stonewall Jackson. 

Terrible Defeats and Retreat of the Army of Virginia. — At length, the 
Confederates flanked the Army of Virginia, and a succession of bloody battles were 
fought, beginning on the 24th of August, and ending on the ist of September. The 
most important of this series of engagements were the battle of Kettle Run, August 
27; the battle of Groveton, August 29; the second battle of Bull's Run, August 
30; and the battle of Chantilly, September I. In the last named conflict. Generals 
Stevens and Kearney were among the killed on the National side. The Con- 
federate loss in this series of battles was 15,000 men, while the National loss was 
20,000 men. Pope's army was so badly defeated that, to escape total destruction, it 
was compelled to seek safety behind the fortifications of Washington. 

Lee's Invasion of Maryland. — Early in September, the Armies of Virginia 
and the Potomac were consolidated, and were thereafter known as " The Army of 
the Potomac," the command of which was entrusted to General McClellan, for the 
defense of Washington. The Confederates, under the command of Robert Edmund 
Lee, their commander-in-chief, now crossed the Potomac into Maryland. McClellan 
followed on their right flank, to cover Washington and Baltimore. 

Battle of South Mountain — Surrender of Harper's Ferry. — On the 14th 
of September, 1862, a heavy battle was fought at South Mountain, in Marylard, in 
which the National army was victorious, but one of its gallant commanders. General 
Reno, was killed. The next day (September 15, 1862), after a bloody conflict, 
Harper's Ferry, with its garrison of 12,000 National troops, was surrendered to the 
Confederates. 



512 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Battle of Antietam — Lee in Virginia. — On the 17th of September (1862), 
a great battle was fought near Antietam Creek, in Mnr>-land, between the armies of 
McClellan and Lee, each numbering about 100,000 men. The Confederates were 
defeated with the loss of 20,000 men. The National loss was about 15,000 men. 
Among the killed on the National side were the heroic Generals Mansfield, Rich- 
ardson, and Rodman. Immediately after the battle, Lee's army fell back to the 
Potomac, which it crossed, and retreated in the direction of Richmond, withou'. 
being pursued by the National army. 

Confederate Invasion of Kentucky — Battle of Richmond^Battle of 
Perryville. — In the latter part of August, 1862, a large body of Confederate troops, 
ander General E. Kirby Smith, invaded Eastern Kentucky. On the 29th and 30th 
of August, they defeated a part of the National army commanded by General Nel- 
son, near Richmond, Kentucky. At the same time, another Confederate army, 
under General Braxton Bragg, invaded the more western portion of Kentucky, and 
advanced in the direction of Louisville; but, after suffering a defeat at Perryville, 
from the National forces under Generals Rousseau and McCook, Bragg was com- 
pelled to abandon Kentucky with his army. Smith and his army also evacuated 
the State about the same time. (October, 1862.) 

Battles of luka, Corinth, and Hatchie. — In the autumn of 1862, events of 
great importance were transpiring in North-eastern Mississippi. On the 19th of 
September, the Confederates under Generals Van Dorn and Price were defeated at 
luka, by the National troops commanded by General Rosecrans. On the 3d and 
4th of October, the Confederates met with another severe defeat at Corinth. The 
Confederates were pursued, and defeated on the 5th of October (1862), in "the 
battle of the Hatchie," by the National troops under Generals Ord and H irlburt. 

Confederate Cavalry Raid — McClellan Relieved of Command. — About 
three weeks after the battle of Antietam, a Confederate cavahy force, under General 
Stuart, made a destructive raid as far as Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. In the 
latter part of October, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Potomac into Virginia. 
On the 5th of November (1S62), McClellan was relieved of the command of the 
army, and General Ambrose E. Bumside was appointed to take his place. 

Battle of Prairie Grove. — The war was again raging in Arkansas. On the 
.7th of December, 1862, the National troops, under Generals Herron and Blunt, 
gained an important victory over a Confederate army under General Hindman, at 
Prairie Grove, near Fayetteville, in North-western Arkansas. 

Battle of Fredericksburg. — Toward the close of 1862, another great battle 
was fought in Virginia. The Army of the Potomac, then under the command of 
General Bumside, attacked the Confederates at Fredericksburg, on the 13th of 
December (1862). After hard fighting, the National troops were repulsed, with 
the loss of 8,000 of their number. The Army of the Potomac then recrossed to the 
north side of the Rappahannock river, where it remained until May of the next year. 

Sherman's Unsuccessful Attack on Vicksburg. — In the latter part ' 
December, 1862, a large National force, under General William Tecumseh Sherman, 
made an attack on the city of Vicksburg, in Mississippi, on the Mississi])pi rivei: 
but was repulsed after severe fighting. Sherman was then superseded in his com- 
mand by General John A. McClernand. 




ROBERT E. LEE. 




STONEWALL JACKSON. 



UNITED STATES. 513 

Battle of Murfreesboro'. — At Murfreesboro', in Tennessee, a sanguinai^ battle, 
between the National army under General Rosecrans and the Confederate army 
under General Bragg, commenced on the 29th of December, 1862, and ended on 
the 4th of January, 1863. The National army gained the victory, but lost 12,000 
men. This engagement is also known as "the battle of Stone River." 

War with the Sioux Indians in Minnesota. — During the summer of 1862, 
the Sioux Indians in Minnesota, led by Little Crow and other chiefs, began a rajx- 
derous war on the white people of that State, by an attack upon the town of N .nv 
Ulm. Many atrocious massacres were perpetrated by the savages ; and about 25 .000 
white people were driven from their homes. At length. General Henry H. Siiiley 
defeated the Indians and drove them into Dakota. The following year the saviges 
renewed the war, but they were soon subdued, and their chief, Little Crow, was 
killed. 

Doings of Congress. — While the war was raging on sea and land during the 
year 1862, the National Government was devising measures for the suppression of 
the rebellion. Early in April, Congress passed an act providing for the abolition 
of slavery in the District of Columbia. The bill received the signature of the Pre- 
sident and became a law on the i6Lh of June. On the 20th of the same month (June, 
1862), the President signed a bill passed by Congress for the prohibition of slavery 
in the Territories of the United States. Congress also authorized the President to 
proclaim the freedom of the slaves; and, on the 22d of September (1862), he issued 
a proclamation warning the insurgents that he would proclaim the emancipation of 
every slave in the revolted States within a hundred days, if they refused to lay down 
their arms and return to their allegiance within that period. 

Gloomy Prospect. — Never during the whole period of the Civil War, did the 
cause of the Union appear more gloomy than at the close of 1862. The Rebellion 
was as formidable as ever, and veiy little had been accomplished in the way of its 
suppression. There were about 700,000 National troops in the field, while the 
Confederate army was larger than at any previous or subsequent period. 

EVENTS OF 1863. 

Emancipation Proclamation. — As the Confederates paid no attention to the 
proclamation issued by the President on the 22d of September, 1862, he issued 
another proclamation on the 1st of January, 1863, declaring forever free all the 
slaves in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, excepting West Virginia and such 
portions of the rebellious States as were in the hands of the National troops at that 
time. It was evident that the time had arrived for this decisive step; and it received 
the unanimous approval of the supporters of the Administration, and destroyed the 
last hope of foreign aid to the insurgents. 

Capture of Arkansas Post. — After his unsuccessful attempt to take Vi:ks- 
Lm-g. at the close of 1862, Sherman was succeeded in his command by Gener\; 
John A. McClemand, who went up the Arkansas river, and, in conjunction with 
Admiral Porter, captured Arkansas Post, with its garrison of 5,000 Confederate 
troops, after a severe engagement, on the nth of January, 1863. 

Operations in North Carolina — Siege of Suffolk. — In Eastern N-^rth Caio- 
Z2> 



514 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 



lina, during the spring of 1863, the National forces, under the command of General 
John G. Foster, repelled the assaults of the Confederates, under General D. H. Hill 
and others, and foiled their attempts to obtain the entire control of that region. 
Early in May, 1863, the Confederates, under Generals Longstreet and D. H. Hill, 
were repulsed in an attempt to take by siege the town of Suffolk, in South-eastern 
Virginia, by 14,000 National troops under General Peck. 

Success of Banks in Louisiana.— During the winter and spring of 18635 
General Banks, with a National force, overran Louisiana, from New Orleans tc the 
Red River, defeated the Confederates in a number of actions, and captured many 
piisoners, some artillery, and much public property. Banks returned to New Or- 
leans; and during the summer, he sent an expedition by water to Texas. 

Battle of Chancellorsville. — On the 27th of April, 1863, General Burnside 
was relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and succeeded by Gen- 
eral Joseph Hooker. Hooker crossed the Rappahannock river, and, on the 2d, 3d, 
and 4th of May, his army engaged in a severe battle with Lee's army at a place 
called Chancellorsville. In this battle, the famous Confederate general, " Stonewall 
Jackson," lost his life. The result of the battle was that the National army vva.s 
defeated, and compelled to retire across the Rappahannock on the 5th (May, 1863). 

Grant's Victories in Mississippi. — The defeat of the Arniy of the Potomac 
in Virginia was fully atoned for by a series of brilliant victories gained by the Na- 
tional army under General Grant in Mississippi. In the latter part of April (1863), 
Grant defeated the insurgents in two battles near Port Gibson. The Confederates 
were also defeated in the battle of Raymond, May 12; the battle of Jackson, May 
14; the battle of Champion Hills, May 16; and the battle of Big Black River 
Bridge, May 17; after which Grant prepared to carry on the siege of Vicksburg 
with vigor. 

Invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania by Lee's Army. — After the 
iSattle of Chancellorsville, Lee's army began to march northward, for the purpose 
of carrying the war into the loyal States. Hooker followed with his army, on the 
fight flank of the Confederates, in order to save Washington and Baltimore from 
capture. At length, on the 28th of June, General George Gordon Meade was 
appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, Hooker having resigned. 

Battle of Gettysburg — The Armies in Virginia. — Lee advanced into Penn- 
sylvania, followed by Meade. At length, the two armies confronted each other at 
Gettysburg, where a sanguinary engagement occurred on the ist, 2d, and 3d of July, 
1863. The Confederates were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of about 30,000 
men, while the loss of the National army vvas more than 20,000 men. General 
John F. Reynolds, of the National army, and General Barksdale, of the Confederate 
army, were killed. After the battle, the Confederate anny made a precipitate fligl.t 
toward Virginia, closely pursued by the victorious army under General Meade 
and it was not long before both armies again found themselves south of the Potomac. 

Siege and Capture of Vicksburg.— Late in May, the army under GeneraJ 
Grant invested Vicksburg, which was garrisoned by a large Confederate army, undei 
General John C. Pemberton. The siege was prosecuted with so much vigor that, 
on the 4th of July, (1S63), Pemberton surrendered his whole force, amounting to 
more than 30,000 men, and the city of Vicksburg, into the hands of Grant. 



UNITED STATES. eje 

Repulse of the Confederates at Helena. — On the day that Vicksburg yielded 
to the National arms (July 4, 1863), a Confederate force was repulsed in an attack 
lipon the National troops under the command of General Prentiss, at Helena, 
Arkansas. 

Fall of Port Hudson. — After his successes in South-western Louisiana, Gene- 
ral Banks invested Port Hudson, on the Mississippi, above Baton Rouge. On the 
8th of July (1863), Port Hudson, with its garrison of 5,000 Confederate troops 
under General Gardner, was surrendered to Banks; and thus the last obstruction to 
th': navigation of the Mississippi river was overcome. 

Morgan's Raid in Indiana and Ohio. — About the time of Lee's inv.nsion of 
Pennsylvania, a krge body of Confederate guerrillas, under General John Morgan, 
suddenly crossed the Ohio river into Indiana, and advanced eastward into Ohio, 
plundering as they went. After many of the raiders had been killed or captured, 
Morg.an surrendered with the remainder, numbering about 800 men, to General 
Shackleford, in Morgan County, Ohio. 

Siege of Charleston — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — During the spring 
and summer of 1S63, the National forces were vigorously besieging Charleston, 
in South Carolina. An unsuccessful attempt was made, on the 7th of April (1863), 
by the National navy, under Admiral Dupont, to take Fort Sumter. In July, a 
National land force, under General Q. A. Gillmore, landed on Morris Island, and 
commenced besieging the works which defended Charleston harbor. After a fright- 
ful bombardment of seven days. Fort Sumter was reported by Gillmore as being 
reduced to " a shapeless and harmless mass of ruins." It was not harmless, how- 
ever, as.it still successfully bid defiance to the guns of the besieging forces. Fort 
Wagner was evacuated by its Confederate garrison in September (1863), after which 
it was taken possession of by the National troops. The siege of Charleston was 
continued for a year and a half longer. 

Capture of Fort Smith and Little Rock. — On the ist of September, 1S63, 
Fort Smith, in Western Arkansas, was captured by a National force under General 
Blunt. On the loth of the same month (September, 1863), General Frederic Steele, 
with National troops, completely broke the power of the insurgents in Arkansas by 
the capture of Little Rock, the capital of that State. 

The Army of the Cumberland. — In the latter part of June, 1863, the great 
Army of the Cumberland, under General Rosecrans, began a decisive campaign in 
Tennessee. After a series of conflicts, the Confederate army under General Bragg 
was compelled to retreat to Chattanooga, in the South-eastern part of that State. 
The insurgents erected strong fortifications at Chattanooga, but when Rosecrans 
approached, in August, the Confederate army evacuated the city, which was taker 
possession of by a portion of Rosecrans' army on the 9th of September. 

Battle of Chickamauga. — Rosecrans again pursued Bragg, who was now rein- 
forced by General James Longstreet .and his corps, from Lee's army, in Virginia. 
The Confederate army, thus strengthened, suddenly attacked the pursuing anny of 
Ro'jccrans at the Chickamauga creek, where a bloody battle was fought on the lyth 
and 20th of September, 1863. The insurgents were victorious; and the National 
army was obliged to fall back, and seek refuge behind the fortifications of Chatta- 
nooga. 



5l6 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Skirmishes between the Great Armies in Virginia. — In October, 1863, 
Lee's amiy drove the Army of the Potomac back upon Manassas, but was in turn 
compelled to retreat, after some skirmishing. On the 7th of November, a severe 
skirmish at Kelly's Ford resulted in the capture of 2,000 Confederates, by a portion 
of the National army, under Generals John Sedgevvick and W. H. French. 

Battle of Chattanooga. — After his defeat in the battle of Chickamauga, Rose- 
crarLS was in a perilous situation. General Grant, who had just been entru;sted 
with tlie command of all the National armies in the West, east of the Missisi;ipj)i, 
hastened to his relief. After being joined by Sherman from Vicksburg and Hookei 
from the Army of the Potomac, Grant attacked Bragg's army at Chattanooga, on 
the 23d of November; and, after a sanguinary conflict of three days, known as "the 
battle of Chattanooga," in which the insurgents were driven from their strong 
positions on Orchard Knob by General Thomas (November 23), from Lookout 
Mountain by General Hooker, after a fierce struggle known as " the battle above 
the cluuds" (November 24), and from Missionary Ridge, after the most obstinate 
resistance (November 25), the siege of Chattanooga was raised, and the National 
army gained a brilliant victory. Bragg's defeated and shattered army retreated into 
Georgia, and the whole of Tennessee fell into the possession of the National 
forces. 

Siege of Knoxville. — About the middle of November, 1863, General Bumside, 
with 5,000 National troops, was besieged in Knoxville, in East Tennessee, by 
General Longstreet, who had left Bragg's army with his corps, for the purpose of 
expelling the National forces from that quarter. When General Sherman came 
with National troops for the relief of Burnside's beleaguered force, Longstreet fled 
eastward, and rejoined Lee's army in Virginia. 

Progress of the National Arms during the Year. — The progi-ess of the 
National arms during the year 1S63 had been very great. Missouri, Arkansas, 
Kentucky, Tennessee, large portions of Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and 
the control of the Rio Grande and Mississippi rivers, had been lost to the insurgents; 
and the Rebellion was on its decline. 

Doings of Congress — Riot in New York — West Virginia a State. — On 
the 4th of March, 1863, the Thirty-seventh Congress closed its last session, after 
having adopted measures for the efficiency of the army. Steps were taken for the 
enlistment and organization of colored troops; and, on the 3d of March (1863), a 
censcription act became a law. In May, the President ordered a draft of 300,000 
men. Much opposition was manifested against the draft, especially in the city of 
New York, where a terrible riot of three days occurred (July 13, 14, and 15, 1863), 
in which one hundred lives were lost, and property to the value of two million dol- 
lars was destroyed. On the 20th of June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted into 
the Union as a State, by authority of an act passed by Congress on the 31st of 
December, 1862. 

EVENTS OF 1864. 

Bright Prospect. — The year 1864 opened with many bright and promising 
hopes for the National cause. The National armies were strong and well discip- 
lined, while the finances of the Rspublic were in a good condition. The loyal 



UNITED STATES. ej^ 

people were more united in the support of the Administration and in the deter- 
mination to prosecute the war until the suppression of the rebellion should be 
accomplished. 

Averill's Raid in Virginia — Kilpatrick's Bold Attempt. — About the middle 
of January, 1864, a body of National cavalry, under General William W. Averill, 
destroyed thirty miles of the Virginia and Tennessee railway track west of Lyncli- 
burg. In the latter part of February, a bold exploit was performed by General 
[udson Kilpatrick, who, with a small force of National cavalry, entered the outer 
defenses of Richmond. 

Sherman's Invasion of Mississippi. — On the 3d of February, 1864, General 
William T. Sherman, with a considerable National force, commenced a destructive 
invasion of Mississippi. Starting from Vicksburg, Sherman's force advanced east- 
ward, almost to the borders of Alabama, seizing or destroying much property, and 
liberating about 10,006 slaves. 

Seymour's Invasion of Florida — Battle of Olustee. — On the 5th of Febru- 
ary, 1864, General Seymour, with a National force, left Port Royal, in South Carolina, 
and invaded North-eastern Florida. Seymour defeated the Confederates at Jack- 
sonville, and moved westward; but, on the 20th (February, 1864), his army was 
defeated and almost ruined, in a bloody battle at Olustee, on the Florida Central 
railroad. Seymour abandoned his project and returned to Jacksonville. 

Red River Expedition — Its Unfortunate End. — On the loth of March, 1864, 
General Andrew J. Smith left Vicksburg, with a heavy National force, for the in- 
vasion of Louisiana. A fleet under Admiral Porter, and an army under General 
Banks from New Orleans, cooperated with Smith's expedition. Smith captured 
Fort De Russey from the Confederates under General Richard Taylor, on the 13th 
of March, and, continuing his advance toward Shreveport, was joined by Banks at 
Alexandria. The National troops were defeated by the Confederates at Sabine 
Cross-Roads, on the 8th of April, and were compelled to retreat toward New Or- 
leans. On their retreat, they defeated the Confederates at Pleasant Hill, and at 
Cane River. Porter's fleet, which had gone to Shreveport, was enabled to return 
to New Orleans by damming up the river. 

Forrest's Raid in Tennessee and Kentucky — Massacre of Fort Pillow. 
— In March, 1864, a Confederate cavaliy force, under General Napoleon Bona- 
parte Forrest, made a destructive raid into Tennessee and Kentucky. Forrest 
captured Union City, Tennessee, on the 24th of March, and the next day some of 
his troops almost desti'oyed Paducah, in Kentucky, on the Ohio river. On the I2ti 
of April, Forrest captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, and 
caused most of the garrison, which was composed of negro troops, to be massacred 
after they had surrendered. 

Grant a Lieutenant-General — The Army of the Potomac. — In February-, 
1864, General Grant was placed in chief command of the armies of the Republic, 
with the title of Lieutenant-General. He established his head-quarters in the field 
w hh the Army of the Potomac. On the 3d of May, he issued an order for the 
Array of the Potomac under General Meade, and three Western armies under Gen- 
eral W. T. Sherman, in Northern Georgia, to commence operations against the 
Confederate armies opposed to them. 



5i8 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

Batv es of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania — Advance on Richmond. 

— On U.e 5th of May, 1864, the Army of the Potomac, under the immediate com- 
mand of General Meade, and by the direction of Lieutenant-General Grant, whose 
head-quarters were with that army, crossed the Rapid Anna, and attacked General 
Lee's army in the " Wilderness," in Orange County, Virginia, where a sanguinary 
battle ensued, on the 5th, 6th, and 7th of May. (1864.) Lee retreated to Spotsyl- 
vania Court-House, where another series of bloody struggles followed; and, at the 
end of a week's conflict, the National army was successful, and Lee's army was in 
full retreat toward Richmond. In these battles, Generals John Sedgewick and 
James Wadsworth, of the National army, were killed. Grant pursued Lee's retreat- 
ing army, fought several bloody actions with the enemy, the most important of 
which was at Cold Harbor, outflanked Lee, and thus compelled him to fall back to 
the defenses of Richmond, in the early part of June. 

Cavalry Raids — Movements of the Army of the James. — Grant sent out 
cavalry expeditions in various directions to destroy railroads, and to cut oflf all com- 
munication with the Confederate capital. In the meantime, a large National force 
named "The Army of the James," which had been placed under the command of 
General Butler, had gone up the James river, from Fortress Monroe, and fortified 
BeiTiiuda Hundred, on the south side of the river. Butler was repulsed in an attack 
upon Fort Darling, but he afterwards repulsed several attacks by the insurgents 
under Beauregard upon Bermuda Hundred. 

Siege of Petersburg. — Butler's movements enabled Grant to place the Army 
of the Potomac on the south side of the James river, and to lay siege to Petersburg, 
an important city on the Appomattox river, twenty miles south of Richmond. The 
Confederates had strongly fortified Petersburg, as they considered the defense of 
that town essential to the safety of Richmond. Lee with the greater part of his 
army took a position to defend Petersbui-g. 

Sherman's Successes in Georgia — Siege of Atlanta. — While the Army 
of the Potomac had been thus successful in Virginia, the Armies of the Cumber- 
land, the Tennessee, and the Ohio, which had been united in Northern Georgia, 
and placed under the command of General W. T. Sherman, were fully as victorious. 
At the beginning of May, 1864, Sherman compelled the Confederates, under General 
Joseph E. Johnston, to evacuate Dalton. For several months there was almost 
constant fighting between Sherman's and Johnston's armies. Johnston was always 
defeated and compelled to retreat. The most important of these battles were those 
of Resaca, Dallas, Allatoona Pass, and Kenesaw Mountain. In July, Johnston was 
removed from the command of the Confederate army in Northern Georgia, and his 
place was supplied by General John B. Hood. Sherman defeated Hood in three 
great battles before Atlanta (July 20, 22, and 28, 1864), after which he laid siege 
to that important town and railway centre. In the battle fought on the 22d of July, 
General James B. McPherson, of the National army, was killed. 

Battle of Guntown. — While the ,gfeat events just related were occurring in 
7irginia and in Georgia, events of minor importance were transpiring in othei 
quarters. On the loth of J ine, 1864, a National force in Northern Mississippi, 
under the command of General Sturgis, was defeated in the battle of Guntown, by 
% Confederate force under General Forrest, and compelled to retreat about sevent}'- 




ULYSSES S. GRANT. 




WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. 



UNITED STATES. ^19 

fi\'e railes. Soon -.fter this disaster, .Stiirgis was superseded in his command by 
General Andrew J. Smith, who soon defeated the Confederates and restored the 
supremacy of the National arms in that quarter of the Southern Confederacy. 

Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama. — After the beginning of 
the Civil War, several large vessels were built for the Confederates at Liverpool, 
in England, by Laird, a ship-builder at that place, and a member of the British 
Parliament. One of these vessels, named Alabama, and manned chiefly by Eng- 
fi.imen, but bearing a Confederate flag, and commanded Ijy Captain Raphai.I 
Semmes, was defeated and sunk, on the 15th of June, 1864, in the English Chan- 
nel, near the French port of Cherbourg, by the Kearsarge, a National vessel, com- 
manded by Captain John A. Winslow. The crew of the Alabama were saved Ly 
an English vessel and carried to England. 

Early's Invasion of Maryland — Battle of Monocacy. — At the beginning 
of July, 1864, about 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Jubal Early, crossed 
the Potomac, from the Shenandoah Valley, into Maryland. They moved toward 
Baltimore, and, on the 9th (July, 1S64), they defeated a few National troops, under 
General Lewis Wallace, on the Monocacy river, near Frederick. Soon afterward, 
the Confederates recrossed the Potomac into Virginia, carrying with them a large 
amount of plunder. 

Battle at Winchester — Burning of Chambersburg. — When Early's troops 
retired into Virginia, they were pursued by National troops, who defeated them at 
Winchester, on the 20th of July. In the latter part of July, a small Confederate 
force crossed the Potomac, and marched northward to Chambersburg, in Pennsyl- 
vania. They reduced the greater part of that town to ashes, on the 30th (July, 1864), 
after which they again retired into Virginia, pursued by a National force. 

Explosion of a Mine at Petersburg — Seizure of the Weldon Railroad. 
— During the latter part of June, and throughout July and August, 1864, Grant 
prosecuted the siege of Petersburg with vigor. On the 30th of July, a mine which 
had been dug under one of the strongest of the Confederate works, was exploded 
with terrific effect ; but the assault on Petersburg which immediately followed, was 
disastrously repulsed. In August, Grant seized the railroad leading from Peters- 
burg to Weldon, in North Carolina. Four desperate attempts made by the insur- 
gents to reirake this important road were defeated. (August 19, 20, 21, and 25, 
1S64.) 

Siege and Capture of Atlanta. — During the latter part of July and throughout 
August, 1864, Sherman was vigorously besieging Atlanta, while the Confederate 
ai my which defended the place was gradually becoming weaker. Cavalry expe- 
iitions had cut the railways leading to Atlanta. At length, on the 2d of Sep- 
tember (1864), Sherman defeated and severed Hood's army, ccmpclled it to evac- 
uate Atlanta, and immediately took possession of the city. 

Farragut's Victory in Mobile Bay — Capture of Forts Gaines and Mor- 
gan. — While the sieges of Petersburg and Atlanta were progressing, important 
events were occurring near Mobile. On the 5th of August, the National fleet, under 
Admiral Farragut, defeated the Confederate fleet at the entrance to Mobile bay, 
capturing many vessels. The Confederate admiral, Franklin Buchanan, lost a leg 
during th^ engagement. Farragut acted in conjunction with a National army under 



520 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

General Gordon Granger. Fort Gaines, after a furious assault, was captured by 
Farragut on the 8th of August. Farragut and Granger opened a heavy assault on 
Fort Morgan, which they compelled to surrender on the 23d of August (1864). 

Sheridan's Victories in the Shenandoah Valley. — On the 19th of Septem- 
ber, 1864, the National army in the Shenandoah Valley, under General Philip H. 
Sheridan, gained a brilliant victory over the Confederates under General Eaily,not 
far from Winchester. Sheridan gained another victory at Fisher's Hill, on the 22d 
September, 1S64). Early was driven farther up the valley. On the 19th of Octc 
*ier, Sheridan almost annihilated Early's army, in the battle of Cedar Creek. Aflej 
this, the valley was under the complete control of the National troops. 

Hood's Invasion of Tennessee — Destruction of Hood's Army. — After 
the fall of Atlanta, Hood, with his Confederate army, moved northward, for the pur- 
pose of invading Tennessee and cutting off Sherman's communications with the loyal 
States. Sherman followed Hood and drove him into Alabama. At length, Sher- 
man left General George H. Thomas with a part of his army in Tennessee to watch 
Hood, and with the remainder he began his great march through Georgia. Hood 
invaded Tennessee with about 40,000 men. On his approach, Thomas retreated 
to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee. Hood pursued, fought an indecisive battle 
with a part of Thomas's aiTny under General Schofield, at Franklin, on the 30th of 
November, and then laid siege to Nashville. On the 15th of December (1864), 
Thomas marched out of the city, and in a bloody battle he completely destroyed 
Hood's army. Nearly the whole of Hood's artillei7 was captured by the victori- 
ous National troops, and Hood, with a small remnant of his army, fled south into 
Alabama. 

Sherman's March Through Georgia — Capture of Savannah. — Aiter 
having gone in pursuit of Hood, Sherman divided his army, retaining 50,000 men 
inder his own command, and leaving the remainder under General Thomas to 
oppose Hood's anny in Tennessee. On the 14th of November, Sherman finally 
abandoned Atlanta, and commenced a grand march through Georgia for the Atlantic 
coast. No opposition was made to his progress. He captured Milledgeville, the 
capital of that State, on the 29th of November; and, on the 2ist of December, 
he took military possession of Savannah, which, on his approach, had been evac- 
uated by 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Hardee, who fled toward 
Charleston. 

Admission of Nevada — Re-election of Lincoln. — On the 31st of October, 
1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 8th of November, 
the people of the loyal States pronounced in favor of a vigorous prosecution of the 
war, by reelecting Abraham Lincoln President of the United States, over his oppo- 
nent. General George Brinton McClellan. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was 
elected Vice-President. 

EVEJSTTS OF 1865. 

Abolition of Slavery. — Li the early part of 1865, Congress passed an amend- 
ment of the National Constitution abolishing slavery forever within the limits of the 
Republic. Within a few months, three-fourths of the States had ratified the 
amendment. 



UNITED STATES. 



521 



Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington. — On the 15th cf January, 1865, 
Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, in North Carolina, having been 
furioujly bombar-led for two days by 8,000 National troops under General Alfred 
H. Terry, assisted by Admiral Porter's fleet, was surrendered, with its garrison of 
2,000 Confederate troops. Terry moved up the river, and, on the 22d of February, 
he captured Wilmington, the possession of which had long been desired, as it had 
been the only seaport in the power of the insurgents for a long time. 

Sherman's MardTi in South Carolina — Evacuation of Charleston. — 
About the middle of January, 1865, Sherman left Savannah and invaded SoiUn 
Carolina. He was soon joined by General John G. Foster with a strong force of 
National troops. Sherman marched northward, and entered Columbia, the capital 
of the State, on the 17th of February. This caused the Confederates to evacuate 
Charleston on the same day, and on the following day (February 18, 1865), that 
city was taken possession of by National colored troops. 

Sherman's Invasion of North Carolina — ^Junction of Armies. — Sherman 
advanced into North Carolina, and defeated the insurgents, under Hardee and John- 
ston, at Averysboro', March i6th, and at Bentonville, March 19th. On the 22d of 
March (1865), Sherman was reinforced at Goldsboro', by the army unden Terry 
from Wilmington, and that under Schofield from Newbern, while Johnston with his 
Confederate army retired to Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, which was 
occupied by Sherman on the 13th of April. 

Sheridan's Movements. — In the meantime, Sheridan had gone up the Shenan- 
doah Valley, with a force of 10,000 cavalry; and, on the 2d of March, he almost 
annihilated the Confederate force under Early, near Charlottesville. After destroying 
railways and canals, Sheridan joined the Army of the James under General Ord. 

Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond — Surrender of Lee. — During 
the entire autumn of 1864 and the ensuing winter, nothing of importance occurred 
at Petersburg, except a severe conflict at Hatcher's Run, in February, 1865. On 
the 25th of March, 1S65, Fort Steadman was captured by the insurgents, but it was 
recaptured by the National troops on the same day. On the 29th of March (1865), 
a terrific struggle of three days began between the two great armies before Peters- 
burg. After three days' fighting, Lee's army was compelled to evacuate Peters- 
burg and Richmond, and flee westward toward Lynchburg. A hot pursuit on the 
part of the National army followed, and many of the Confederate troops were cap 
tured on the way. The retreat of Lee's army had been intercepted by Sheridan, 
and, at Deatonsville, the Confederate General Ewell and his entire corps weie 
made prisoners, after a sharp fight. At length, on the 9th of April, finding escape 
impossible, Lee surrendered what remained of his army, about 26,000 men, tr 
General Grant, at Appomattox Court- House. 

End of the Confederate Government. — By the surrender of Lee's army, the 
Rebellion had received its death-blow. Richmond had been entered on the 3d of 
April, by colored troops under General Godfrey Weitzel, who received the sur- 
rendei of the city from the mayor. "The President," "The Cabinet." and "The 
Congress" of the Confederacy had fled, thus putting an end to "The Confederate 
Government." On the 4th of April (1S65), President Lincoln, who had been at 
the head-quarters of Grant for more than a week, made his appearance in Rich 



522 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

mond, and, in the mansion of Jefferson Davis, the fugitive President of the Southern 
Confederacy, he publicly received many army officers and citizens. 

Capture of Mobile — Cavalry Raids. — Operations near Mobile had been 
suspended during the winter, but in March, 1S65, they were resumed by General 
Canby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher; and, after a defense of more than a month 
the city of Mobile and its defenses were surrendered to the National forces, on the 
1 2th of April General J. H. Wilson, with a large force of National cavalry, 
niade a destnictive raid through Western Georgia and Eastern Alabama; and 
(jeneral George Stoneman, at the head of another cavalry force, swept through 
South-western Virginia, to Salisbury, in North Carolina, destroying railways ar.d 
bridges. 

Assassination of President Lincoln. — While the American people were 
rejoicing, because of the suppression of the rebellion and the return of peace, they 
suddenly became a nation of mourners, when the news spread over the country 
that President Lincoln had been assassinated in a theatre in Washington. On the 
night of the 14th of April (Good Friday), 1865, John Wilkes Booth, who had at 
one time been an actor in that theatre, stole up behind the President, and shot him 
through the head. Mr. Lincoln died the next morning. The assassin, immediately 
after committing his tragical deed, leaped upon the stage, and, brandishing a large 
knife, exclaimed, in the motto of Virginia, "Sic semper tyrannis!" "May this ever 
be the fate of tyrants!" and made his escape. He was afterwards found in a bam, 
in Virginia, and, refusing to surrender himself, he was shot by Sergeant Boston 
Corbett. Booth's accomplices in the assassination were tried, and, upon conviction, 
four were hanged, and the rest were imprisoned for life, with the exception of one, 
who was only imprisoned for six years. 

JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 15, 1865- 
MARCH 4, 1869). 

Andrew Johnson Inaugurated President. — At about noon on the day that 
Mr. Lincoln died (April 15, 1S65), Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was 
sworn in, as President of the United States, by Chief-Justice Chase. 

Surrender of Johnston's Army — End of the Rebellion. — On the 26th of 
April, 1865, the insurgent army in North Carolina, numbering then about 31,000 
men, under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, suiTendered to General 
Sherman. The other Confederate armies and guerrilla bands soon afterward laid 
down their arms; and, by the middle of May, all armed opposition to the National 
Government had ended; and the National armies were disbanded, and the Nation's 
defenders were returning to their homes. 

Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis. — In the meantime, Jefferson Davis, 
Uie late so-called Confederate President, and the chief of the foiled conspirators, 
was fleeing toward the sea-coast, with a large amount of specie, for the purpose of 
escaping from the country. He was captured near Irwinsville, Georgia, by ;i fiarl 
of Uie 4th Michigan cavahy, under the command of Colonel B. D. I'ritchard; and 
was brought to Fortress Monroe, where he was kept a close prisoner for two years, 
after which he was finallj- set at liberty. (May, 1S67.) 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 




WILLIAM H SEWARD. 



UNITED STATES. 



523 



Purification and Perpetuity of the Republic. — Thus closed the most terrible 
civil war ever known. A few restless and ambitious men, who had lost the power 
which they had wielded over the Nation for many years, had conspired against the 
life of the Republic, and inaugurated a gigantic rebellion, for the purpose of dis- 
membering the Union, and establishing an independent empire, with slavery as its 
corner-stone. In that fierce struggle perished the schemes of these conspirators, 
and the barbarous institution which they had desired to perpetuate. The Republic 
was purified and strengthened by the fiery ordeal through which it had passed. 

Reconstruction — Readmission of Tennessee. — On the assembling of Con 
gress, in December, 1865, it became evident that a disagreement existed between 
that body and the President, respecting the restoration of the lately -rebellious 
States to their former relations with the Union. The President demanded their 
immediate j-cstoration, while Congress contended that they should 'first comply with 
certain conditions imposed upon them in the shape of a Constitutional amendment. 
In June, 1866, Tennessee, having ratified the proposed amendment, was restored 
to its former place in the Union. 

Atlantic Telegraph Cable. — In the summer of 1866, telegraphic communica- 
tion between America and Europe was established by means of the Atlantic Tele- 
graph Cable, which was laid from Valentia, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in New- 
foundland. The accomplishment of this vast undertaking is owing to Cyrus W. 
Field, of New York. The Queen of Great Britain immediately sent a congratula- 
tory dispatch to the President of the United States, and received a reply from him 
on the same day. 

Military Reconstruction Bill. — The Thirty-ninth Congress, before the close 
of its last session, in March, 1867, passed, over the President's veto, a bill placing 
the States lately in rebellion under the military authority of the Republic until their 
full restoration as States of the Union should be effected. 

Admission of Nebraska — Purchase of Alaska. — During the last session 
of the Thirty-ninth Congress, in 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a 
State. In the spring of 1867, Russia sold all her territorial possessions in North 
America to the United States, for 7,200,000 dollars. The purchased territory was 
named Alaska. 

Impeachment, Trial, and Acquittal of President Johnson. — In the latter 
part of February, 1868, the National House of Representatives preferred articles of 
impeachment against President Johnson, for a violation of what was called the 
Tenure-of-Office Act, in an attempt to forcibly remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secre- 
tary of War, from the Cabinet, and for other misdemeanors. On the i6th of May, 
1868, the National Senate, sitting, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- 
stitution, as a High Court of Impeachment for the trial of the Chief Magistrate, 
acquitted the President of all the charges brought against him. 

General Grant Elected President of the United States. — In May, 1868, 
the Republican party, which had sustained the National Government in its prose- 
cution of the war for the suppression of the rebellion, nominated Gener, 1 Ulysse« 
Simpson Grant, of Ilhnois, for President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax, 
of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic nominees were Horatio Seymour, 
of New York, for President, and Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for Vice-President. 



524 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

On the 3d of Novemljer, General Grant and Mr. Colfax were elected by an over- 
whelming majority over the opposing candidates. 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1869- ). 

Inauguration of Grant — Pacific Railroad. — On the 4th of March, 1869, 
General Grant took the oath of office as eigliteenth President of the United States. 
In May following, the railroad from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento City, Cali- 
fornia, was completed. This great National highway across the continent to the 
I'acific, is known as the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads. 

Enfranchisement of the Colored Population of the United States. — 
All political distinctions on account of race or color in the United States, were finally 
removed by the ratification and adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Na- 
tional Constitution. This amendment, which was declared adopted in March, 1870, 
secured the rights of citizenship to all races within the borders of the Republic ; and 
several hundred thousand poor colored men, who ten years before were held as 
chattels, now enjoyed the glorious privileges of American citizens, and were placed 
on a political equality with their late masters. 

War with Corea. — On the ist of June, 1871, the United States fleet under 
Admiral Rodgers, while in the waters of Corea, in Eastern Asia, was fired upon 
from the Corean forts, but repulsed the attack; and, on the lOth and llth of the 
same month (June, 1871), the Americans defeated the Coreans, and captured their 
forts, after some spirited fighting. 

The Alabama Controversy with England. — The conduct of England, in 
allowing the construction, in her ports, and the escape therefrom, of the Alabama 
and other Anglo-Confederate pirate-ships, had produced a bitter feeling in the 
United States, against the British Government. A treaty signed by Lord Clarendon 
on the part of Great Britain, and by Reverdy Johnson on the part of the United 
States, on the l5thof Januaiy, iS69,was almost unanimously rejected by the United 
States Senate ; and the controversy threatened to end in a war between the two 
nations, in the early part of General Grant's Administration. 

Joint High Commission and Treaty of Washington — A Court of Arbi- 
tration. — In February, 1 871, commissioners appointed by the American and British 
Governments met in Washington City, as " The Joint High Commission;" and, on 
the loth of May, 1S71, the commissioners agreed upon "The Treaty 3f Washing- 
ton," which was speedily ratified by the two Governments. The Treaty of Wash ■ 
ington provided for the settlement of the Alabama dispute by a Court of Arbitration, 
consisting of five Arbitrators, to be appointed respectively by the President of the 
United States, the Queen of Great Britain, the Emperor of Brazil, the King of 
Italy, and the President of Switzerland. 

The 'Indirect Claims" Controversy. — When the Court of Arbitration met, 
iX Geneva, in Switzerland, in February, 1872, American claims for indirect or con 
Ee(iuential damages were presented; but the British Arbitrator, Sir Alexander Cock- 
burn, violently objected to the consideration of such claims, and his course was 
approved and sustained by the British Government and people. Intense excitement 
and bitter feeling against the United States was manifested in Great Britain, and it 




SALMON P. CHASE. 




CHARLES SUMNER. 



UNITED STATES. 



525 



was feared that the Arbitration would signally fail. The United States Government 
for some time obstinately persisted in its preposterous claims for consequential 
damages, and the British Government as persistently denied the justice of such 
claims; but, aicer several months' negotiation between the two Governments, the 
Tribunal of Arbitration, upon reassembling, in June, 1872, settled the question by 
rejecting the consideration of the claims of the United States for indirect damages. 
Decision of the Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva.— The 
Alabatna Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva finally concluded its work on the 
6th of September, 1S72. The Court expressed in mild terms England's want of 
cfue diligence in preventing the escape of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers. The 
amount of damages awarded the United States by the Court was fifteen and one- 
half million dollars. Thus was settled amicably a dispute which had threatened 
to involve in war two nations kindred in race, language, institutions, and religion; 
— presenting to the whole civilized world a most commendable spectacle. 

Presidential Campaign of 1872, and Re-election of President Grant. — 
A portion of the Republican party, known as Liberal Republicans, dissatisfied with 
General Grant's Administration, held a National Convention at Cincinnati, early 
in May, 1872, and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President, and 
Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice-President. Early in June, 
the regular Republican National Convention, at Philadelphia, renominated President 
Grant, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. Early in July, the 
Democrats, in their National Convention at Baltimore, instead of nominating a 
candidate from their own party, adopted the Liberal Republican nominations. On 
the 5th of November, President Grant was reelected by a majority far greater than 
in 1 868; and, on the 29th of the same month, Mr. Greeley died, mourned by the 
whole American nation. 

Domestic Difficulty in Louisiana. — Near the close of 1872, a serious domestic 
difficulty arose in Louisiana, concerning the election in that State. Both parties 
claimed to have carried the elections, and each endeavored to have its candidates 
installed. On the night of the 6th of December, 1872, in accordance with an order 
issued by Judge Durell, of the United States District Court of Louisiana, United 
States troops seized the State House in New Orleans, and held it for the Kellogg 
or Administration faction, which was supported by the National Administration ; 
but the opposite faction refused to recognize William Pitt Kellogg as Governor of 
the State, and acknowledged John McEnery as chief magistrate of Louisiana; and 
for some time Louisiana had two governors and two legislatures. On the 5th of 
March, 1873, the partisans of Governor McEnery made an armed attack upon the 
Kellogg party in New Orleans, but the disturbance was quickly quelled by United 
States troops. On the J3th of April (1873), a bloody conflict took place at Colfax, 
in Grant parish, which resulted in the horrible massacre of 150 negroes who sup- 
ported the Kellogg Government. On the 7th of May (1873), an armed insurrec- 
tion against the authority of Governor Kellogg broke out at St. Martinsville; hut, 
after some spirited skirmishing, and upon the appearance of National troops, the 
insurgents submitted, and quiet was restored, but the great body of the white popu- 
lation of Louisiana was very restive under the authority of the Kellogg Govornment, 

War witli the Modoc Indians in Oregon. — In November, 1872, the 
National Government attempted to remove the Modoc Indians, of Northern Call- 



526 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

fornia, to a reservation in Southern Oregon. The Modocs, numbering no more 
than sixty warriors, headed by their principal sachem, Captain Jack, and by tlieir 
other chiefs, Shack-Nasty Jim, Schonchin, Bogus Charlie, Boston Charlie, and 
Scar-faced Charlie, resisted, and defeated the United States troops sent to remove 
them. In January, 1873, Captain Jack again defeated the troops sent against him. 
On the nth of April (Good Friday), 1873, General Canby and Commissioner 
Thomas vi^ere treacherously assassinated by Captain Jack and Boston Charlie, at a 
peace conference. This event produced the most intense indignation throughout 
the United States, and public sentiment was for a time strongly in favor of the 
extemiination of the whole tribe of the Modocs. General Schofield, who coAi 
manded the United States forces in the Pacific Department, sent troops after the 
Modocs, who fled to the Lava Beds, in Southern Oregon. During the months of 
April and May, 1S73, the Modocs frequently repulsed the attacks of the United 
States troops; but finally, on the ist of June (1873), Captain Jack sin-rendered with 
his bands, and the famous " Modoc War" ended. On the 3d of October, 1873, 
Captain Jack, and the other Modoc leaders who had murdered General Canby and 
Commissioner Thomas, were hanged, in accordance with the sentence of a court- 
martial; and the surviving Modocs were settled among other Indian tribes. 

Great Financial Crisis. — In September, 1873, ^ temble financial crisis swept 
over the country. In that month, many of the leading banking houses of New 
York City failed; and the consequences of these failures were felt to the remotest 
borders of the Union. The banking houses of other large cities of the United 
States immediately failed. These failures affected every industrial and manufac- 
turing interest in the land, and caused much distress among the laboring population 
in the large cities. These failures were caused in a great measure by too heavy 
investments in North Pacific Railroad bonds. The condition of the finances 
received the attention of the National Congress, which, in April, 1S74, passed a 
bill to inflate the country with more paper money, but this bill was vetoed by the 
President, thus failing to become a law ; but a bill providing for the more equal 
distribution of the paper currency among the different sections of the Union, and 
for a resumption of specie payments, received his signature, in June. (1874.) 

The Virginius Difficulty with Spain. — On the 31st of October, 1873, the 
steamer Virginius, flying the American flag, manned by Americans and Cubans, 
and commanded by Captain Fry, was seized by the Spanish war vessel Tornado, 
off the coast of Jamaica, on the ground that she was a filibustering vessel and was 
carrying war material to the Cuban insurgents ; and, in the course of a few days, 
fifty-three of the crew and passengers were shot, by order of the Spanish military 
authorities at Santiago de Cuba. These wholesale executions produced the wildest 
excitement and the most intense indignation in the United States, and the most 
angry and warlike feeling against Spain was manifested. Immense public meet- 
ings were held in New York and other large cities, which were addi-essed by noisy 
orators and blatant demagogues; and large offers of volunteers were made to the 
National Government. In the midst of this war fever, the Governments of the 
United States and Spain were busily engaged in the task of settling the matter by 
negotiation. The United States demanded reparation for the outrage upon the 
American flag. The Castelar Government in Spain finally acceded to the demands 
»f the United States; and, on the 29th of November, 1873, ^ protocol was signed 



UNITED STATES. 



527 



at Washington, by the American Secretary of State and the Spanish Minister at 
Washington, by wliich Spain was required to restore the Virginius and the suivi 
vors of her passengers and crew. On the l6th of December, 1S73, the Virginius 
was delivered to the United States navy, by the Spanish naval authorities, at Rahia 
Honda, on the Cuban coast, west of Havana; and, on the l8th, tlie sm-vivors of the 
Virginius crew and passengei's were released at Santiago de Cuba, and on the 
28th they arrived at New York, in the United States sloop of war Juniata. The 
Vtrginitis. which commenced leaking badly soon after her departure from Bahia 
Honda, was finally abandoned by her crew; and she sunk to the depths of Ihe 
ocean, off the coast of North Carolina, on the 26th of December, 1873. 

Civil War in Arkansas. — The State of Arkansas, as well as Louisiana, was 
beset with domestic troubles. The candidates for Governor in t872 were Elisha 
Baxter and Joseph Brooks. On account of alleged frauds, the votes of several 
counties were thrown out, thus leaving Baxter a majority in the State, and he was 
accordingly inaugurated. In June, 1873, Brooks began proceedings, in the circuit 
court of Pulaski County, for the office of Governor, charging Baxter with being a 
usurper. On the 15th of April, 1874, the court decided in favor of Brooks's 
claims; and Baxter was ousted, and Brooks took possession of the Gubernatorial 
chair, while his adherents seized the State House. For several weeks. Little Rock 
resembled a vast camp. Brooks and Baxter each having collected a small army; 
and the greatest excitement prevailed in the city. Baxter appealed to the Presi- 
dent of the United States for aid, but the National Chief Magistrate declined to in- 
terfere, except to preserve the peace ; and United States troops proceeded to Little 
Rock to prevent bloodshed. On the 21st of April (1874), a slight conflict occurred 
between the contending factions in Little Rock, but it was soon terminated by the 
appearance of National troops. On the 30th of April, a party of Baxter's men were 
captured by Brooks's men, near Little Rock; and, on the same day, a party of 
Baxter's men attacked a party of Brooks's men near Pine Bluff, killing and wound- 
ing thirty, and capturing the remainder. On the night of the 7th of May (1S74), 
a party of Baxter's men, on board the steamer Sallie, were attacked by Brooks's 
men, and captured. On the 9th, there was some fighting in Little Rock, but Na- 
tional troops soon restored order. On the nth, there was a spirited skirmish at 
Baring Cross, near Little Rock, in which seven of Brooks's men were killed, but 
the fight was terminated by United States troops. The State Legislature met at 
Baxter's call, and decided in favor of his claims; and, on the isth of May, Presi- 
dent Grant issued a proclamation recognizing Baxter and ordering Brooks to submit. 
On the 19th, Brooks's party surrendered the State House to Baxter. The opposing 
forces then dispersed, and quiet was restored. 

Revolution in Louisiana. — Early in September, 1874, the Kellogg police in 
New Orleans seized several cases of arms belonging to private individuals. On the 
14th (September, 1874), the citizens of New Orleans held a large mass meeting on 
Canal street, to protest against the seizure of arms as an outrage. The speakers at 
this meeting advised the people to overthrow the Kellogg Government by violence; 
and a conLmittpe of citizens requested Governor Kellogg to resign; but the Governor 
replied through a deputy, refusing to receive any communication from the commit- 
tee. D. B. Penn, Lieutenant-Governor with Governor McEnery, thereupon issued 
a proclamation to the people of Louisiana, calling upon them to arm and drive the 



528 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

usurper Kellogg from power, and also a proclamation to the colored people of the 
State, assuring them that no harm was meant toward their race. The people of 
New Orleans responded with alacrity to the advice to arm ; and, on the afternoon 
of the s^ne day (September 14, 1874), armed men held undisputed possession of 
Canal street. About four o'clock, 500 Metropolitan police, with cavalry and artil- 
lery, appeared at the head of Canal street, and General Longstreet, who commanded 
them, ordered the armed citizens to disperse. The insurgents refusing to comply, 
a fight occurred between them and the Metropolitan police, and eighty men weis 
killed and wounded on both sides. The Metropolitans broke at the first fire, and 
Ihe citizens captured all their artillery. The citizens then built barricades on all 
ihe streets leading from Canal street. Most of the barricades were made with street 
railroad cars. Governor Kellogg, General Longstreet, and others, fled for refuge 
to the Custom House, where they were sheltered by United States troops. There 
was considerable firing in the streets of the city during the night, and New Orleans 
presented a decidedly warlike appearance. On the following morning, at seven 
o'clock (September 15, 1874), the State House was surrendered by the Kellogg 
party, to Lieutenant-Governor Penn's militia, which now numbered 10,000 men. 
All the State and city property, police stations, arsenals, and police and fire-alarm 
telegraphs, were in the possession of the McEnerj- party. At nine o'clock, the en- 
tire force of Metropolitan police and Kellogg's militia surrendered to Penn's militia. 
Lieutenant-Governor Penn took the reins of government, and prepared to install all 
those who had been voted for on the same ticket with McEnery in 1872. The bar- 
ricades were torn down, and the street cars resumed their trips. Li response to 
application from Governor Kellogg, President Grant issued a proclamation ordering 
the McEnery insurgents to disperse and return to their homes within five days. 
On the 17th (September, 1874), the McEnery Government submitted to the Presi- 
dent's orders. The State Capitol, and the other State buildings in New Orleans, 
were formally surrendered by Governor McEnery, to the United States military 
authorities at New Orleans. The Kellogg Administration was once more in pos 
session of the State Government, and perfect quiet again prevailed. 

Centennial Celebrations of Revolutionary Events. — The Nation was now 
completing the first centuiy of its existence, and the centennials of Revolutionary 
events were observed with appropriate ceremonies. The one hundredth anniversary 
of the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was appropriately celebrated at Boston 
and other places, on the l6th of December, 1873; as was also the centennial anni- 
versary of the meeting of the First Continental Congress, on the 5th of September, 
1874, at Philadelphia. A magnificent celebration of the one hundredth anniversary 
of the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord was held at those places, on the 19th 
of April, 1875, about 100,000 people having assembled on the occasion, to witness 
the ceremonies and hear the addresses. The centennial of the capture of Ticonde- 
roga by Ethan Allen was also duly celebrated by the inhabitants of that village, on 
the loth of May, of the same year; as was also the centennial of the Mecklenburg 
Declaration, by the people of Charlotte, North Carolina, on the 2Cth. But the 
grandest of the celel)rations of the year 1S75, ^^^^ ^^ centennial of the Battle of 
Bunker's Hill, on the 17th of June, at Boston and Charlestown, people from different 
parts of *he Union participating, and a procession twelve miles in length marched 
to the spot consecrated to Freedom. 



UNITED STATES. 



THE NEW STATES. 



529 



Settlement of the West. — Since the final organization of the Union in 1789, 
twenty- five new States have arisen, in what was a century ago one vast wilderness, 
inhabited by the red children of the forest; and thousands of new cities, towns, and 
villages dot the country where, one-hundred years ago, the red man hunted and 
fished. In addition to these twenty-five new States, flourishing Territories have 
arisen, so that in the course of less than another century the country between the 
Mississippi and Pacific slope may be erected into an additional number of pros- 
perous States ; and the whole continent between the Atlantic and the Pacific may 
be covered with flomishing cities, towns, and villages, and beautiful farms ^iid the 
miserable savage will disappear before the busy wheels of civilizatisn. 

The Thirteen Original States. — The thirteen original States, whose early 
history, as English colonies, we have have already considered, were as follows: 
Virginia, settled in 1607; Massachusetts, in 1620; New York, in 1623; New 
Hampshire, in 1629; Maryland, in 1634; Rhode Island, in 1636; Connecticut, in 
1635; Delaware, in 1638; North Carolina, in 1663; New Jersey, in 1664; South 
Carolina, in 1670: Pennsylvania, in 1682; and Georgia, in 1733. 

The New States. — The twenty-five new States which were founded since the 
Union was formed, were admitted into the Union in the following order: Vermont, 
in 1791 ; Kentucky, in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; Ohio, in 1802; Louisiana, in 
1812; Indiana, in 1816; Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 
1819, Maine, in 1820; Missouri, in 1821 ; Arkansas, in 1836; Michigan, in 1837; 
Florida, in 1845; Texas, in 1845; Iowa, in 1846; Wisconsin, in 1848; California, 
in 1850; Minnesota, in 1858; "Oregon, in 1859; Kansas, in 1861 ; West Virginia, 
in 1863; Nevada, in 1864; Nebraska, in 1867; and Colorado, in 1875. 

Vermont. — The first of the new States, Vermont, was admitted into the Union 
on the 1 8th of February, 1791. Its territory had previously been claimed by 
both New Hampshire and Nevs' York. The first settlement in the State had been 
made by the English, at Brattleboro', in 1724. 

Kentucky. — The first Western State admitted into the Union was Kentucky. 
Tlie first settlement within its borders M^as made at Boonesboro', in 1775, by the 
celebrated pioneer, Daniel Boone, of North Carolina. Its territoiy originally formed 
a part of Virginia. It became a State on the ist of June, 1792. 

Tennessee. — Four years after the admission of Kentucky, June ist, 1792, 
Tennessee, whose tenntoiy originally formed a part of North Cai'olina, was 
udmitted into the Union as a separate Stale. The first permanent settlement 
within its borders was made at Fort Loudon, in 1757, by emigrants from Noi'h 
Carolina. 

Ohio. — In the year 1802, Ohio became a member of th,e American Union. It 
was fonned from a part of the great North-West Territory, which had been cedad 
to the United States by Virginia and Connecticut; and the first settlement within 
its limits was made at Marietta, in 1788, by emigrants from New England. 

Louisiana. — In the year 1803, as we have already seen, the vast territory of 
Louisiana was purchased from France by the United States for fifteen million dol- 

34 



53° 



CENTENNIAL HISTORY 



lars. This immense region embraced all the territoi-y between the Mississippi 
river on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west, and between British 
Ameiica on the north, and Texas and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The 
Southeastern portion of this immense territory was admitted into the Union as a 
State on the Sth of April, 1812. Louisiana was first settled in 1699. 

Indiana. — The second State formed out of the North-West Territory, was Indi- 
ana, which was admitted into the family of States on the iith of December, 1816 
It had been settled at Vincennes, in 1705, by a party of French Canadians. 

Mississippi. — The limits of Georgia and South Carolina originally extendea 
westward to the Mississippi river. The western portion of the territories of the 
two States having been ceded to the United States and erected into the Missis- 
sippi Territory, the western half became a State of the Union on the loth of De- 
cember, 1817. The first settlement within its territory was made at Natchez, by 
the French, in 1 7 16. 

Illinois. — The third State formed out of the North-West Temtory was Illinois, 
which became a State, on the 3d of December, 1818. It was settled by the 
French, in 1682, at Kaskaskia, the oldest European settlement in the Mississippi 
Valley. 

Alabama. — The eastern half of the Mississippi Territory was admitted into the 
Union as a separate State, on the 14th of December, 1819. The first settlement in 
its territoiy had been made at Mobile, in 1702, by French emigiants from Louisiana. 

Maine. — On the 15th of March, 1820, Maine, whose territory originally was under 
the juiisdiction of Massachusetts, became a separate State. The first settlements 
in this State were made by the English in the first half of the seventeeth century. 

Missouri. — The second State formed out of the niagnificent domain of Louisiana 
was Missouri, which was admitted into the Union on the 21st of August, 1821. 
The oldest town in this State is St. Genevieve, which was founded by the P'rench, 
in 1755- 

Arkansas. — The third State carved out of the vast region of Louisiana was 
Arkansas, the date of whose admission into the Union was the 15th of June, 1836. 
Its first settlement was made at Arkansas Post, by the French, in 1685. 

Michigan. — On the 26th of January, 1837, Michigan, whose domain had at one 
time formed a part of the North-West Territory, became a State of the American 
Union. Detroit, its first settlement, was founded by the French in 1701. 

Florida. — The province of Florida, which was settled by the Spaniards, at St. 
Augustine, in 1565, was ceded by Spain to the United States in 1819, erected into 
a Territory in 1821, and finally admitted into the Union as a State on the 3d of 
March, 1845. 

Texas. — The province of Texas originally formed a part of Mexico, and was 
settled by the Spaniards at San Antonio de Bexar, in 1692. It was sparsely settled 
until after Mexico had become independent of Spain, when a stream of emigration 
flowed into its territory from the United States. These American emigrants, dis- 
satisfied with Mexican military rule, rebelled, and after a bloody war secured the 
independence of Texas, which then became an independent republic, and so 
remained for nine years, after which it was annexed to the United States; and it 
becaoie a State of the American Union on the 19th of December, 1845. 



UNITED STATES. 53 1 

Iowa. — On the aSth of December, 1846, Iowa, which had originally formed a part 
of the Louisiana purchase, and afterwards a portion of the Wisconsin Territory, was 
admitted in the Union as a State. It was first settled at Burlington and Dubuque, 
in 1833, by emigrants from Illinois. 

Wisconsin. — The eastern portion of the Wisconsin Territory was admitted into 
the T fnion as a State, by the name of Wisconsin, on the 29th of May, 1S48. It was 
settled by the French at Green Bay, in 1745. 

California. — By the war with Mexico in 1846, all of the Mexican provinces :>( 
Upper California and New Mexico became Territories of the United States by con 
quest and purchase. The first settlement in California was made at San Diego, by 
the Spaniards, in 1769. The discovery of gold in the valley of the Sacramento 
river in 1848, caused this region, which had hitherto been thinly peopled, to become 
suddenly densely populated. Immigration set in to California from all parts of 
America and from Europe; and in 1849, application was made for the admission 
of California into the Union of States, and it was accordingly admitted as a State 
on the 9th of September, 1S50, being the first State formed west of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

Minnesota. — Eight years after the admission of California, Minnesota was ad- 
mitted into the Union as a State, The date of its admission was the nth of May, 
1858. The first pennanent settlement in Minnesota was made at St. Paul, in 1846, 
by emigrants from the Eastern States. 

Oregon, — The vast territory of Oregon, west of the Rocky Mountains, and 
north of California, which was for a long time claimed by both Great Britain and 
the United States, was finally divided in 1846, giving to Great Britain all that portion 
of the territory north of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States, 
all that portion south of these limits. The valley of the Columbia river and 
its tributaries was explored in 1804, by Lieutenants Lewis and Clarke, of the 
United States army. Astoria, named in honor of the wealthy John Jacob Astor, 
of New York, was founded in 181 1. On the 14th of February, 1859, the south- 
western part of this Territory was admitted as a State by the name of Oregon — 
being the second State formed on the Pacific slope. The northern portion of 
Oregon Territory had been formed into a separate Territoiy in 1853, named Wash- 
ington. 

Kansas. — On the 29th of January, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union 
as the thirty-fourth State. It had been for several years the theatre of lawless vio- 
lence, gi-owing out of the adverse views of its settlers on the slavery question. Its 
first settlement was made at Leavenworth, by emigrants from Missouri. 

West Virginia. — The Civil War produced a new State by the divisron of 
Virginia. The inhabitants of the Western counties of Virginia being opposed to 
secession, applied to the National Congress for the admission of their section as a 
separate State. Congress granted their request ; and accordingly, West Virginia 
became an independent commonwealth on the 20th of June, 1863. 

Nevada. — On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the familj 
of States, being the third State west of the Rocky Mountains. Its first settlement 
was made at Carson City, by emigrants from the older States. 

Nebraska. — On the 15th of January, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the 



532 



CENTENNIAL HISTOR V 



Union as the thirty-seventh State. Its first settlement was made at Omaha, by 
emigi-ants from the older States. Its population increased rapidly. 

Colorado.— The thirty-eighth State was Colorado^ which was admitted as such, 
on the 4th of March, 1875. ^^^ ^^'^^ settlements were made at Denver and Colo- 
rado city. Owing to the large deposits of gold, its population rapidly increased. 

The Territories of the United States.— There are now ten Territories 
jjelonging to the United States; — namely, Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, 
Washington, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Indian Territory, and A.laska, the 
last of which comprises the extensive, but almost valueless domain, purchased frcm 
Russia in 1867, for ^7,200,000. 

A HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 

Progress of the Nation. — We have now traced the history of the United 
States of America to the close of the first century of their existence as a nation, and 
we cannot more fittingly conclude than by a brief resumi of their material, intellect- 
ual, moral and political progress. The Republic is a marvel in history, outstrip- 
ping anything ever before recorded in connection with national vigor and growth, 
England dates back to the Heptarchy— more than a thousand years. France 
counts an existence from the time of Charlemagne, though, to go no further back 
than Hugh Capet, who made Paris her permanent capital, she is nearly nine 
hundred years old. The Republic of the United States has scarcely outrun the 
lives of her founders. One hundred years is but a little space in tKe chronology 
of nations, yet one hundred years have served to see the modern and model 
republic of the world gi-ow from three to forty-three millions of people. True, she 
has not bred them all ; but such is the beauty of her institutions that she has won 
them from other nations, and such their vigor that she has indoctrinated them 
and made them as much her own children as if they had been " to the manner 
born." 

Unity, Power and Commercial Growth. — Prior to the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, England's hope of further supremacy lay in colonial segregation, sparse 
settlement and commercial feebleness. But the unity which sprang from a common 
danger proved the germ of a power which defied the wit of statecraft and set at 
naught the forceful guardianship of monarchy. Not only was that power sufficiently 
magical to transform discordant colonies into an harmonious organization, but it 
proved capable of speedily endowing them with all those elements of potentiality, 
without which infancy would have been sickly, and maturity long delayed and lean. 
Wisdom might have framed a beautiful autonomy, stubborn will might have main- 
tained independence, but without that spirit which impels to enterprise, which 
shapes industry and creates wealth, the Nation must have dragged along the road 
to successful empire, even as Mexico drags, richly endowed as she is by nature, 
Among the embryonic possibilities of the new nation, we shall not say among hei 
earliest necessities, was a ommerce of her own. How these possil ilities have 
developed, let a word suffice. In the beginning, a few fishing smacks and insig- 
nificant coasters constituted the commercial wealth of the Republic. Now her 
merchant marine has swelled to 32,576 vessels of all classes, with an aggregate 



UNITED STATES. 



533 



tonnage of 4,725,346 tons. Then her exports were next to nothiri^.aml her inii)orts 
consisted of Llie few articles upon which the mother countiy sought to levy a tax 
for her own enrichment. Now her exports have swelled to the magnificent sum of 
^^643,094,767, while her imports have reached ^553,906,153. Her ships are found 
m every harbor of the world, and the products of every clime are brought to her 
ports Commensurate with the growth of her commerce has been that of her 
Consular system, by which this commerce is stimulated and protected. The Gov- 
ernment's official agents are accredited to every nation having a seaboard, for the 
purpose of supervising the varied interests of seamen and merchants, and preserving 
the dignity of our flag in the maritime marts. 

Growth in Manufactures. — While commerce is the Nation's badge of acquain- 
tance and confidence aln'oad, and one of the most significant evidences of its enter- 
prise and growth, its domestic manufactures are even more accurate representatives 
of its genius and thrift. The Republic may be more impressive by reason of its 
commerce, but it is more healthful, happy and stable by reason of its manufacturing 
industries. The history of our growth in this respect reads like a tale of enchant- 
ment. A primitive grist or saw-mill upon some eligible stream, an occasional fur- 
nace, the inevitable hand-loom and spinning-wheel in the house — these constituted 
the simple beginnings of a manufacturing interest which, in the short lapse of a 
century, has reached colossal proportions. The manufacturing establishments now 
existing number 260,000, employing 1,300,000 horse-power and 2,250,000 hands. 
The capital embarked is ^2,250,000,000; the annual wages paid is $800,000,000; 
the annual products are valued at $4,300,000,000. There is scarcely a commodity 
used for the convenience or comfort of man that is not manufactured in our midst, 
and by machineiy of our own invention. Our hardware finds a ready sale in the 
favorite markets of the world. Our textile fabrics have been quite recently intro- 
duced in Liverpool and Manchester, where they compete successfully in price and 
quality with the boasted manufactures of those industrial centres. 

Agricultural Growth. — The pride of every nation is its husbandmen. The 
United States fortunately embraces the great grain belts of the continent. Climate 
conspires with soil to make it the most productive land in the world. The colo- 
nists knew but little of the immense agricultural resources of the country; they eked 
out subsistence on the comparatively barren slopes of the Atlantic, never dreaming 
of the immeasurable wealth that was to spring from the, to them, inaccessible 
prairies of the interior. It cannot be said that they laid the foundation of our now 
majestic agricultural system, except in so far as they contributed to pioneer force 
of character and the love of acquired acres. The present system was the growth 
of a time, after that civilization had pierced the Alleghanies and levied tribute on 
fhe boundless West. In all that appertains to agricultural development, history 
mu3t make record of the same wonderful growth that has characterized the Nation 
in other respects. Her agriculture has been a conquest as full of grand results as 
her manufactures and commerce. It has brought her plenty, wealth, independence. 
We feed ourselves, and that is more than Germany, England or France can say. 
We sell to the needy nations abroad more of the cereal products than any othei 
country in the world. The improved fann land of the country equals 200,000,000 
acres, while the annual redemption of land from wildei-ness and subjection to agri- 
cultural purposes averages 4,000,000 acres. The cash value of the farms is in 



534 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

excess of ^10,000,000,000, and the annual value of all farm products approximates 
|S3,ooo,ooo,ooo. The Colonies were dependent. Now we raise 800,000,000 
bushels of curn and 200,000,000 of wheat, while the aggregate value of our cereal 
products foots up ;^ 1,250,000,000. Europe now gets more grain from us in a year 
than was raised in the entire thirteen States at the time the Constitution was formed. 
Improvements in agricultural appliances have kept even pace with this enormous 
giowth of products. The farms of the United States are the best furnished in the 
ivorld. In farm machinery there has been a complete revolution. Genius fo/ 
inventing labor-saving appliances seems to ha; e sprang from the ground along with 
the luxunant crops. The agricultural sciences have been pushed with energy. 
Farm education is looked upon as a desirable acquisition, and farming as an accom- 
plishment. These are achievements which make the century more glorious, than 
if Alexanders had paraded the world in boots and spurs, or Pharaohs had been 
mummified in magnificent monuments built to their own folly. 

Grovi^th of Mining Industries. — The charm of early discovery oh the West- 
ern Continent was intensified l)y stories of El Dorados and Golcondas told by the 
natives to credulous adventurers. These were in some instances verified by the 
discoveiy of vast treasure houses, as in the case of the Incas of South America and 
the Montezumas of Mexico. Spanish cupidity subordinated every consideration of 
solid comfort and substantial progress to the wealth that flowed from the mine. 
As a consequence, the mineral development of the Spanish possessions began early, 
and the new countries were made to contribute largely to the riches of the old. 
The names of Peru and Mexico became synonymous with bullion and bars of gold 
and silver. Little did the hardy colonists of the North dream that, ere their child- 
ren passed away, the less inviting hills of their own country would unfold a wealth 
richer and more exhaustless than any Southern land could boast. The application 
of steam to machinery had hardly passed beyond the limit of experiment, till 
science unearthed the magnificent coal fields of the Appalachian range and re- 
vealed a treasure far more indispensable than any precious metal. Study of geolog- 
ical structures, the drift and tendency of rock formations, the result of manual 
experiment — these, crowning a desire that intensified as it marched westward with 
our civilization, established the fact that nature had not only been everywhere 
prodigal of her mineral wealth, but that she had so arranged the different varieties 
as to make them most useful to man. Coal may not always be found where iron 
ore exists, but it is found most where iron exists most, thus proving the providential 
distribution of the baser treasures of earth. How this happy arrangement has 
affected our industries can be learned by referring to those localities where the smoke 
of the furnace and the forge forms perpetual clouds around the summits of the moun- 
tains whose inward treasures are being wrought into use. Long before our pioneers 
were checked by the ranges of the Western coast, the country could safely make 
the boast of being the richest in mineral wealth in the world. But with 1848 and 
ihe gold discoveries in California, and afterwards with the discovery of silver in 
Nevada, Mon.ana and Colorado, there came a time when the nations wondered af 
the marvelous richness of our mineral deposits, and the most extravagant fables of 
the wealth of the Sierras were eclipsed by convincing reality. No single event of 
the century contributed so largely to our population, or so materially to our wealth 
and progress, as the discovery that our Western border abounded in the preciou? 



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UNITED STATES. 535 

metals. A nation gi-ew up as if by magic among the Cordilleras, and our empire 
waved her wand over the Pacific seas. In less than thirty years, we find great and 
populous States literally carved out of the wilderness, vying with those of the East 
in population and wealth, and contributing of their industry and resources a large 
share to the general wealth. From 1848 to 1868, the gold and silver areas of the 
West yielded ^1,210,000,000, and the yield for every year since is set down at an 
average of $60,000,000. In 1857, another discovery of underground wealth was 
made, which has proven a boon to the world. We allude to the petroleum deposits 
of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Virginia — but especially to those of Pennsylvania. This 
discovery was as if the fiat of Genesis had been repeated, sii lux! "let there be 
light!" Coal oil has become indispensable in the American home, and a staple 
article of commerce, being carried to every country. Nearly 1,000,000,000 gallons 
have been sent abroad since 1857, yielding over $250,000,000. 

Internal Improvements. — It would be a pardonable hyperbole to say that a 
country without railroads, telegraphs, and canals, is a thousand years behind the 
age. Yet when the old thjrteen States became one, no such conveniences existed. 
Our entire and vast system of inland communication is the result of less than a 
century of enterprise. In the application of power to inland commerce, in the 
perfection of appliances for intercommunication, in the expenditure of money and 
the elaboration of plans for abridging our immense distances, this country is almost 
phenomenal. In 1830 the first 23 miles of railroad were opened for use. Now 
not less than 70,000 miles occupy the country like a network, put down at a cost of 
1^3,500,000,000. This mileage exceeds that of all the countries of Europe com- 
bined. Twenty-five years ago. Prof. Morse asked of Congress an appropriation to 
aid him in experimenting with electricity, with a possible view of making it avail- 
able in commerce. He was hooted at as a crazy enthusiast, and his scheme was 
compared to that of the lunatic who projected a railway to the moon. There are 
now in the countiy 80,000 miles of telegraph, and no natural force has ever been 
bridled that has proved so cheap, convenient, and indispensable, nor any that is 
more potent as a civilizer. Canal improvements, which were so much in favor in 
the early part of the century, have not kept pace with the railways. They are too 
expensive to build, and too sluggish in operation to be competitive and profitable, 
except where they serve as short links to river, lake or ocean transit. The country 
has not realized from them the promises at first held out. 

Educational Advancement. — The glory of the Republic is its system of col 
leges and schools. Our fathers sought intellectual, as well as personal, liberty in the 
Western wilds. The former, left to itself, has proved abundantly able to care foi 
its own welfare. Twenty years after the landing of the Pilgrims, and ere the suc- 
cess of colonization in a strange land had by any means been proved. Harvard 
College was founded, and the foundation of a common school system was laid. In 
1637 a school was provided in the Massachusetts Colony for every neighborhood 
of fifty families, and a school of a higher grade for every neighborhood of one 
hundred families. These schools were to be maintained by taxes. This system, 
called the New England System, has been adopted, with but. slight modification, by 
every State in the Union. Its gi-owth has kept even pace with our civilization, of 
which it is a distinguished concomitant. No man can measure its importance. Its 
effects are visible everywhere in our characteristic enlightenment, our high morals, 



536 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

our wonderful enterprise. It has contributed, more than any other single factor, tc 
national progress and perpetuity, and to that individual heroism and good sense 
which has made the title of "Yankee'," both proverbial and respectable. Between 
the colleges and common schools has sprung up a system designed to provide aca- 
demic training for those who propose engaging in special service. Perhaps the 
mosi notable class of this system is the Normals, whose province it is to prepare 
Common school teachers. Another distinguished class is the agricultural colleges, 
H'er sixty of which exist, designed to train farmers for a scientific imderstandiug 
jf thsir profession. Nearly all the leading colleges have, in obedience to a demand 
for special instruction, connected with their literary curriculums special courses 
upon the physical sciences, in which the instruction is given a practical and eveiy- 
day turn. In all that concerns education, the Republic is fully abreast of the age, 
and in many respects she is a model for governments far older and more pretentious. 
Her systems meet the approval of countries like England, France and Germany, 
where literature and art have high antiquity, and where institutions of learning always 
uivite the best talent and the most respectable surroundings. The common schools 
of the Nation approximate 130,000 in number, with 150,000 teachers and an average 
attendance of over 3,000,000 scholars. The system of the countiy is sustained at an 
annual outlay of ^75,000,000. Of the higher institutions of learning there were, in 
187 1, 372 colleges, 56 agricultural coUegesi and scientific schools, 117 theological 
seminaries, 40 law schools, 94 medical and dental schools, 136 female colleges, and 
84 commercial schools. As a part of the educational system ,and as contributing a 
pro rata share to the standard of literary and scientific excellence, mention must be 
made of the wonderful growth of the country in libraries. The frequency of these. 
Doth private and public, and their extent, stamp the Americans as a nation of readers. 
There exist at present over 165,000 libraries in the Republic, containing 46,000,000 
volumes. Of these, about two-fifths are public, and three-fifths private. These fig- 
ares are semi-official, and they only approximate the truth. It is safe to calculate 
that the volumes in libraiues exceed 60,000,000. Coincident also with the educa- 
tional growth of the country is that of the press — an adjunct to information, more 
unmediate in its effects than books, and further of reach than even the school-house. 
At the beginning of the century, the newspaper was an exceptional thing. Now 
nearly eveiy county has its paper, and the town that does not support a periodical of 
some kind cannot safely lay claim to intellectual precedence. The eities are centres 
of news information, and there flows out from them a constant and rapidly swelling 
stream of daily, weekly and monthly publications. In 1870 there were 5,871 news.- 
oapers printed in the Republic, with a daily circulation of 20,842,475 copies, and an 
annual circulation of 1,508,548,250 copies. They are devoted to nearly every 
subject, whether of trade, industry, science, profession or politics. 

Religious and Moral Growth.^A wise proviso in the Constitution leaves the 
sub. ;..t of religion and church government entirely free from State interference. 
Uut so deeply rooted has Christianity become in the hearts of the American people 
thai it is as much of a common law unto them as if its tenets were enjoined by 
C(mgressional or legislative enactment, or established by usages running far beyond 
the memory of man. Its growth is even with that of other affairs, and as truly 
congratulatory and wonderful. Measured by general standards, the country occupies 
the highest position in religious advancement and sound morals. Church munifi- 
cence ranks in extent with the older countries. The denominations vie with each 



UNITED STATES. 



537 



other in peaceful and persuasive propagandism. The consequence is growth every- 
where, and what is more important, good everywhere. In free America, this cen- 
tury has proved the possibility of religious teaching and creed propagation, without 
the cruelties of the inquisitorial period, without the bitterness of the last century, 
with something of that comity and love which characterized the work of Him who 
made the cause of the respective denominations a single and crowning cause. 

Political Perpetuity and Growth. — The nation was born in spirit at the time 
of the Declaration, but not in fact till the adoption of the Constitution. This com- 
pact instrument ciystallized the States then claiming to be independent sovereignties, 
and begat of them a national entirety, whose authority became supreme for all 
purposes for which empires are created. However compelling the necessities which 
surrounded the inception of the Republic, and however auspicious its beginnings, 
it was not to escape the trials which history proves to be inseparable from national 
growth. Governments are apt to be their own worst enemies; at least their greatest 
proofs of strength are found in their ability to live and to deserve existence. Colon 
ial solidarity meant a comparatively easy triumph over the ^English forces sent to 
crush us. So unity assured an early victory in 1814 and in 1848. But could the 
Republic conquer and rule itself? Could it reduce to subjection the thousand and 
one forces which its very growth, importance and beauty, generated and fostered? 
This test of national greatness is crucial. It has not failed us thus far; God grant 
it may never fail us. Possibly the most subtle force to reduce was that which we 
will denominate the immigrative. The country invited millions from abroad. 
They came with different motives and tastes, and with different feelings of respect 
for our institutions. They were food in a raw state. Could the country digest 
and assimilate them ? Had our institutions sufficient vitality to breathe into them 
an Americanized life, and reduce them to the condition of willingly supporting 
integers of population? Thus far the digestive process has been complete. The 
strength of our freedom and the wholesomeness of our laws have ever conduced to 
respect for the Republic, and no matter what the nationality of the immigrant, he 
has always befin found willing to share with the native born the glorious name and 
privileges of an American citizen. Another matter of concern was the reduction of 
territory to the form and consistency of States. Were our institutions adapted to a 
Union of numerous States, with diversified climates, products and wants? Could 
they stand the test of repeated annexations of territory and introductions of new 
governing factors? They have stood this test without strain or impairment, but 
with an additional sense of their superiority and fitness. From thirteen States, 
occupying the narrow Eastern slopes of the AUeghanies, the Republic has grown to 
include thirty-eight States, while the outlying Territories contribute as much of their 
sympathy and power to the central government as if they were active participants in 
its higfiest honors and more delicate affairs. But again, could our institutions stand 
the ordeal of internal strife engendered by causes of a politico-moral nature, which 
were left as a legacy by the fathers and founders, only because their early removal 
»vould have prevented the formation and adoption of the Constitution ? They have 
proven equal to this task also. However sorely taxed by the madness which pre- 
ceded the rebellion, however tried in the seven times hotter fires of civil war, there 
was never a moment in which they bent to the crushing storm, but all through the 
cruel ordeal they grew brighter, stronger, purer, and more worthy of respect. With 



538 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

the gradual obliteration of the scars left by civil war, with the the era of reconcilia- 
tion in full tide, with a more perfect freedom than ever liefore, there is no hope of 
additional prosperity which cannot be realized, no promise of future perpetuity 
which cannot be fulfilled, no lustre for our institutions which they will not deserve. 



THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 

The Centenary Epoch — Preliminary Events. — A desire, very generally 
felt by the people of the United States, that the Centennial anniversary of then 
National Independence should be celebrated in a manner worthy of the event, found 
forcible expression through the writings of eminent men, soon after the close of the 
Civil War. The most notable of these writings were prepared by Mr. John Bigelow 
of New York, Gen'l Chas. B. Norton, U. S. Commissioner to the Paris Exposition, and 
Prof. J. C. Campbell, of Wabash College, Ind., who presented his views in the 
form of an address to Hon. Morton McMichael, then Mayor of Philadelphia. The 
press of the country cordially seconded the sentiments thus enunciated, and it soon 
became plain that a popular and responsive chord had been touched. 

But the practical and fruitful inception of the enterprise was in a communication 
from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia to the Commissioners of Fairmount 
Park, asking for authority to use the Park grounds for the purpose of a grand expo- 
sition of American products, in which all the nations of the world were to be asked 
to compete. A Committee of the City Councils was created, which broiight the 
project to the notice of the Legislature of Pennsylvania. This latter body brought 
the matter before Congress, in the shape of a memorial, dated June i6th, 1870. 

The Selection of a Site. — On the 9th of March, 1870, Mr. Morrell introduced 
a bill in the National House of Representatives, which became the basis of future 
action in the matter. As soon as it was known that Congress was likely to hearken 
to the sentiment of the country, several of the leading cities laid claim to the honor 
of a celebration so memorable as this bade fair to be. Much jealousy was mani- 
fested by the claimants. A clangor concerning the merits of respective places was 
kept up in the newspapers. Congress wrangled and hesitated. But as discus- 
sion proceeded, the claims of Philadelphia, as being the scene of the promulgation 
of the Declaration of Independence, as possessing within her limits Independence 
Hall, and as offering the most majestic spaces and the best accommodations, began to 
have general recognition. A Committee of the House of Representatives visited 
that city, with the view of selecting a site. Their judgment was favorable. On 
March 3d, 187 1, a bill was passed providing "for a National Celebration of the 
one hundredth anniversaiy of the Independence of the United States, by the holding 
of an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and 
Mine, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876." The bill also authorized the 
creation of a Centennial Commission, composed of one member from each State, 
with alternates, whose duty was to organize the Celebration. The jealousy respect 
hig the selection of a site now nearly disappeared, but its effect was painfully mani 
fest in the creative bill, which contained the parsimonious proviso that the Ooven 
ment should bear no part of the expense of the Celebration. But while the project 
was thus shorn of the truly national features at first designed for it, it waa given 
fresh impetus by the organization of the Commission on March 4th, 1872. 



UNITED STATES. 



539 



Further Organization and Work. — A subsequent act of Congress (June 1st, 
1872,) authorized the creation of a Centennial Board of Finance, with a capital 
stock not to exceed $10,000,000, to be secured by subscriptions, each share of stoak 
to be ten dollars. This Board organized on May loth, 1873, ^'^^ immediately 
began the work of raising money and applying the same to the elaboration of plans 
and the erection of buildings. By July 3d, 1873, the plans were sufficiently devel- 
oped to warrant a proclamation by the President of the United States, in aci:ord- 
ance with the act of March 3d, 1871, in which he said, "I do hereby declare anij 
proclaim that there will be held, at the city of Philadelphia, in the State of Penn- 
sylvania, an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil 
and Mine, to be opened on the 19th of April, 1876, (afterwards changed to May 
loth,) and to be closed on the igthof Octobei", (afterwards changed to Nov. loth,) 
in the same year." 

By the same act, the President was requested, in the name of the United States* 
to extend to all foreign governments a respectful and cordial invitation to be repra 
sented and take part in the International Exhibition. Such invitation was extended, 
through the Dei3artment of State, on July 5th, 1873, and afterwards, on a better 
understanding of the relations of the Government to the Exhibition. The Com- 
mission invited the several States and Territories to form Advisory Boards or Com- 
mittees, to assist in securing a complete representation of the industries of their 
respective districts. The following States and Ten-itories have at this writing 
(Feb. 3d, 1876,) formed official Committees of representation : 

Alabama, Kansas, New Mexico, 

Arizona, Louisiana, New York, 

Arkansas, Maine, Ohio, 

, California, Massachusetts, Oregon, 

Colorado, Michigan, Pennsylvania, 

Connecticut, Mississippi, Rhode Island, 

Dakota, Missouri, Tennessee, 

Delaware, Minnesota, Texas, 

Florida, Montana, Vermont, 

Georgia, Nebraska, Virginia, 

Illinois, Nevada, Washington T., 

Indiana, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, 

Iowa, New Jersey, Wyoming. 

In other States the work has been undertaken by duly qualified Boards, which 
are likely to make as creditable displays as those officially endowed. 

Participation by Foreign Governments. — The foreign Governments which 
have accepted the invitation to participitate and have appointed commissions to 
superintend the exhibition of their products, are : 



Argentine Confeder- 
ation, 
Belgium, 
Bolivia, 
Brazil, 
Chili, 
China, 
Denmark, 
Ecjiador, 
Eg>'pt, 

Finance and Algeria, 
GeiTTiany, 



Great Britian, with Aus- 
tralia and Canada. 
Guatemala and Salvador, 
Hawaii, 
Hayti, 
Honduras, 
Japan, 
Liberia, 
Mexico, 
Netherlands, 
Nicaragua, 
Norway, 



Orange River Free 

State, 
Persia, 
Peru, 
Portugal, 
Siam, 
Spain, 
Sweden, 
Tunis, 
Turkey, 

U. S. of Colombia, 
Venezuela. 



S40 CENTENNIAL IIISTOKY. 

Appropriations and Subscriptions. — The absolute appropriatiuiis thus fai 
aie those made by- 
Pennsylvania, ^1,000,000. 

Pb'ladelphia, 1,500,000. 

,52,500,000. 

The following States and cities have subscribed to the stock: 

Ne-AT Jersey, $£ 00,000. 

Delaware, . 10,000. 

Connecticut, ....... . 10,000. 

New Hampshire, ........ 10,000. 

Wilmington, (Del.) ...... . 5,000. 

^135.000. 

Theamount of stock subscriptions of an individual character 
thus far is ........ . ^2,222,750. 

Donations, ....... . 35,000. 

Amount realized from concessions, .... 330,000. 

12,587,750. 



Making a gi-and total thus far raised of ..... ^5,222,750. 

The total estimated expense of the buildings and grounds is . . ^6,724,350. 

During the month of Februaiy, 1S76, an appropriation of $1,500,000 was made 
by the United States Government. 

Several States have appropriated money, to be expended by their respective 
Boards for securing an exhibition of their products, and for the erection of State 
buildings for the accommodation of their citizens. The General Government has 
likewise appropriated half a million dollars for a building, and to secure an exhilii- 
tion of the products which come under its especial care. 

The Buildings. — On July 4th, 1874, ground was broken for the first of the 
structures. Memorial Hall. Now there is enclosed for the Exhibition a space equal 
to two hundred and thirty acres, in which have been erected the Main Exposition 
building, Memorial Hall (the Art Gallery), Machinery Hall, Horticultural Hall, 
the Agricultural Building, the Women's Pavilion, buildings to represent the various 
trades, and the different State and National buildings. The actual flooring for 
exhibition purposes covers an area of sixty acres. The total number of buildings 
within the enclosure will aggregate one hundred and fifty. 

The Main Building. — This is a parallelogi-am, running East and West 1876 
feet in length, and North and South 464 feet in width. The larger portion is one 
story high, the interior height being 70 feet, and the cornice outside 48 feet from 
the ground. At the centre of the longer sides are projections 416 feet in length. 
At either end are projections 216 feet in length. In these projections are the main 
entrances, with arcades on the ground floor, and fagades 90 feet high. At each 
corner of the building are towers 75 feet high. In the centre, the roof, for a space 
of 184 feet square, has been raised above the surrounding portion, and at each 
tonier of this elevation are towers 48 feet square and 120 feet high. The ground 
plan shows a central avenue 120 feet wide and 1832 feet long, which is thelongest 
avenue of that width ever introduced into an exhibition building. On either side 
of this is an avenue 100 feet wide, and of equal length. Between the central and 



UNITED STATES. 



541 



side avenues are aisles 48 feet wide, and on the outer sides of the building are 
aisles 24 feet wide. The square feet of surface in the floor are 936,008, or nearly 
21^ acres. The superstructure is supported by wrought iron columns, on piers of mas- 
onry. These are placed 24 feet a?art, and there are 672 of them in the building, the 
shortest being 25, and the longest 125 feet in length. Their aggi-egate weight is 
2,200,000 lbs. The roof trusses and girders weigh 5,000,000 lbs. There underlie 
the building two miles of drainage pipe, the water supply and drainage being 
complete. The design of the building is such that all exhibitors will have \\. 
equally fair opportunity of exhibiting their goods to advantage. 

The Art Gallery. — The most imposing and ornate of all the structures is 
Memorial Hall, built at a cost of ^1,500,000 by the State of Pennsylvania and the 
city of Philadelphia. It is designed to be a permanent edifice for the exhibition of 
industrial and art collections, similar to the famous South Kensington Museum, at 
London ; but has been placed at the d'sposal of the Centennial Commission, to be 
used during the Exposition as an Art Gallery. It stands upon a terrace 122 feet 
above the. Schuylkill. Nothing combustible has been used in its construction. 
The design is modem Renaissance. It is 365 .feet long, 210 wide and 59 high, 
and covers an acre and a half. A dome, 150 feet high, surmounts the centre, 
capped by a colossal ball, on which is a figure of Columbia. The entrance, on the 
South side, is 70 feet wide. In it are three doorways, each 15 feet wide and 40 
feet high. Between, the arches of the doorways are clusters of columns temiinating 
in emblematic designs illustrative of Science and Art. The doors are of iron, 
relieved by bronze panels, displaying the coats of arms of all the States and Terri- 
tories. The United States coat of amis is in the centre of the main frieze. The dome 
is of glass and iron. Colossal figures stand at each corner of the base of the dome, 
typifying the four quarters of the globe. The inside of this building is arranged so 
as to make the most effective display of works of art — paintings, statuary, or of 
whatever kind. All the galleries and the central hall are lighted from above; the 
pavilions and studios from the sides. There are 75,000 square feet of wall for the 
exhibition of paintings, and 20,000 square feet of floor space for statuary. All the 
skylights are double, the upper being of clear glass, and the under of ground glass. 

Machinery Building. — This structure stands in a line, East and West, with 
the Main Building, and, though 550 feet westward, is practically a continuation of 
it, the two together making a frontage of 3824 feet. It consists of a main hall 
1402 feet long and 360 feet wide, with annexes, one of which is 208 feet by 210 
feet. It covers an area of 558,440 square feet, or nearly 13 acres, with a floor 
space in all equal to 14 acres. The chief portions are one story in height, the cor- 
nices being 40 feet from the ground. The ground plan shows two main avenues, 
90 feet wide, with aisles between and on either side 60 feet wide, their length 
being 1360 feet. The walls are chiefly of glazed sash between the columns. Every 
conceivable arrangement for the propulsion is provided for. A Corliss steam engine 
of 1400 horse power will furnish free power to exhibitors. 

The Agricultural Building. — This building embraces a novel combinatioi of 
tvood, glass and iron. . It consists of a nave or centre 820 feet long, by 125 wide 
and 75 high. This centre is crossed by three transepts, the middle one being lOO 
feet wide and 75 high, and the two ends over 80 feet wide and 75 high. In the 
interior it resembles a great cathedral, and the vista, looking from transept to 



542 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 

transept, is very imposing. The ground plan is a parallelogram, covering lo^ 
acres. Steam power is introduced for propelling agricultural machinery. In con- 
nection ■tt'ith this building are extensive stock yards for the exhibition of horses, 
cattle, poultry, etc., and also a race-course. 

Horticultural Building. — This building owes its existence to the liberality ol 
the city of Philadelphia. It is extremely commodious and ornate, and is designed 
(o be a permanent ornament to Fairmount Park. Its design is Moresque of the 
1 2'ii century, and its chi?f materials are iron and glass, supported by bases of 
marMe and brick. It is 383 feet long, 193 wide and 75 high. The main floor is 
occupied by the central consers'atory, 230 feet by 80 feet, and 55 feet high, sur- 
mounted by a lantern 170 feet long, 20 feet wide and 14 feet high. It contains 
four forcing houses, each 100 by 30 feet. Ornamental stairways lead from spacious 
vestibules to the interior galleries of the conservatory, and to four exterior galleries, 
each 100 Ijy 10 feet. The building is heated throughout. SuiTounding it are 35 
acres of ground, devoted to horticultural purposes. 

Miscellaneous Buildings. — On every side, giving to the grounds the appear- 
ance of a city, are buildings for special purposes. There are structures for execu- 
tive officers, for customs purposes, post office, police, telegraph, judges, juries, etc. 
The Women's Pavilion is a tasteful and commodious structure erected at a cost of 
1^30,000. The building of the National Government is also beautiful and com- 
manding. The numerous structures erected by foreign governments and by sev- 
eral of the States, evince taste and special adaptation. The buildings representa- 
tive of the different trades are ornate and convenient. 

The Great Exhibitions of the World: — 



London, 1 85 1, 

New York, 1853, 

Paris, 1855 

London, 1862, .... 

Paris, 1867, 

Vienna, 1873, .... 

Philadelphia, 1876, 

Opening of the Centennial Exhibition, May 10th, 1876. — The great 
Exhibition, commemorative of the one hundredth anniversary of American Inde- 
pendence, opened auspiciously, Wednesday, May loth, 1S76. The day was 
pleasant, and over 186,000 people were present at the Exhibition. The day being 
a legal holiday, all the places of business in Philadelphia were closed, and flags 
were displayed in profusion on all the thoroughfares. The gates opened at 9 a. m., 
and at all the entrances there was soon an immense jam. The foreign Commis- 
sioners and other distinguished guests effected an entrance through the Main 
Exhibition Building, and took seats on the platform without confusion. At 10.30 
a. m., the Emperor of Brazil arrived, and was escorted to his seat by General 
Hawley, President of the Centennial Commission. Between 10.45 ^'^^ n a. m., 
a number of distinguished characters, includmg' President Grant and his Cabinet, 
Senators and Representatives in Congress, Judges of the Supreme Court, Governors 
of States, army officers, and the members of the foreign legations at Washington, 



Space covered 
buildings. 


by 


Cost. 


20 


acres. 




;^ 1, 464,000. 


5^ 






500,000. 


30 


" 




4,000,000. 


24 






2,300,000. 


^0% 






4,596,000. 


50 


" 




9,850,000. 


60 


" 




6,724,350. 



UNITED STATES. 543 

passed over from the Main Building to the stand in front of the Art Galleiy, and 
were greeted with applause by the multitude, which now filled the space between 
the Main Building and the Ail Gallery. The number of American and foreign 
dig)iitai-ies present amounted to about 4,000. The total number of invited guests 
vyas about 20,000. During these proceedings a variety of National Airs were 
performed by the orchestra under Theodore Thomas, one of the most eminent of 
American musicians. The most noted of these were " Hail Columbia," " God Save 
The Queen," and "The Marseillaise." At 11.05, the Wagner Centennial Inau- 
guration March was performed by the orchestra under the direction of Mr. Thomas. 
At the conclusion, Bishop Simpson offered a devout prayer, during which a large 
portion of the vast assemblage stood with uncovered heads. At the close of the 
prayer the Centennial Hymn, by John G. Wbittier, was sung by the grand chorus. 
At 11.26 a. m., Mr. John Welsh, President of the Centennial Board of Finance, 
presented the buildings to the United States Centennial Commission, being fre- 
quently applauded while speaking. General Hawley then arose, and in an ap- 
propriate address accepted the great trust confided by the Board of Finance. At 
11.35 a. m., the Cantata, by Sidney Lanier, of . Georgia, the music of which was 
composed by Dudley Buck, of Connecticut, was rendered with great effect by 
the orchestra; and the solo, which was sung by Myron N. Whitney, of Boston, 
was distinctly audible for a considerable distance. The vast multitude main- 
tained excellent order during the singing of the basso solo, and loudly applauded 
Mr. Whitney, who acknowledged the compliment by repeating a portion of the 
solo. At the close of the singing, Mr. Buck, the composer of the music, was 
called for, and bowed in acknowledgment of the compliment. At 11.48 a. m., 
General Flawley began the pi-esentation address, turning the buildings over to the 
President of the United States. At 11.55 '^- "''■> President Grant, amid great 
applause, arose, and in a short address accepted the trust confided to him by the 
Centennial authorities, and declared the Centennial International Exhibition oj^en. 
The President was loudly cheered by the immense assemblage, the Emperor of 
Brazil joining in the demonstration by waving his hat. At 12 o'clock, at a signal 
from General Hawley, the American flag was unfurled from the Main Building, 
and the orchestra and organs rendered the Hallelujah Chorus, while the chimes 
nf the bells on the buildings and the salute of 100 guns from George's Hill added 
vastly to the impressiveness of the occasion. During the ringing of the chimes, 
the foreign Commissioners left the platform and j^assed over to their respective 
departments in the Main Building ; after which President Grant, accompanied by 
Director-General Goshorn, followed by the guests and the multitude, passed into 
the Main Building, and thence to Machinery Hall, where at 1.20 p. m. the Presi- 
dent and the Brazilian Emperor started the gi-eat Corliss engines, which set in 
motion fourteen acres of machinery, comprising 8,000 different machines, thus 
closing the formal ceremonies of the day. After the closing of the ceremonies, 
the immense midtitudes dispersed over the grounds, visiting the different buildings. 
Since the opening day, there have been from 25,000 to 50,000 visitors to the Exhi- 
bition daily. 

The Various Nations Represented and their Industries. — The four 
leading nations of the world — the United States, England, France, and Germnny — 
have the most advantageous positions in the Main Exhibition Building. These 



544 CENTENNIAL'' HISTORY. 

four nations ha\e equal portions of the lofty central pavilion, and each pcf sesses 
one of the four towers. The proximity of these great competitors for the vorld's 
trade will have a tendency to incite rivaliy, and thus contribute largely toward 
makijig the Exhibition a grand success. The most costly and beautifii/ articles 
are exhibited here, and this is the great centre of attraction of the entire D diibition. 
More than one -fourth of the entire floor-space is assigned to the Unil'.-d States. 
England, France, and Germany have, since the first allotment, made 'ipplication 
for additional space, and each of these great nations is exerting itself to its utmost 
to make the finest exhibit. Great Britain exhibits a full represent ition of hei 
textile fabrics and her iron and steel products. Germany makes a full aisplay of her 
various industries, and her mining department doubtless excels tha': of any other 
nation of the Old World. France surpasses all other nations in the display of rich 
and beautiful objects ; and various articles of jewelry and silk manufactures fully 
assert the superiority of the French in matters of taste. Austria exhibits a great 
variety of her industries, such as glassware, iron, manufactures, cloth, leather, and 
fancy goods. Belgium makes a fair exhibit of the finest and most useful manu- 
factures, such as Brussels laces and curious iron products, for which that little but 
busy country is so famous. Holland makes some show in the department of 
manufactures, and the curious and delicate fabrics of her East India possessions 
are on exhibition. Italy is also represented, and the Italian manufactures have a 
portion of the reserved space, Switzerland surpasses other nations in watches and 
various instruments. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Greece, Spain, and Portugal 
also make a display of their manufactures, which are not so extensive, but which, 
from the fact that they are so little seen in the markets of the world, fonn an inter- 
esting feature of the Exhibition. Turkey and Eg>-pt make a fair display of Oriental 
■costumes, arms, furniture, and equipages. China and Jajian exhibit the curious 
wares in the manufacture of which they are so remarkably ingenious. Canada 
and Cuba also fill a large space in the Main Building, and the mineral products of 
Mexico and Peru are exhibited, but in general the countries of the New World, 
with the exception of the United States, do not have much to exhibit. 

Centennial Visitations. — Close of the Centennial Exposition, Nov. 
loth, 1876. — During the months of September, October and November, there 
were over 100,000 visitors at the Exposition daily. Excursions came from all 
parts of the country. In September and October, there were a number of " State 
Days." The most prominent of these were " New York Day," September 21st, 
at which over 120,000' people were present; "Pennsylvania Day," September 
28th, at which 260,000 persons were present; and "Ohio Day," October 26th, at 
which about 140,000 people were present. The Centennial International Exposi- 
tion closed on the loth of November, 1876, over 150,000 people being present. 
Owing to the inclemency of the weather, the ceremonies were held in the "Judges' 
Hall," and thus were witnessed by very few persons. Addresses were made by 
President Grant, General Hawley, and Director-General Goshorn. In all, there 
were about eight million paying visitors at the Exposition during the six m inths 
it was open. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 



THE GREAT EVENTS 



THE WORLD'S HISTORY 

IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 



ANCIENT TIMES. 
B.C. 

4.004 The Creation, ..... 
2348 The Deluge, .... 

2247 The Confusion of Tongues, 
2240 Founding of China, 
2217 Founding of Babylon by Nimrod, 

" Founding of Nineveh, 
2188 Founding of Egypt by Misraim or Menes, 
1 92 1 Abraham settles in the Promised Land, 
1856 Argos, in Greece, founded by Inachus, 
1706 Jacob and his family settle in the Land of Goshen, 
1556 Athens, in Greece, founded by Cecrops, 
1520 Sparta, or Lacedsemon, founded by Lelex, . 

" Corinth founded, . .' . . 

1494 Thebes, in Greece, founded by Cadmus, 
1 49 1 Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, 
1 45 1 The Israelites led by Joshua settle in the Promised 
1263 The Argonautic Expedition, 
1245 Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon, 
1 194 The Trojan War begun, 
1 104 Return of the Heraclidoe, . 
1095 Saul anointed first King of Israel, . ^. 

1068 Death of Codrus, the last King of Athens, . 
1055 David annointed King over Israel, 
1015 Solomon becomes King of the Israelites, 
1004 Solomon builds the Temple, 

975 Revolt of the Ten Tribes, . 

888 Fall of the First Assyrian Empire, 

884 Lycurgus establishes his code in Sparta, 

S80 Carthage founded, .... 

753 Rome founded by Romulus, 

721 The Israelites carried into the Assyrian Captivity, 

716 Death of Romulus, 

708 The Kingdom of Media founded, 

606 Nineveh destroyed by the Medes and Chaldeans, 

.l? (545) 



Land 



PAGE, 



24 
24 

25 
27 

Z7 
28 

37 
37 
2,7 
37 
28 
29 
38 
29 

38 
38 
30 
38 
30 
31 
31 
31 
24 
40 
76 
66 



27. 



32 

67 

33 
24 



546 



CHR ONOL GICAL INDEX. 



594 
588 
560 

559 
546 

538 

53" 
525 
521 
510 

5^9 

ii 

495 
494 

490 



480 



479 

471 
469 
464 

463 
460 

458 
450 

449 
448 

431 
429 
421 

415 
405 

404 

403 

400 
399 
395 
387 



383 
371 
366 
362 
358 
350 
343 
342 



Solon frames a code for Athens, 

The Jews carried into the Babylonian Captivity, 

Usurpation of Pisistratus in Athens, 

Cyrus the Greqt founds the Persian Empire, 

Cyrus the Great conquers Croesus, King of Lydia, 

Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great, . 

Edict of Cyrus permitting the return of the Jews to Palestine, 

Cyrus the Great defeated and killed by the Scythians, 

Cambyses, King of Persia, conquers Egypt, 

Darius Hystaspes becomes King of Persia, . 

A Republic established in Athens, 

Tarquin the Proud expelled from Rome, 

Rome becomes a Republic, .... 

Revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Persia, 

Plebeian insuiTection at Rome, .... 

Tribunes chosen at Rome, .... 

Banishment of Coriolanus from Rome, 

Commencement of the Persian War against Greece, 

Persian invasion of Greece, .... 

Battle of Marathon, .... 

Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, King of Persia, 

Battle of Thermopylae, .... 

Athens burned by the Persians, 

Battle of Salamis, '\ 

Battle of Platsea, \ Greek victories over the Persians, 

Battle of Mycale, J 

Themistocles banished from Athens, 

Battle of Eurymedon, .... 

Earthquake at Sparta, .... 

Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians, 

Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild Jerusalem, 

Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, 

Decemvirs chosen in Rome, 

Peace made between Greece and Persia, 

Abolition of the Office of Decemvir, 

Commencement of the Peloponnesian War, 

Plague at Athens and death of Pericles, 

Peace of Nicias, .... 

Athenian Expedition against Syracuse, . 

Battle of ^gospotamus. 

Surrender of Athens to the Spartans, 

The Thirty Tyrants rule in Athens, , 

The Council of Ten in Athens, . 

Democracy restored in Athens, 

Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks from Persia 

Death of Socrates, .... 

Conquest of Veil by th^ Romans under Camillus, 

Peace of Antalcidas, 

Italy invaded by the Gauls under Brennus, 

Battle on the Allia, — the Romans defeated by the Gauls, 

Rome taken and burned by the Gauls, . 

Commencement of the Theban War, 

Battle of Leuctra, .... 

Adoption of the Laws of Caius Licinius Stolo, 

Battle of Mantinea, .... 

Beginning of the Sacred War in Greece, 

Destruction of Sidon, .... 

P'irst war between the Romans and Samnites begun. 

War between the Romans and the Latins, 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



338 

336 
335 
334 

333 

332 

331 

330 
328 

327 
324 
322 

321 
301 
290 
281 
280 
279 

275 
272 

263 

255 
250 



240 
238 
228 
222 
221 
219 
218 
217 



Battle of Vesuvius, — Patriotic devotion of Decius, . 

Battle of Clijeronea and end of Greek independence, . 

Assassination of Philip of Macedon, 

Thebes, Greece, destroyed by Alexander the Great, 

Alexander's invasion of the Persian Empire, 

Battle of the Granicus, 1 ^t- . • r . i j ^-u /^ .. 

,, _, r .1 T > Victories of Alexander the Great, 

Battle of the Issus, J 

Tyre taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great, 

Siege and capture of Gaza by Alexander the Great, 

Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, 

Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, 

Assassination of Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, 

Conquest of Scythia by Alexander the Great, 

Alexander's invasion of India and defeat of Porus, 

Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon, . 

Demosthenes destroys himself by poison, 

The Romans defeated by the Samnites and obliged to pass under the yuk 

Battle of Ipsus and dismemberment of Alexander's empire, 

Subjugation of the Samnites by the Romans, 

Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, engages in a war with Rome, 

Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls under Brennus, 

Defeat of the Gauls at Thermopylas, 

Defeat of Pyrrhus by the Romans, 

Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, 

Conquest of Tarentum by the Romans, 

Commencement of the First Punic War, 

Defeat of the Romans and captivity of Regulus, 

Battle of Panormus — Defeat of the Carthaginians, 

Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon, 

The Parthian Empire founded, 

End of the First Punic War, 

Sicily made a Roman province. 

Conquest of the Illyrians by the Romans, . 

Conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the Romans, 

Death of Cleomenes III. and capture of Sparta by the Macedonians, 

Capture of Saguntum, in Spain, by the Carthaginians, 

Beginning of the Second Punic War, 

Hannibal's passage of the Alps and invasion of Italy, 

Battle of the Ticinus, 



PAGE. 

74 



e. 



216 

215 
212 

207 

202 
197 
191 

183 
168 
149 
146 

133 
132 



Battle of the Trebia,* 
Battle of Placentia, 
Battle of Trasimenus, 
Battle of Cannae, 



Victories of Hannibal, 



J 



Building of the Great Wall in China, 

Syracuse taken and destroyed by the Romans, 

Battle of the Metaurus, — Hasdrubal defeated by the Romans, 

Sparta subdued by Philopoemen, the successor of Aratus, 

Battle of Zama and end of the Second Punic War, 

Battle of CynoscephiilDe, ..... 

Battle of Magnesia, ..... 

Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, . 

Battle of Pydna and conquest of Macedon by the Romans, 

Beginning of the Third Punic War, 

Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio ^milianus, 

Destruction of Corinth and conquest of Greece by the Romans, 

Numantia, in Spain, taken and destroyed by Scipio i^milianus, 



53 

54 

54 

54* 

54 

55 

55 

56 

56 

56 

57 

57 

58 

59 

59 

74 

60 

75 

75 

61 

61 

76 

61 

76 

76 

77 

77 

61 

64 

77 

77 

78 

78 

62 

78 

78 

78 

79 

79 

79 

79 

79 

. 22 

80 

. 80 

62 

. 81 

62,81 

. 81 

81 

63,82 

82 

. 83 

Cs, 82 

83 



Tiberius Gracchus endeavors to secure the enforcement of the agrariar 

law, but is defeated and slain, ...... 84 

Caius Gracchus attempts to secure the enforcement ot the agrarian law, 
but is killed in a tumult, ..... i^4 



548 
io6 

lOI 

90 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

Jugurtlia, King of Numidia, defeated and captured by the Romans. 

The Cimbri and Teutones annihilated by the Romans. 

The Social War in Italy begun.- — R lasted two years, 

First war between Rome and Mithridates, King of Pontus, 

The civil war between Marius and Sylla begun, 

Dictatorship and death of Marius, .... 

Sylla defeats Mithridates, ..... 

Sylla assumes tlie Dictatorship, .... 

Resignation and death of Sylla, .... 

The rebellion of Sertorius in Spain suppressed, 

The rebellious slaves in Italy under Spartacus subdued by Crassus, 

The Cilician pirates subdued by Pompey, . 

Pompey's victory over Mithridates, .... 

Pompey overthrows the Syrian Empire of the Sefeucidas, . 

Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Pompey, 
" Mithridates terminates his life by poison, 
" Catiline's conspiracy at Rome, ..... 

60 The First Triumvirate at Rome, — Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, 

60 Defeat and death of Crassus in Parthia, 

58 Julius Ccesar made governor of Gaul, 

55 Caesar's first invasion of Britain, .... 

54 Cfesar's second invasion of Britain, . . , 

52 Final conquest of Gaul by Cffisar, .... 

49 The civil war between Pompey and Caesar commenced, . 

" Caesar's crosses the Rubicon and marches to Rome, . •- . 

48 Battle of Pharsalia and assassination of Pompey, 

47 Caesar overthrows Ptolemy in Egypt, .... 

" CKsar's triumph over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, 

46 Battle of Thapsus, — the Roman republicans defeated by Caesar, 

45 Battle of Munda, — Pompey's sons defeated by Csesar, 

44 Dictatorship of Caesar, ...... 

" Assassination of Cresar, ..... 

43 The Second Triumvirate at Rome, — Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus 
42 Battle of Philippi and suicide of Brutus and Cassius, 
31 Battle of Actium and suicide of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, . 
30 Egypt becomes a Roman province, 

" Octavius becomes Emperor, with the title of Augustus, . , 

A. D. 

9 Defeat of the Roman legions under Varus by the Germans, 
14 Death of the Emperor Augustus, .... 

51 Caractacus, the British chief, carried a captive to Rome, 

64 Burning of Rome by order of the Emperor Nero, . 

" Defeat of the British queen, Boadicea, by Suetonius Paulinus, . 

68 Overthrow and death of Nero, .... 

70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, 
79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, . 
96 Final conquest of Britain by the Romans under Julius Agricola, 
226 Beginning of the Persian Empire of the Sassanidas, 
305 Abdication of the Emperor Diocletian, .... 

312 Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor of Rome, 

325 Constantine the Great embraces Christianity, 

336 Constantine makes Constantinople the capital of his empire, 

357 Death of Consta.ntine the Great at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, . 

361 Julian the Apostate becomes Emperor of Rome, . . ♦ 

363 Julian's unfortunate expedition against the New Persians, , 

364 The Roman Em]3ire divided between Valentinian and Valens, 
396 Stilicho, the general of Honorius, defeats the Goths in Greece, 
406 The Romans under Stilicho defeat the barbarians, . 
410 Rome taken and piMaged by Alaric, King of the Goths, 



PAGE, 
»5 
85 

86 
86 
86 
86 
86 
87 
87 
87 
87 
87 
88 



89 



89 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 

91 
92 
92 
93 
64, 93 
93 

94 

94 

95 

96 

96 

96 

97 

98 

98 

103 

106 

106 

107 

107 

107 

108 

108 

109 

no 

no 

III 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 54^ 

PAGE. 

451 Attila, King of the Huns, defeated at Chalons by the Romans, . 112 

452 Attila's retreat into Pannonia, . . . . . .112 

472 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, King of the Vandals, . 112 

476 Downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, . . . • ''3 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 
A D„ 

!^86 Clovis, King of the Franks, conquers Gaul, 

(.96 Clovis defeats the Alemanni in the battle of Tolbiac and embrace 
Christianity, ....... 

507 Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of the Franks, 

527 Justinian becomes Emperor of the East, .... 

535 Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom in Africa, 

537 Belisarius defends Rome against the attacks of the Goths, . 

554 Tejas, the last Gothic king, slain in battle with Narses, ' . 

565 Death of the Emperor Justinian, ..... 

568 The Lombard kingdom in Italy founded by Alboin, 

622 The Hegira, or Mohammed's flight from Mecca, 

632 Death of Mohammed, ...... 

638 Conquest of Syria by the Saracens, ..... 

640 Conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, .... 

651 Conquest of Persia by the Saracens, .... 

660 Accession of the Ommiyades, ..... 

712 Invasion and conquest of Spain by the Saracens, 

732 Defeat of the Saracens near Tours by Charles Martel, . 

752 The dynasty of Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbasides, . 

" Beginning of the Pope's temporal power, 
768 Death of Pepin the Little and division of the Frank kingdom, 

771 Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of the Franks, 

772 Charlemagne forces the Saxons to a peace, 

775 Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 

778 Charlemagne's rear-guard 6ut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles, 

800 Charlemagne crowned at Rome Emperor of the West, 

804 Final subjugation of the Saxons by Charlemagne, . 

814 Death of Charlemagne, . . 

827 Founding of the Kingdom of England by Egbert, . . 120, 

841 Battle of Fontenaille, ...... 

843 Partition Treaty of Verdun, ..... 

871 Alfred the Great becomes King of England, 
875 The Kingdom of Norway founded by Harald Fairhair and Denmark by 
Gorm the Old, ...... 

S98 Charles the Simple becomes King of France, 

900 The Ynglians found the kingdom of Sweden, . 

901 Death of Alfred the Great, ...... 

911 Germany becomes an elective empire, .... 

933 Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Magyars at Merse 
berg, ....... 

973 Otho the Great, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Hungarians at Lech- 
feld, ....... 

981 Greenland discovered by an Icelander, .... 

987 Hugh Capet ascends the throne of France, 

909 Death of Hugh Capet, ...... 

10 <o Stephen the Pious assumes the dignity of King of Hungary, 

'' Vladimir the Great becomes sovereign of Russia, . 
iocj2 Greeland colonized by Icelanders, .... 

" Massacre of the Danes in England, .... 

1016 Canute the Jreat of Denmark becomes King of England, 
1025 Conversion of Canute the Great to Christianity, 
103 1 Dissolution of the Saracen Caliphate of Cordova, 



125 

t25 

17 
:i8 
[18 

:i9 
[19 

[21 
[21 



[24 
[24 
[24 
[26 
[26 
[26 
[27 
[27 

27 
[28 
[28 

29 
[71 
[29 

29 
[71 

■85 
146 

>85 

[72 

•59 
[60 

[6c 
130 
.46 

147 
t89 
[88 
[30 
[72 
[72 
[72 
t25 



^^o CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PA(}E. 
1060 Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, conquers Southern Italy, . 145 

lo65 Battle of Hastings and conquest of England by Duke William of Nor- 
mandy, who then becomes King of England, . . .172 
1077 Henry IV. of Germany humiliated by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrani), 161 
108 1 The Emperor Henry IV. leads an expedition against Hildebrand, . 161 
1081 Hildebrand deposed and Clement III. made Pope, . . 161 
1085 Pope Urban II., at the Council of Clermont, preaches the First Crusade, 135 

1096 The First Crusade undertaken, .... 135, 147 

1097 The Christian army under Godfrey o' Bouillon arrives in Palestine, . 135 
" The Crusaders besiege and take Antioch, .... 136 

1099 Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, ..... 136 
1 130 Roger II. founds the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, . . 145 

1 147 St. Bernard of Clairvaux originates the Second Crusade, . . 137 

1 152 Frederic Barbarossa becomes Emperor of Germany, . . 162 

1 1 54 Henry Plantagenet ascends the throne of England, . . .174 

1 1 70 Assassination of Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbuiy, , 174 

1 172 Ireland conquered by King Henry II. of England, . . . 174 

1 176 Battles of Lignano, — Frederic Barbarossa defeated by the Milanese, 142, 163 

1179 Henry the Lion deprived of his territories by Frederic Barbarossa, . 163 

1 180 Philip Augustus ascends the throne of France, . . . 149 
1 187 Sultan Saladin of Egypt wrests Jerusalem from the Christians, . . 137 

1 189 Death of Henry II. of England and accession of Richard the Lion- 

hearted, . . . . . . . -174 

1 190 The Third Crusade begun, — Death of Frederic Barbarossa, 137, 163 

1 191 Defeat of Saladin by Richard the Lion-hearted, . . . 138 

1 192 Richard the Lion-hearted imprisoned in Germany, . . 138, 174 
1 199 Death of Richard the Lion-hearted and accession of John, . 'US 

1204 Fourth Crusade and temporary subversion of the Greek Empire, 138, 149 

1205 The Pope causes the Cross to be preached against the Albigenses, . 141 
1213 The Child's Crusade, ...... 139 

1 21 5 King John of England forced to sign Magna Charta, . . '175 

I2i8 Frederic II. becomes Emperor of Germany,' . . . 164 

1226 Louis IX., or St. Louis, becomes King of France, . . . 150 

1227 Zingis-Khan, chief of the Moguls, begins his career of conquest, . 190 

1228 The Emperor Frederic II., undertakes the Fifth Crusade, . 139, 165 
1234 King Andrew II. of Hungary grants the Golden Privilege, . 189 
1237 Russia made tributary to the Khan of the Golden Horde, . .188 
1244 Defeat of the Christians at Gaza by the Corasmins, . . 139 
1250 Death of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, . . . 165 

" The Sixth Crusade, — Captivity of St. Louis, . . 139, 150 

1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate of Bagdad, . . . 190 

1266 The foundations of the English House of Commons laid, . . 176 

1270 The Seventh Crusade, — Death of St. Louis, . . . 140, 150 

1273 Count Rodolph of Hapsburgh elected Emperor of Germany, , 166 

1282 The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, ..... 150 
1285 Philip the Fair becomes King of France, .... 150 

1291 Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine, taken by the Turks, . 140 
1296 Battle of Dunbar, — John Baliol defeated by Edward I. of England, 176 

" Battle of Stirling, — the English defeated by William Wallace, . -177 

1298 Battle of Falkirk,— William Wallace defeated by Edward I., . 177 

1305 Martyrdom of William Wallace, the Scottish patriot, . . . 177 

" Avignon, in France, becomes the seat of the papacy, . . 169 

1314 Battle of Bannockburn, — defeat of Edward II. of England, . , 177 

1315 Battle of Morgarten, — the Austrians defeated by the Swiss, . 167 
1328 Philip of Valois ascends the throne of France, .... 152 

1346 Battle of Crecy, — Edward HI. of England defeats the French, 152, 178 
" Battle of Nevil's Cross, — David Bruce taken prisoner, . . . 178 

1347 Calais surrendered to Edward HI. of England after a long siege, 150, 178 
" Cola di Rienzi becomes the head of a new Roman Republic, . . 142 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes, , 
1356 Battle of Poitiers, — King John of France taken prisoner, 
1364 Death of John the Good of France, 

1376 Death of the Black Prince, , . . . . 

1377 Death of Edward III. of England, .... 
1381 Wat Tyler's Insurrection in England, .... 
13S6 Battle of Sempach, — Patriotic devotion of Arnold Winkelried, 
1397 Union of Calmar, — Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united, 
1399 Dethronement of Richard II. of England by Henry of Lancaster, . 

1402 Battle of Angora, — Sultan Bajazet taken prisoner by Tamerlane, 

1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, — Henry IV. of England defeats the barons, 

1414 The Council of Constance assembles, .... 

1415 Battle of Azincourt, — Henry V. of England defeats theFi'ench, 
141 7 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 
1419 Beginning of the Hussite War, which lasts seventeen years, , 
1422 Treaty of Troyes. — Accession of Henry VI. of England, 
1^29 Joan of Arc compels the English to raise the siege of Orleans, 
143 1 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, perished at the stake, 
1453 The English driven out of France, . . . • 

" Sultan Mohammed II. captures Constantinople and puts an end 
to the Byzantine or Greek Empire, . , 
1455 Commencement of the Wars of the Roses in England, . 
1461 Edward IV. becomes King of England and Louis XL of France, 
147 1 Battles of Barnet and Tewksbury, — the Lancastrians overthrown, 

1476 Battles of Granson and Murten, — defeats of Charles the Bold, 

1477 Battle of Nancy and death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, . 
1479 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella, 
14S3 Death of Edward IV. of England and Louis XL of France, 
1485 Battle of Bosvvorth Field and death of Richard III., 
i486 Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope, 

1492 The Moorish Kingdom of Granada conquered by Ferdinand and 

Isabella, ...... 

" Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, 

1493 Founding of St. Domingo by Columbus, 

1497 Vasco de Gama's voyage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, 
" Discovery of North America by Sebastian Cabot, 

1498 Discovery of South America by Columbus, 

1499 The Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany acknowledges the independ- 

ence of Switzerland, . . . . . .171 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
A. D. 

1 501 Discovery of Central America by Columbus, 

1504 Ferdinand of Spain obtains possession of Naples, 

1505 Death of Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow, 

1506 Death of Christopher Columbus at Valladolid, in Spain, 

1507 The city of Ormuz, in Persia, conquered by Albuquerque, 

1508 League of Cambray against Venice, 

1509 Death of Henry VII. of England and accession of Henry VIIL, 

1510 Albuquerque conquers Goa, which becomes the capital of Portu- 

guese Asia, ....... 

1 5 12 John Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, 

1 512 Conquest of Navarre by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, 

1513 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, 
" John de Medici becomes Pope with the title of Leo X., 
" Battle of iie Spurs, France, 1 o , 1 , f 
« Battle of Flodden Field, England, | September roth, . | 

15 15 Death of Louis XII. of France and accession of Francis I., 
" Battle of Marignano, or Battle of the Giants, Italy, 





551 


TAGE. 




142 


153, 


178 


153. 


179 




179 




179 




179 




1 68 




186 




180 




191 




iSo 




160 


154, 


181 




169 




169 


154, 


181 


155, 


181 


155, 


181 


156, 


181 




igr 




1 82 


183. 


156 




183 




156 




156 




159 




183 




184 




193 


125, 


159 




194 




194 




193 




195 




194 





194 




145 
188 




194 




193 


144, 
185, 


158 
209 




193 




194 




159 




194 


15s; 


199 
209 


158, 


209 
202 


143. 


202 



552 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1517 Commencement of the Religious Reformation by Martin Luther, . 199 

" Conquest of Egypt by the Turks, . . . . .192 

" Discovery of Mexico by Cordova, . . . . .214 

1519 Death of the Emperor Maximilian I. and accession of Charles V., 202 

1520 Luther excommunicated by the Pope and his writings condemned, . 20C 
" Luther burns the papal bull of condemnation, . . . 200 
" Luther appears before the Diet of Worms, . . . , 200 
" Commencement of the first war between Charles V. and Francis I., 202 
" The Field of the Cloth of Gold, .... 202, 209 
" Massacre of Stockholm, ..... 186, 213 
" Solyman the Magnificent becomes Sultan of Turkey, . . .192 
" Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe, . . 195 

1521 Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under Fernando Cortez, . . 214 
" Henry VIII. of England writes a volume against the Reformation, 209 

1523 Death of the Chevalier Bayard, . . ... . 203 

" Gustavus Vasa liberates Sweden from the Danish yoke, . .213 

1524 John Verrazzani explores the Atlantic coast of North America, . 195 

1525 Battle of Pavia, — Francis I. defeal^d and made prisoner, . , 203 
" Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber, . . 215 

1526 Peace of Madrid and release of Francis I., .... 203 
" Battle of Mohacz and fall of Louis II. of Hungary, . 190, 204 
" Discovery of the La Plata river by Sebastian Cabot, , . . 195 

1527 The Holy League formed against Charles V., . . , 203 
" Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., ... 203 
" Rome taken and pillaged by the Germans and Spaniards, . . 204 

\528 Andria Doria frees Genoa from French supremacy, . . 144, 204 

1529 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between Charles V. and Francis I., . 204 

" Siege of Vienna by Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, . . 192, 204 

" The Protestation of the German Reformers at the Diet of Spire, . 201 

" Discovei-y of Peru by Francisco Pizarro, .... 214 

^530 Diet of Augsburg, — The Augsburg Confession, . . . 201 

" The League of Schmalkald formed by the German Protestants, . 206 

" Religious war in Switzerland,— Battle of Kappel and death of Zwingle, 201 
" Death of Cardinal Wolsey, November 29th, . . . .210 

1532 Conquest of Peru by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro, . 214 

'533 Henry VIII. divorces Catharine of Aragon and marries Anne Boleyn, 209 
" Accession of Ivan the Terrible, Czar of Russia, . . . 188 

1534 Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England, . . 210 

" James Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence river, . , . 195 

•535 Cartier's second voyage up the St. Lawrence, . . . 195 

" First expedition of Charles V. to Africa, .... 204 

1536 Henry VIII. causes Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, and marries Jane 

Seymour, ....... 210 

" Third war between Charles V. and Francis I., ... 205 

1538 The Ten Years' Truce of Nice between Charles V. and Francis I., 205 

1540 The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola, . . , 213 

1541 Discover).- of the Mississippi river by Ferdinand De Soto, . . 195 
" Second African expedition of Charles V., .... 205 

1542 Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., . . . 205 
" War between England and Scotland, — Battle of Solway Moss, . 21 1 

1543 Bombardment of Nice by the French and Turkish fleets, . . 205 

1544 Battle of Cerisoles, ....... 205 

" Peace of Crepy between Charles V. and Francis I., . . 205 

'545 Opening of the Council of Trent, ..... 207 

1546 Death of Dr. Martin Luther, February 1 8th, . . . 207 

1 547 Beginning of the religious war in Germany, .... 207 
" Death of Henry VIII. and accession of Edward VI., . 206, 211 
" Death of Francis I. of France and accession of Hemy II., 206, 218 
" English invasion of Scotland. — Battle of Pinkie, . . .211 

1552 D.ike Maurice of Saxony makes war on the Emperor Charles V., 208 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 553 

PAGE. 

1552 Henry II. of France seizes the fortresses in Lorraine, . . 206, 218 

" Religious Peace of Passau, ..... 208 

'553 Death of Edward VI. of England and accession of Mary . .212 

1554 Unsuccessful siege of Metz by the Emperor Charles V., , 206 

" Religious Peace of Augsburg, ...,., 208 

1556 Abdication and retirement of the Emperor Charles V., . . 208 
" Philip II., King of Spain, and Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, 208 

1557 War of England and Spain against France, . . 212, 218 
" Battle of St. Quentin, — the French defeat the English and Span- 
iards, ....... 212, 21S 

1558 The French recover Calais from the English, . . 212, 218 
" Death of Queen Mary of England and accession of Ehzabeth, . 212, 222 
" Death of Charles V., ...... 209 

1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis between France and Spain, . 206, 218 
" Death of Henry II. of France and accession of Francis 11^, , . 21S 

1560 Death of Francis II. of France and accession of Charles IX., . 218 

1562 The first religious war in France, . . . . .219 

1563 Peace of Amboise between the French Catholics and Huguenots, 219 
'^ Hungary comes under the House of Hapsburgh, . . . 190 

1564 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and accession of Maximilian II., -225 

1565 The Catholic nobles in the Netherlands petition for toleration, . 216 
" Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Lord Darnley, . . . 222 

1566 Murder of Mary's favorite, David Rizzio, .... 222 
" Death of Sultan Solyman the Magnilicent of Turkey, . . 192 

1567 The second religious war in France, ..... 219 
'* Philip II. appoints the Duke of Alva Governor of the Netherlands, 216 
" Murder of Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, . 222 
" Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, . . . 222 

1568 The Peace of St. Germain closes the second religious war in France, 219 
" Queen Mary of Scots flees to England, where she is kept a prisoner, 223 

1571 Battle of Lepanto, — the Turkish navy annihilated, . , 192, 215 

1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, ..... 219 
" The revolted States of the Netherlands choose William of Orange 

for their Stadtholder, . . . . . .216 

1574 Death of King Charles IX. of France and accession of Heniy HI., 220 

1576 The Pacification of Ghent, . . . . , . 217 

" Death of the Emperor Maximilian II. of Germany and accession of 

Rodolph II.. ....... 225 

1579 The Union of Utrecht, ...... 217 

1580 Portugal united with Spain, ...... 216 

1581 Assassination of William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, . 217 

1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth, . . 223 

1588 The Spanish Armada sent against England. — Destroyed by storms, 224 
" Rebellion in Paris against King Henry III., .... 220 
" Death of the Czar, Ivan the Terrible of Russia, . . . 188 

1589 Henry HI. besieges Paris, . . ... 221 
" Assassination of Henry HI. and accession of Henry IV., . . 221 

1590 Siege of Paris by King lienry IV., ..... 221 
1593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic and thus brings about a peace, . 221 
1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV., tolerating Protestantism, . 221 

" Death of Philip II. of Spain and accession of Philip III., . . 215 

" The Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic rebellion in Ireland, . . 22^5 

1600 The English East-India Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth, . 29S 

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
A D. 

1601 Execution of the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favorite, . , 223 

1602 Bartholomew Gosnold explores the New England coast, . . 257 
160J Death of Queen Elizabeth of England and accession of James L, , 225 



554 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. ' 

PAGE 

1603 Martin Pring explores the New England coast, . . , 257 

1605 The French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) founded by De Monts, 300 
" The Gunpowder Plot in London, ..... 2;^^ 

1606 Martin Pring's second visit to the New England coast, . '257 

1607 The first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, 255 

1608 Quebec, in Canada, founded by Samuel Champlain, . , . 300 

1609 Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain, . . , 300 
" Henry Hudson discovers and explores the Hudson river, . . 259 
" Holland becomes independent of Spain, . . , 217, 231 

1610 Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Louis XHL, 221 
" Expulsion of 600,000 Moors from Spain, . . . .215 
" The Starving Time in Virginia, ..... 2^6 

1612 Death of the Emperor Rodolph II. and accession of Matthias, . . 226 
" Capture of Moscow by the Poles. 

1613 Michael Romanoff becomes Czar of Russia, . . . •2)3 

1 6 14 Captain John Smith explores and names New England, . . 2^y 

1618 Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh, .... 232 
" Beginning of the Thirty Years' War by the Bohemian revolt, . 226 

1619 Death of the Emperor Matthias and accession of Ferdinand II., 226 
" The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, June 28, 256 
" The Dutch colony of Batavia, in Java, founded, . . 218 

1620 Slavery introduced into Virginia, ..... 256 
" The Puritan settlement of Plymouth, in New England, December 21, , 257 

1621 The Virginia House of Burgesses established, . . . 256 
" Death of Philip HI. of Spain and accession of Philip IV. 

1622 Ormuz wrested fi-om the Portuguese by Shah Abbas of Persia, . 215 
" The first Indian war and massacre in Virginia, .... 256 

1^23 The Dutch colony of New Netherland established, . . 259 

1624 Cardinal Richdlieu becomes Prime-Minister of France, . . 249 
" King James I. of England makes Virginia a royal Province, . 256 

1625 Death of James I. of England and accession of Charles I., , . 234 
" Frederic, King of Bohemia, defeated by the Emperor Ferdinand II., 227 

1625 King Christian IV. of Denmark aids the German Pretestants, . 227 

1626 Defeat of Christian IV. at Lulter by Tilly, the imperial general, . 228 

1628 Validity of the Petition of Right acknowledged by Charles I., . 234 
" Richelieu humbles the Huguenots by the capture of Rochelle, . . 249 
" Salem, Massachusetts, founded by John Endicott, . . . 25S 

1629 Peace of Lubec between the King of Denmark and the Emperor of 

Germany, ........ 228 

" The Edict of Restitution published by the Emperor Ferdinand IL, 228 
" Charles I. of England dissolves his Parliament, which is not again 

convened for eleven years, ...... 234 

1630 Boston, Massachusetts, founded by John Winthrop, . . 258 
" King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden aids the German Protestants, . 229 

1631 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by Tilly, .... 229 
" Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic, — Tilly defeated by Gustavus, . 229 

1632 Battle of Lutzen, — victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus, . 230 

1633 Alliance of Heilborn between the Swedes and the Germans, . . 230 

1634 Assassination of Wallenstein by order of the Emperor Ferdinand II. , 230 
" Battle of Nordlingen, . . . . . . .231 

" Settlement of Maryland by English Roman Catholics, . . 261 

1635 Clayborne's first rebellion in Maryland, . . , . .261 
" Peace of Prague between the German Princes and the Emperor, . 23 1 
" Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts, . . . 258, 263 

1636 Founding of Providence, Rhode Island, by Roger Williams, . 263 
" Settlement of Hartford, Connecticut, by Rev. Thomas Hooker, . 262 

1637 Extermination of the Pequod Indians by the Connecticut settlers, . 262 
" Death of the Emperor P'erdinand II. and accession of Ferdinand III., . 231 
'« Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, ..... 235 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 555 

PAGE. 

1637 Founding of Harvard College at Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

1638 Founding of New Haven, Connecticut, by Rev. John Davenport. . 262 
" Settlement of Newport, Rliode Island, by William Coddington, , 263 
" Settlement of New Sweden (now Delaware), . . . 264 
" Sultan Amurath IV. of Turkey causes a massacre of the inhabitatants 

of Bagdad. 

1640 Portugal recovers her independence, . . . . 216 
" Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, begins his reign, 281 

164 1 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, ..... 236 

1642 Commencement of the civil war in England between the Cavaliers 

and the Roundheads, . . . . . 236 

" Battle of Edge Hill, England, October 3d, ... '237 

" Death of Cardinal Richelieu, December, . . . 249 

1643 Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV., . 249 
" Battle of Rocroi, — -the Spaniards defeated by the French. 

" Battle of Newbury, England, ..... 237 

" Union of the New England colonies, .... 258 

1644 Battle of Marston Moor, — Lord Fairfax defeats the royalists, July gtl 237 
" Second Indian war in Virginia, ..... 256 
" Union of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, . . 263 
" The Mantchoo-Tartar dynasty ascends the throne of China. 

1645 Clayborne's second rebellion in Maryland, . . .261 
" Battle of Naseby, — Charles I. overthrown, June 14th, . . , 238 

1648 Peace of Westphalia terminates the Thirty Years' War, . . 231 
" The Civil Wars of the Fronde commence in France, . . . 250 
" Colonel Pride's Purge,— 81 Presbyterians expelled from Parliament, 239 

1649 Execution of King Charles I. of England, January 30th, . . 239 
" The Commonwealth of England established, . . . 240 
" The Toleration Act passed by the Maryland Assembly, . . 262 

1650 Battle of Dunbar, — the Scots defeated by Cromwell, September 3d, 240 

1651 Battle of Worcester, — the English royalists defeated by Cromwell, 

September 3rd, ....... 240 

" The Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament, . . 241 

1652 Commencement of a naval war between England and Holland, . 241 

1653 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament, April, . . . 241 
" Praise-God Barebone's Parliament, April to December, . . 242 
" Oliver Cromwell created Lord Protector of England, December, . 242 

1654 Abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden, .... 232 
" Peace between England and Holland, .... 241 

1655 War between England and Spain, ..... 242 
" Conquest of the island of Jamaica by the English Admiral Penn, . 242 
" Civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and Protestants, . . 262 
" Conquest of New Sweden by Governor Stuyvesant of New Nether- 
land, ....... 260 264 

1656 Persecution of Quakers in Boston, Massachusetts, . . . 258 
" Three days' battle of Warsaw, — the Swedes defeat the Poles. 

1657 Death of the Emperor P'erdinand III. and accession of Leopold I. 

1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, September 3rd, . . . . 242 
" Richard Ciomwell becomes Lord Protector, but soon resigns, . 243 

1659 Aurungzebe ascends the Mogul throne in Indja, .^ . 215 281 
" The Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, . ■ 250 

1660 Restoration of Monarchy in England, — Charles II., King, May 29th, 243 
(66l Death of Cardinal Mazarin, Prime- Minister of France, . . . 250 

1663 Naval war between England and Holland, . . . 244 
' Charter granted to Rhode Island by King Charles II. of England, . 264 
' Settlement of North Carolina by emigrants from Virginia, . 264 

1664 Conquest of New Netherland by the English, . . . 260 
" Settlement of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, by English Puritans, ■ 266 

1665 Connecticut and New Haven united under one charter gr?,nted by 

Charles II., . . . . . . . .263 



556 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1665 Great plague in London, ...... 244 

1666 Great fire in London, ....... 244 

1667 Peace of Breda between England and Holland, . . . 244 
" Louis XIV. of France makes conquests in the Spanish Netherlands, 251 

1668 Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden against France, 251 
" Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, — Louis XIV. restores his corquests, . •251 
" Peace between Spain and Portugal after 26 years of war. 

1669 Conquest of Candia (Crete) by the Turks. ' 

1670 Settlement of South Carolina by English emigrants, . , 265 

1671 Emmerik Tokeli's insurrection in Hungary, .... 252 

1672 Louis XIV. invades Holland with a powerful army, . . 251 
l67_^ Louis Joliet and James Marquette explore the Mississippi river, . 300 

" John Sobieski, King of Poland, defeats 200,000 Turks at Kotzim. 

" New York taken by a Dutch fleet, ..... 260 

1674 New York restored to the English, ..... 260 
" Spain and Germany join Flolland in the war against France, . .251 

1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, — the Swedes defeated by the Great Elector, . 251 
" Beginning of King Philip's War in New England, July 4th, . . 258 

1676 Subjugation of the New England Indians and death of King Philip, 258 
" Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, ..... 256 

1678 Peace of Nimeguen between France and the Allies, . . . 252 
" The Habeas Corpus Act passed by the English Parliament, , 246 

1679 Eleven days' battle at Tangier between the English and the Moors. 

i68q Charleston, South Carolina, founded, .... 26!; 

1681 Louis XIV. wrests the free city of Strasburg from the German Empire, . 252 

1682 Philadelphia and Pennsylvania founded by William Penn, . 266, 267 
" Robert de La Salle explores the Mississippi river, . . . 300 

1683 John Sobieski, King of Poland, drives the Turks from Vienna, . 252 
" Rye House Plot in England. — Execution of Russell and Sydney, . 246 
" Bombardment of Algiers by a French fleet, . . , . 252 

1684 Genoa bombarded by the French navy, . . • . 252 

1685 Death of Charles II. of England and accession of James II., . 246 
" Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and persecution of the Huguenots, . 254 

1686 League o<" Augsburg, — Germany, Spain, Holland, and Sweden against 

France, . . . . . . . . 254 

1687 The Connecticut charter concealed from Sir Edmund Andros, . 263 

1688 Death of Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, . . 281 
" Desolation of the Palatinate by the French, . . . 254 
" Revolution in England and flight of James II., . . . 247 

1689 The Bill of Rights passed by the English Parliament, . . 247 
" William and Mary created joint sovereigns of England, , . 247 
" Sir Edmund Andros deposed and imprisoned in Boston, . . 259 
" England joins the Allies in the war against Louis XIV., . . 254 
" Rebellion of the Scotch Highlanders against William and Maiy, . 248 
" Battle of Killicrankie and death of Lord Dundee, . . . 248 
" Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of James II., . . 248 
" Peter the Great becomes sole Czar of Russia, .... 273 

," Dover, New Hampshire, burned by the French and Indians, , 301 

1690 Schenectady, New York, destroyed by the French and Indians, . 301 
" Battle of the Boyiie, Ireland, — James II. defeated by William HI., 248, 254 

1691 Battle of Aughrim, Ireland, and death of the Irish General St. Ruth, . 248 
" Massacre of Glencoe, Scotland, ..... 248 
" Acadia seized and plundered by Sir William Phipps, . . . 301 

1692 Massachusetts made a royal province, .... 259 

" Salem Witchcraft, ....... 259 

" Naval battle off Cape La Hogue. — Beginning of England's naval 

superiority, ........ 254 

" Battle of Neerwinden, — William III. defeated by the French, . 254 

1695 War of Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice against Turkey, . . 253 

1696 Deatli of John Sobieski, King of Poland, .... 253 



CHR ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 



557 

TAGE. 
248, 255, 301 
253 



1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and the Allies, 
" Battle of Zenta,— Prince Eugene defeats the Turks, 
" Charles XII. ascends the throne of Sweden, 

" Governor Fletcher of New York defied at Hartford by Captain 
Wadsworth, ....••• 

1699 Peace of Karlowitz between Turkey and the Allies, 

" The Encrlish erect Fort William at Calcutta, Hindoostan, 

1700 Death of Charles II. of Spain and accession of Philip of Anjou, 

" Charles XII. of Sweden compels the King of Denmark to make peace, 
« Battle of Narva, — Charles XII. defeats the Czar Peter the Great, 



273 

263 

253 
298 
268 
274 
274 



of Saxony, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

A. D. 

1701 Founding of the Kingdom of Prussia, 

" Founding of Yale College in Connecticut. 

1702 Founding of Mobile in the present Alabama, 

" Death of William III. of England and accession of Queen Anne, 

" Commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, 

" Charles XII. of Sweden enters Warsaw in triumph, 

" Deerfield, Massachusetts, burned by the French and Indians, 

1703 St. Petersburg founded by the Czar Peter the Great, 

" Charles XII. of Sweden deposes Augustus II. of Poland, 
" Protestant insurrection in France, 
" Protestant insurrection in Hungary, 

1704 Stanislaus Leczinski elected King of Poland, 
" Capture of Gibra^ar by Sir George Rooke, 
" Battle of Blenheim, August 13th, 

1705 Death of the Emperor Leopold I. and accession of Joseph I 

1706 Battle of Ramillies, May 23d, .... 
" Battle of Turin, September 6th, 

" Peace of Altranstadt between 'Charles XII. and the Elector 
" A Franco-Spanish fleet attacks Charleston, South Carolina, 

1707 Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland, 
" Battle of Almanza, Spain, April 25th, 
" Death of Aurungzebe, the great Mogul Emperor of India, 

1708 Battle of Oudenarde, July nth, 
" Charles XII. of Sweden invades Russia, 

1709 Batde of Pultowa, July 8th, .... 
" Battle of Mai plaquet, September nth, 

1 7 10 The French colony of Acadia conquered by the English, 
" Charles XII. of Sweden seeks refuge in Turkey, 

171 1 Unfortunate expedition of Sir Hovenden Walker against Canada, 
" The Tuscarora Indians make war on the North Carolina settlers, 
" Death of the Emperor Joseph il. and accession of Charles VI., 

" The Hungarian insurrection of Count Ragotzky suppressed, 

1 7 13 Peace of Utrecht, ..... 

1 7 14 Peace of Rastadt, ...... 

" Death of Queen Anne of England and accession of George I., 

17 15 The Yamasee Indians make war on the South Carolinians, 
" Charles XII. returns to Sweden, .... 
" Death of Louis XIV. of France and accession of Louis XV., 
" Rebellion in Scotland against the House of Brunswick, 

1716 Battle of Sheriff Muir, Scotland, 
" Austria joins Venice in a war against the Ottoman Porte, 
" Charles XII. of Sweden invades Norway, 
" Prince Eugene defeats the Turks near Peterwardein, 

1717 Prince Eugene annihilates an army of 200,000 Turks at Belgrade, 

1718 War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain, 

" Peace of Passarovitz between Austria and Turkey, 



281 

300 

248 
268 

274 
301 

274 
275 
269 
269 

275 
269 
270 
270 
270 
270 

275 
265 
248, 278 
. 271 
281 
27X 

275 
276 
271 
301 
276 
301 
265 
272 
269 
272 
272 
278 
265 

277 
272 
278 
278 
278 

277 
278 
278 
279 
278 



249. 



5^8 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PACK. 

1 718 Siege of Frederickshall and death of Charles XII. of Sweden, . 278 

" Yale College removed from Saybrook to New Haven. 

" P'ounding of New Orleans, Louisiana, .... 300 

1 72 1 Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, . . . 278 

1722 Persia overrun and subdued by the Afghans, . . . 281 
1725 Death of Peter the Great of Russia and accession of Catharine I., . 278 
1727 Death of Catharine I. of Russia and accession of Peter II., . 278 

" Death of George I. of England and accession of George II., . 2/19, 27S 

" Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. 

" Conquest of Thibet by the Chinese. 

1729 North and South Carolina become separate royal provinces, . 266 
" The Natchez Indians massacre the French settlers at Fort Rosalie, . 301 

1730 The Empress Anne ascends the throne of Russia, . . . 278 

1732 Birth of George Washington, February 22d. 

1733 Savannah, Georgia founded by James Edward Oglethorpe, . 267 
" War of the Polish Succession begins, ..... 280 

1734 Battle of Parma, Italy, between the Sardinians and Austrians. 

1735 Peace between France and Germany, ..... 280 

1736 Kouli Khan ascends the throne of Persia with the title of Nadir Shah, 281 

1737 Austria joins Russia in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . . 280 

1738 Battle of Krotzky, July 21st, — the Turks defeat the Austrians. 

" France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanction, .... 282 

1739 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and Turkey, . . . 280 
" Nadir Shah of Persia invades India and causes 100,000 of the inhabi- 
tants of Delhi to be massacred, . . . . . 281 

" Colonial and maritime war between England and Spain, . . 280 

" Porto Bello, South America, taken by Admiral Vernon's fleet, . 280 

1740 Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth repulsed in an attack upon 

Carthagena, South America, ...... 280 

" Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, . . . 282 

" Frederic the Great becomes King of Prussia, . . . .281 

" Coalition against Maria Theresa and War of the Austrian Succession, 282 

" Frederic the Great begins the First Silesian War, . . . 282 

1 741 Battle of Molvitz, — defeat of the Austrians by the Prussians, . 282 
" A French army under Marshal Belleisle marches into Bohemia, . 283 
" Charles VII. elected Emperor of Germany, . . . 283 
" Accession of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, .... 278 
" War between Sweden and Russia, . . . . .281 
" Supposed Negro Plot in New York City. 

1742 Peace of Breslau between Austria and Prussia, . . . 283 
" Marshal Belleisle's retreat through Germany to the Rhine, . . 283 

1743 England's alliance with Maria Theresa, .... 283 
" Battle of Dettingen,— George II. of England defeats the French, . 283 
" Peace of Abo between Sweden and Russia, . . .281 

1744 The Second Silesian War and Frederic's capture of Prague, . . 284 
*745 Death of Charles VII. of Germany and election of Francis I., . 284 

" Battle of Hohenfriedberg, ...... 284 

" Battle of Sorr, ....... 284 

" Battle of Kesselsdorf, ....... 284 

" Peace of Dresden between Frederic and Maria Theresa, . . 284 

" Battle of Fontenoy, ....... 285 

" Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Admiral Warren and General 

Pepperell, ...... 2S5, 302 

" Scotch Rebellion, ....... 2S5 

" Battle of Preston Pans, Scotland, ..... 285 

C746 Battle of Falkirk, Scotland, . . . . . .285 

" Battle of Culloden Moor, Scotland, ..... 285 

1747 Assassination of Nadir Shah of Persia, . . . . 281 

1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, . . . . . 286,302 

1749 The Ohio Company obtains a land-grant from King George II., . 303 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. , 559 

pa(;e. 
'753 Washington's mission to the French, .... 302 

1754 Washington's expedition against Fort Du Qiiesne, . . . 303 
" Battle of the Great Meadows, ... . . . 303 

«' Wasliington's capitulation at Fort Necessity, July 4th, . . . 303 

" Colonial Congress at Albany, New York, .... 303 

1755 Capture of French forts in Acadia by Colonel Monckton, June, . 303 
" Acadia plundered and desolated by the English, June, . . 303 
« ISatlle of the Monongahela and death of Braddock, July 9th, . , 303 
" Battle of Lake George,— Colonel Williams defeated liy Dieskau, . 304 
•' Great earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal, destroys 30,000 houses. 

1756 Coalition against Frederic the Great and beginning of the Seven 

Years' War, . . . . • • • > 2S6 

" Sudden invasion of Saxony by Frederic the Great, . . . 2S7 

'' Battle of Lowositz, Bohemia, ...... 287 

" Surrender of the Saxon army, . . . . • 287 

" The French wrest the island of Minorca from the Enghsh, ' . . 287 

•* The Marquis de Montcalm captures the English garrison at 

Oswego, ....... 287, 304 

" Battle of Kittanning, — Colonel John Armstrong defeats the Indians, 304 

" Surajah Dowlah confines 146 Englishmen in the Black Hole of 

Calcutta, ........ 299 

1757 Battle of Plassey, India, — . . . . . . 299 

" Battle of Prague, Bohemia, May 6th, .... 287 

" Battle of Kolin, Bohemia, June i8th, ..... 288 

" Battle of Rosbach, Saxony, November 5th, . . . 288 

" Battle of Leuthen, Silesia, December 5th, .... 288 

«« Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, . . 2S9, 304 

" William Pitt the Elder becomes Prime Minister of England, . 2S9, 304 

1758 Battle of Zorndorf, Brandenburg, August 24th, . . . 289 
" Battle of Hochkirchen, Saxony, October 14th, .... 289 
" Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, 289, 305 
" Capture of Fort Frontenac, Canada, by Colonel Bradstreet, . 2S9, 305 
" Capture of Fort Du Quesne by General John Forbes, . . 305 

1759 Battle of Minden, Havover, August 1st, .... 290 
" Battle of Knnersdorf, Silesia, August 14th, .... 290 
" Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by General Amherst, . 305 
*•' Capture of Fort Niagara by General William Johnson, . . 305 
» Defeat of the French at Quebec and death of Wolfe and Montcalm, 

September 13th, ...... 290, 306 

" Quel)ec surrendered to General Murray, September l8th, . 290, 306 

" The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay. 

1760 Battle of Liegnitz, August 13th, ..... 291 
" Battle of Torgou, November 3d," ..... 291 
« Battle of Sillery, Canada, April 28th, .... 291,306 
« Surrender of Montreal to General Murray, September 8th, . 291, 306 
« Death of George II. of England and accession of George III., 292, 297, 455 

1761 Battle of Panniput, India, Januaiy 7th, .... 281 
'< Family Compact between France and Spain, . . . -99' 
•• Defeat of the Cherokee Indians in Georgia by Colonel Grant, . 306 
" Mason's and Dixon's Line established, . . . • 267 
" Writs of Assistance tried in the Anglo-American colonies, . . 455 

1762 Capture of Havana, Cuba, by the British navy, . . . 292 
«' Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, . . . 29? 
" Murder of the Czar Peter HI. of Russia and accession of Catha- 
rine II., . . . . . . . .292 

1763 Peace of Paris between England and France, Februaiy loth, 292, 306 
" Peace of Hubertsburg between Austria and Prussia, . . 292 
" Pontiac's War against the English in North America, . . . 306 

1764 Death of Augustus III. of Poland and election of Stanislaus Ponia- 

lowski, . . . . . . . .293 



S6o 



CHR ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 



1765 The Stamp Act passed by the British Parliament, . 
" The Slamj) Act Congress in New York City, October, 
" Dealh of the Emperor Francis I., and election of Joseph II., 

1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6th, .... 
" Parliament levies duties on articles imported into America, 

1767 Civil war in Poland, ...... 

" Ilyder Ali, Sidtan of Mysore, begins a war against the English, 

176S War between Russia and Turkey, .... 

" British troops under General Gage sent to Boston, . 

1769 Acquisition of Corsica by the French, .... 

1770 Bender stormed and taken by the Russians, 
" The Boston Riot and Massacre, March 5th, 

1 77 1 Defeat of the Regulators in North Carolina, May i6th, 
" Gustavus III. ascends the throne of Sweden. 
" Gustavus III. breaks the power of the Swedish aristocracy. 

1772 Destruction of the Gasp6, ..... 
" First Partition of Poland, ..... 

1773 Committees of Correspondence in the Anglo-American colonies, 
" Tea-ships sent to America, ..... 
" Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, December r6th, 

1774 Pugatscheff's rebellion in Russia, .... 
" Passage of the Boston Port Bill by the British Parliament, 
" The port of Boston closed against all commerce, June ist, . 
" The First Continental Congress assembles in Philadelphia, Sept. 5th 
" Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche between Russia and Turkey, 

" Death of Louis XV. of France and accession of Louis XVL, . 

'775 Pugatschefl", the Don Cossack, beheaded in Moscow, 
" American Revolution begins by the skirmishes at Lexington and 
and Concord, April 19th, .... 

•* The Second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia, 
May loth, ....... 

" Capture of Ticonderoga by Colonel Ethan Allen, May loth, 
" Capture of Crown Point by Colonel Seth Warner, May 1 2th, . 
" Mecklenberg Declaration of Independence, May 20th, 
" Washington chosen Commander-in-chief, June 15th, 
" Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, 
" American invasion of Canada, Se]5tember, 
" Defeat of Governor Dunmore in Virginia, . 
" Capture of Montreal by General Montgomery, November 13th, 
" Defeat of the Americans at Quebec and death of Montgomery, 
December 31st, ...... 

1776 Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk, Virginia, January ist, 
" Washington begins the siege of I^ostoh, March 2d, 
" Evacuation of Boston by General Howe, March 17th, 
" The British repulsed at Charleston, South Carolina, June 28th, 
*• Declaration of American Independence, July 4th, . 
" Battle of Long Island, August 27th, .... 
" Battle of White Plains, New York, October 28th, . 
" Capture of Fort Washington by the British, November i6th, 
" Washington's retreat across New Jersey, December, 
" Battle of Trenton, New Jersey, — 1,000 Hessians captured, Decem- 
ber 26th, . . . . . 

'777 Battle of Princeton, New Jersey, January 3d, . 
" Skirmish at Ridgefield, Connecticut, April 27th, 
" Siege of Fort Schuyler, New York, August, 
" Battle of Onskany, New York, August 6th, 
" Battle of Bennington, Vermont, August l6th, 
" Battle of Brandy wine, Pennsylvania, September nth, 
" Battle of Bemis's Heights, New York, September 19th, 
" Massacre of Paoli, Pennsylvania, September 20tn, . . 



455 

• 456 
298 

• 456 
456 

• 294 
299 

• 294 
457 

• 297 
294 

• 457 
45^ 



458 
294 
459 
458 
458 
294 
458 
458 
459 
294 
310 
294 



307, 460 



307 



307. 
307. 
307. 



307. 



, 462 
460 
460 
461 
462 
461 
462 
462 

tj.62 

462 
462 
462 
462 
463 
463 
464 
464 
464 
465 

465 
465 
465 
467 
467 
467 
466 
467 
466 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 561 

PAGE. 

1777 Battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania, October 4th, . . . 466 
" Battle of Saratoga, New York, October 7th, . . . 467 
" Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17th, ... - .467 
" Adoption of the Articles of Confederation, November, . . 467 
" Washington encamps at Valley Forge, December, . . . 466 

1778 Franco-American Alliance. — War between England and France, 308, 468 
" Death of the elder William Pitt. 

" Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, June 28th, . . 468 

" Massacre of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, July 3d, 4th, and 5th, . . 469 

" Battle of Quaker Hill, Rhode Island, August 29th, . . . 468 

" Massacre of Cherry Valley, New York, November nth, . , 469 

" The British under Colonel Campbell invade Georgia and capture 

Savannah, December 29th, ...... 469 

" War of the Bavarian Succession, ..... 297 

" Discovery of the Sandwich Islands by Captain Cook. 

1779 Capture of Sunbury, Georgia, by the British, January 9th, . ' . 469 
" Battle of Kettle Creek, Georgia, February 14th, . . . 469 
" Battle of Brier Creek, Georgia, March 3d, .... 469 
" Battle of Stono Ferry, South Carolina, June 20th, . . . 469 
" Spain declares war against England, June, . . . 3'^S> 47° 
" Siege of Gibraltar commenced by the Spaniards, . . 2f>^f 47*^ 
'« Capture of Stony Point by General Anthony Wayne, July 1 6th, . 470 
" Capture of Paulus Hook by Major Henry Lee, July 19th, . . 470 
" General Sullivan's chastisement of the Indians in New York, August, . 470 
" John Paul Jones's great naval victory off Flamborough Head, Sept. 23d, 470 
" Siege of Savannah begun by the French and Americans, Sept. 23d, . 470 
" Unsuccessful assault on the British at Savannah, October 9th, . 470 

1780 Sir Henry Clinton lays siege to Charleston, South Carolina, April 9th, . 471 
" Surrender of Charleston to the British, May 1 2th, . . .471 
" The' Gordon or "No Popeiy Riots" in London, June, . , . 297 
" Skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey, June 23d, . . . 472 
" Battle of Sander's Creek, South Carolina, August l6th, . . -47^ 
" Battle of Fishing Creek, South Carolina, August 1 8th, . . 471 
" Arnold's treason discovered, September 22d, .... 47^ 
" Execution of Major Andre, October 2d, .... 47^ 
" Battle of King's Mountain, South Carolina, October 7th, . -471 
" Death of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, . . . 298 
" Hyder Ali defeated in India by Sir Eyre Coote, ... 299 
" Beginning of Tupac Amaru's insurrection in Peru, . . . 433 
" Armed Neutrality against England, .... 3°^» 47^ 
" England declares war against Holland, December 20th, . 308, 472 

1781 Mutiny of Pennsylvania troops at MonTistown, New Jersey, Jan. 1st, 472 
" Battle of the Cowpens, South Carolina, January 1 7tli, . . . 473 
" Mutiny of New Jersey troops at Pompton, New Jersey, January l8th, 472 
" Battle of Guilford Court House, North Carolina, March 15th, . . 473 
" Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, South Carolina, April 25th, . . 473 
" Siege of Fort Ninety-Six, vSouth Carolina, by General Greene, May, . 473 
" Capture of Augusta, Georgia, by the Americans, June 5th, . . 473 
" Battls between the English and Dutch fleets on the Dogger Bank, June, . 309 
" Massacre of Fort Griswold, Connecticut, September 6th, . . 474 
" Battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, September 8th, . • 474 
" Siege of Yorktown conmrenced by Washington, September 2Sth, . 474 
" Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, October 19th, . . .474 

1782 End of Lord North's Administration, March, . . .475 
" The British House of Commons resolves to end the American war, 

March 4th, . . . . . . . - . 475 

" Admiral Rodney defeats Count de Grasse in the West Indies, 

April r2th, ........ 309 

" Grand attack of the P'rench and Spaniards on Gibraltar, Sept. 13th, 309 

36 



562 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1782 Preliminary Peace of Paris between England and the United States, 

November 30th, ....... 475 

" The younger William Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England. 

" Migi-ation of the Kalmuck Tartars from Russia, . . . 294 

" Tupac Amaru conquered and put to a cruel death, . . . 433 

" Death of Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, and accession of Tirooo Saib, . 299 

1783 Preliminary Peace of Paris between England and France, Jan. 20th, 475 
" rjefinitive Peace of Paris. — American independence acknowledged, 

September 3d, ....... 475 

'• Evacuation of New York City by the British army, November 25th, 475 

'' Washington resigns his commission, December 4th, . . 475 

" Conquest of the Crimea by the Russians under Potemkin, . , 294 

" Great earthquake at Messana, Italy. 

1784 Democratic insurrection in Holland, ..... 298 

1786 Shay's insurrection in Massachusetts. 

" Death of Frederic the Great at Potsdam, August I7th. . . . 297 

1787 An Assembly of Notables convened in France, Februai-y, . . 312 
" Assembling of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, May, . 476 
" The Constitution of the United vStates framed, September, . . 476 
" War of Austria and Russia against Turkey, .... 295 
" King Frederic William II. of Prussia restores order in Holland, . 298 
" Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, . . . 298 
" Impeachment of Warren Hastings by the House of Commons, . 298 

1788 Gustavus HI. of Sweden makes war on Russia, . . . 295 
" Ratification and adoption of the Constitution of the United States, 478 
" General Washington elected President of the United States, . . 478 
" Capture of Oczakow by the Russians under Potemkin, December 22d, 295 

1789 The Constitution of the United States goes into oueration. March 4th, . 478 
" Inauguration of President Washington, April 30th, . . 478 
" Assembling of the States General at Versailles, May 5th, . . 312 
" The States General declares itself a National Assembly, June 17th, 312 
" The French Revolution begun by the storming of the Bastile, July 14th, , 314 
" The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to remove from Versailles to Paris, 

October 5th, . . . . . . '315 

" Admission of North Carolina into the American Union, Nov. 29th, . 478 

1790 Death of Joseph II. of Germany and accession of Leopold II., February, 298 
" Rhode Island admitted into the American Union, May 29th, . . 478 
" The Ceremony of Federation in Paris, June 17th, . . . 315 
" Peace between Gustavus HI. of Sweden and Catharine II. of Russia, . 295 
" Tippoo Saib renews the war against the East-India Company, , 299 
" General Harmer defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th, . 479 
" Ismail stormed and taken by the Russians under Suwarrow. Dec. 17th, 295 

»''9I V^ermont admitted as a State of the American Union, Peoruary i8th, . 478 

»' Death of Count Mirabeau, April 2d, . . . .316 

" A new monarchical constitution adopted in Poland, May 3d, . . 295 

" Siege and capture of Bangalore, India, by Lord Cornwallis, . 299 

" Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from France, June, . 316 

" Peace between Austria and Turkey, .... 295 

" The French Legislative Assembly convenes in Paris, October 1st, . 316 

" General St. Clair defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th . 479 

179.' Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, January, . . . 295 

" Death of Leopold II. of Germany and accession of Francis II., . 298 

" Lord Cornwallis defeats Tippoo Saib at Seringapatam, India, . . 299 

" Assassination of King Gustavus HI. of Sweden, March 29th, . 295 

" France declares war against Austria and Prussia, April 20th, . .317 

" Poland invaded by Russian troops. May, . . . 295 

" Kentucky admitted into the American Union, June 1st, . . 478 

" Insurrection in Paris, June, . . . . . .3^7 

" Defeat of Kosciuszko at Dubienka by the Russians, July 17th, . . 295 

" AustroT^ussian invasion of France, July, .... 318 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 563 

PAGE. 

1792 Insurrection and massacre in Paris, August loth, . . -318 
" Flight of General Lafayette to the Austrians, . . . 318 
" Massacre of the Prisons in Paris, September 2d-5th, , . .319 
" Bailie of Valmy, France, September 20th, .... 319 
"• The French National Convention assembles in Paris and declares 

France a Republic, September 22d, . . . .319 

" Battle of Jemappes, Belgium, November 6th, . . . - 3'9 

1793 Execution of King Louis XVI. of France, Januaiy 27th, , . 320 
" France declares war against England, Spain, and Holland, February, . 320 
" Battle of Neerwinden, Belgium, March I Sth, . . .32c 
" Dumourier seeks refuge among the Austrians, March, . . 321, 321 
« Second Partition of Poland, April, ..... 296 
«' Insurrection of the Jacobins in Paris, May 31st and June 1st, . . 321 
" The Reign of Terror in France, . . . . .321 
" The insurrection of La Vendee, . . . , • -322 
'"' Insurrection of Lyons, ,....• 3^2 
" Insurrection of Marseilles, ....•• 3^2 
" Insurrection of Toulon, ....•• 3^2 
" Siege and reduction of Toulon, — Appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte, . 322 
" Insurrections in Brittany and Normandy, .... 322 
" Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October 1 6th, . .321 
" Execution of the Girondist leaders, October 31st, . . • 321 
" The French National Convention abolishes the Christian religion, 

November loth, ....... 322 

1794 Execution of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, April, . . 323 
" Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko against the Russians, April, . 294 
« Execution of Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot, July 2Sth, 323 
" General Wayne defeats the Indians in Ohio, August 20th, . . 479 
" Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians at Macziewice, October loth, 296 
" Jay's Treaty between the the United States and Great Britain, . . 479 
" The Whislcy Insurrection in Pennsylvania, .... 479 

1795 Third Partition of Poland, January, .... 296 
" Holland erected into the Batavian Republic, January, . . 325 
" The French National Convention surrounded by a mob, March 31st, 

April 1st, ....•.•• 324 
" Peace of Basle between France and Prussia, April 5th, . . 325 

«' The Insun-ection of the 1st Prairial in Paris, May 20th, . . 324* 

" The Austrians take Heidelberg anS Manheim by storm, September. 
«< Insurrection of the Sections in Paris, October 3d-5th, . . . 325 

«« Establishment of the Directory in France, October 27th, . . 325 

1796 Battles of Montenotte and Mellessimo, Italy, April, . . .326 
" Battle of Lodi, Italy, May loth, . ^. . . .326 
" Tennessee admitted into the American Union, June ist, . . 480 
" Death of Catharine II. of Russia and accession of Paul, . . 296 
" Moreau's mastedy retreat through the Black Forest, September, . 325 
" Sf ain declares war against England, October 2d. 

« B.ittles of Areola, Italy, November 15th, i6th, and 17th, . . 326 

1797 John Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 480 
" Preliminary Treaty of Leoben between France and Austria, April iSth, . 326 
" The Venetian Republic subverted by Bonaparte, . . . 327 
" The Royalist deputies imprisoned and banished from France, Sept., . 327 
" Peace of Campo Formio between France and Austria, October 17th, 327 
" The Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics established in Italy, . . 327 
" A European Congress assembles at Rastadt, Baden, December. 

*798 A new Roman Republic established, February, . . . 327 

•' Switzerland converted into the Helvetic Republic, . . . 328 

«• Rebellion in Ireland against British authority, . . . • 298 

" Bonaparte invades Eg>'pt, July ist, ..... 328 

«« Capture of Alexandria, Egypt, by Bonaparte, July 1st, . . • 328 

" Battle of the Pyramids, Egypt, July 2isr, , . • • 7,^^ 



564 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

1798 Battle of the Nile, — Lord Nelson defeats the French fleet, August ist, . 328 
" Alien and Sedition Laws passed by the United States Congi-ess, . 481 
" The Virginia and Kentucky States Rights Resolutions, . . .481 
" Coalition of Austria, Russia, England, and Turkey against France, 329 

1799 The Parthenopeian Republic established in Naples, January, . . 327 
' Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, February, .... 330 

" Siege of Acre, Syria, by Bonaparte, March and April, , . . 330 

« Battle of Mount Tabor, Syria, March, .... 330 

" Fall of Seringapatam and death of Tippoo Saib, May 4th, . . 299 

" Battles of Cassano and Trebia, Italy, — French defeats, June, c 329 

" The Parthenopeian Republic overthrown, June 13th, . . . 329 

" Battle of Aboukir, Egypt, July 25th, .... 330 

" Battle of Novi, Italy, — Suwarrow defeats the French, August 5th, . 329 

" Battle of Zurich, Switzerland, — Russians defeated by the French, 

September 25, 26, . . . . . . 329 

" Bonaparte overthrows the Directory in France, November 9th, . • Zi^ 

" Death of General Washington at Mount Vernon, December 14th, . 481 

1800 Napoleon created First Consul of the French Republic, January, . 331 
" Napoleon's passage over the Alps, May and June, . . . 332 
" Battle of Montebello, Italy, June 9th, . . , ■ . . 332 
" Battle of Marengo, Italy, June 14th, .... 332 

' " Washington City becomes the Capital of the United States, . . 481 

" Macdonald's passage over the Splugen, November, . . . 332 

" Battle of Hohenlinden, Bavaria, December 3d, .... 332 

" Maratime League formed against Great Britain, December i6th, . 333 

" Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, December 24th, . . . 332 



A. D. 



1802 



1803 



1804 



1805 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland, January ist, . 
Peace of Luneville between France and Austria, February 9th, 
Battle of Copenhagen, — Lord Nelson defeats the Danes, I\Iarch 2d, 
Inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson, March 4th, 
Battles of Canopus, Egypt, and death of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, 

March 21st, . . . . . 

Assassination of the Czar Paul and accession of Alexander I., 

March 24th, . . . • . 

War between the United States and Tripoli, 
War between Spain and Portugal. 
Peace of Badajoz between Spain and Portugal. 
Peace of Amiens between England and France, March 27th, . 
Ohio becomes a State of the American Union, 
Bonaparte elected First Consul of France for life, 
Revolt of St. Domingo against the French, . 
Renewal of the war between England and France,' 
French invasion and conquest of Hanover, . 
Robert Emmett's insurrection in Dublin, Ireland, 
Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States, 
War between Russia and Persia. 

War between the English and the Mahrattas of India, 
Battle of Assaye, India, — Sir Arthur Wellesley defeats the Mahrattas, 
Conspiracy against Bonaparte, 
Execution of the Duke d' Enghien, May 21st, . 
War between Great Britain and Spain, December, . 
Napoleon crowned "Emperor of the French," December 2d, 
Napoleon crowned " King of Northern Italy," May 26th, 
I^Iehemet All becomes Pacha of Egypt, .... 
Coalition of England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden against Napoleon, 
7he Austrian general Mack surrenders Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20th, 



298 
333 

333 

481 

333 

333 
481 



333 
481 

334 
334 
334 
334 
298 
481 

299 
299 
335 
335 
335 
335 
335 
368 

336 
336 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 565 

PAGE. 

1805 Battle of Trafalgar,— victory and death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 2 1st, 336 

" Battle of Dirnstein, Austria, November I ith, . . . • ZZ^ 

" Napoleon enters Vienna, the Austrian capital, November 13th, . 336 

" Battle of Austerlitz, Austria, December 2d, .... 336 

" Peace of Presburg between France and Austria, December 26th, . 336 

1S06 End of the German Empire and formation of the Confederation of the 

Rhine, ........ 3.36 

" Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples and Louis King of Holland, . 336 

" Death of Wilham Pitt the Younger and Charles James Fox, . . 336 

" The English conquer'the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch. 

" Capture of Buenos Ayres, South America, by Sir Home Popham. 

" War breaks out between France and Prussia, August, . . 337 

" Battle of Saalfeld,— Prince Louis of ' Prussia defeated and killed, 

October 10th, . . . . . • • . 3.;7 

" Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Prussia, October 14th, . _ . 337 

" Napoleon enters Berlin, the capital of Prussia, October 25th, , . 337 
" Napoleon's Berlin Decree establishing the Continental System, 

November 21st, . . . • . * 337' 4^2 

" Battle of Pultusk, Poland, — the French repulsed, December 26th, 337 

1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, February 8th, .... 337 

" Dantzic, Prussia, surrendered to the French, May 24th, . , . 337 

" Battle of Hielsberg, Prussia, June 5th, ..... 338 

" Battle of Friedland, Prussia, June 14th, .... 338 

. " Attack of the Leopard on the Chesapeake, June 22d, . . . 483 

" Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia, and Prussia, July 7th, . 2)^ 

" Jerome Bonaparte becomes King of Westphalia, . ... 338 

" War begun between Russia and Turkey, .... 343 
" A British fleet under Admiral Duckworth repulsed at Constantinople. 
" The English under General Frazer take Alexandria in Egypt. 
" Buenos Ayres recovered from the English by its inhabitants. 

" Robert Fulton's steam navigation experiments crowned with success, 482 

" Bombardment of Copenhagen by the British navy, September 2d-5th, . 338 

<' Aaron Burr's trial for treason and acquittal, November, . . 482 

" War of Prussia, France, and Denmark against Sweden, . . . t^iZ 

" The royal family of Portugal sails for Rio Janeiro, in Brazil, Nov. 27th, 339 

" The French occupy Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, November 30th, . 339 
" Napoleon's Milan decree forbidding neutrals trading with England, 

December 17th. 4*^ 

1 80S Intrigues of Bayonne, — Dethronement of the Bourbons in Spain, . 339 

" Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain, .... 339 

" Beginning of the Peninsular War, ..... 339 

" Dupont's capitulation of Baylen, ..... 339 
" Napoleon's meeting with the Czar Alexander L at Erfurt, Prussia, July. 

" The Portuguese resist the French and are aided by the English, August, 340 
" Battle of Rolica, Portugal, August 19th, .... 

" Battle of Vimiera, Portugal, August 2 1st, .... 340 

" Convention of Cintra, — French evacuation of Portugal, . . 340 

" Napoleon enters Madrid, the capital of Spain, December 4th, . 340 

1 809 Batde of Corunna, Spain, — victory and death of Sir John Moore, 

January i6th, ....... 34° 

" Surrender of Saragossa to the French after a long siege, Feb. 20th, , 340 

" James Madison inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 483 
" King Gustavus IV. of Sweden deposed by the Swedish Senate, 

March 13th, . . . . . . . -34' 

'' Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the Peace of Frederickshamn, 34 1 

" War breaks out between France and Austria, April, . . . 34° 

" Battles of Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Bavaria, April I9th-22d, . 340 

" Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13th, ..... 34° 

" Battles of Aspern and Eslingen, Austria, May 21st, 22d, . . 340 
" Eugene Beauharnais defeats the Austrians at Raab, May. 



566 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1809 Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Bavarian Government, . . 341 
" Unfortunate expedition of the Enghsh to the island of Walcheran. 

" Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, July, . . . 341 

" Battle of Wagram, Austria, July 5th and 6th, . ■ . . . 341 

" Battle of Talavera, Spain, July 28lh, .... 340 

" Beginning of the Revolution in Colombia, August, . . . 435 

" I'eace of Schoenbrunn between P>ance and Austria, October 14th, 341 

" Napoleon's divorce from Josephine, . . . . ••341 

1810 Napoleon's marriage with the Archduchess Mari^ Louisa nf Ai:S';''£i 

January, . . . . . , \\\ 

•' General Charles John Bernadotte elected Crown Prince ol Sweden, 342 

" Holland annexed to the French Empire, . . . -341 

" Beginning of the Revolution in Chili, July, . . . 439 

" Hidalgo begins the Revolution in Mexico, September l6th, . . 434 

" Battle of Busaca, Spain, September 27th, . . '. . 342 

" Wellington's retreat to Torres Vedras, October and November, . . ;,42 

181 f Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, causes a massacre of the Mamelukes, 368 

" Attack of the Little Belt on the President, March l6tli, . . . 484 

" Battle of Albuera, Spain, May 1 6th, .... 342 

" Colombian Declaration of Independence, July 5th, . . . 436 

" Hidalgo, the Mexican insurgent chief, shot, July 27th, . . 434 

" Battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, November 7th, .... 484 

1 81 2 Earthquake at Caraccas, South America, .... 436 
" Louisiana admitted as a State of the American Union, . , •49' 
" Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, . . . 343 
" The United States declares war against England, June 19th, . . 484 
" Napoleon declares war against Russia, June 22d, . . . 343 
" Napoleon crosses the Niemen and invades Russia, June 24th, . . 343 
" Battle of Salamanca, Spain, July 22d, .... 342 
" Hull's surrender of Detroit, Michigan, August 1 6th, . . . 484 
" Battle of Smolensko, Russia, August 17th, .... 344 
" Battle of Borodino, Russia, September 7th, .... 344 
" Napoleon enters Moscow, Septeml^er 15th, .... 344 
" Conflagration of Moscow, September 1 6th- 19th, . . . 344 
" Battle of Queenstown, Canada, October 13th, . . . 485 
" Napoleon begins his retreat from Moscow, October 19th, . . 344 

»" Battles of Krasnoi, Russia, November i6th, 17th, and iSth, . 345 

" Terrible passage of the Beresina, December, .... 346 

1813 Massacre of Frenchtown, Michigan, January 22d, . . . 485 
" Prussia joins Russia and Sweden in the war against Napoleon, Feb. 3d, 346 
" Battle of Lutzen, Germany, May 2d, .... 347 
" First siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, May 5th-9th, .... 486 
" Battle of Bautzen, Germany, May 20th, .... 347 
" Capture of York or Toronto, Canada, by the Americans, April 27th, . 486 
" Battle of Vittoria, Spain, June 2 1st, ..... 346 
" European Congress at Prague, Bohemia, July 4th, . . . 347 
" Second siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, July 21st, . . . 486 
" Attack on Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2d, .... 486 
" Austria joins the allies in the war against Napoleon, August lOth, . 347 
" Battle of Gros-Beeren, Prussia, August 23d, .... 347 
" Battle of Katzbach, Prussia, August 26th, .... 347 
" Battle of Dresden, Saxony, August 26th, 27th, .... 347 
" Battles of Culm and Nollendorf, Bohemia, August 2qth 30th, 347 
" Battle of Dennewitz, Prussia, September 6th, . , . 347 
" Perr)'"s victory on Lake Erie, Sept. loth, .... 486 
" Battle of the Thames, Canada, October 5th, .... 486 
" Battle of Leipsic, Saxony, October i6th, I7lh, and i8th, . . 347 
" Napoleon begins his retreat from Leipsic, October 19th, . . 348 
'' War with the Creek Indians in Alabama, November, . . 487 
" Battle of Chrysler's Field, Canada, November nth, . . . 487 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 567 

PAGE. 

1813 Mexican Declaration of Independence, November 13th, . . 434 

1814 Invasion of France by the alUed armies, January ist, . . . 348 
" Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, January, 348 
" Pope Pius VII. restored to his authority in Rome, January, . , 348 
" Battle of Brienne, France, January 27th, .... 349 
" Battle of La Rothiere, France, February 1st, . . , . 349 
" Napoleon's victory at Montereau, February I Sth, . . . 349 
" Battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, Alabama, March aytb,. . 487 
" First capitulation of Paris to the allies, March 31st, . . 349 
' Treaty of Fontainbleau, — Napoleon's abdication, April i ith, . . 349 
• Battle of Toulouse, France, — Wellington defeats Soult, April'iith, 349 
'• Napoleon arrives in Elba, May 4th, ..... 349 
" Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France, May 20th, . . 350 
" First Peace of Paris between France and the allies, May 30th, . . 350 
" Battle of Chippewa, Canada, July 5th, .... 48S 
" Battle of Lundy's Lane, Canada, July 25th, . . ' . . 488 
" Battle of Bladensburg, Maryland, August 24th, . . . 489 
" Washington City captured and burned by the British, August 24th, . 489 
«' Battle of Plattsburg, New York, September nth, . . . 488 
" Battle of North Point, Maryland, September 12th, . . . 489 
" British bombardment of Fort McHenry, Marj-land, Sept. I2th-I4th, 489 
" A Congress of European Powers meets at Vienna, September 25th, . 350 
" Jackson's invasion of Florida and capture of Pensacola, November, 489 
" Battle below New Orleans, Louisiana, December 23d, . . . 489 
" Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, Dec. 24th, 490 

1S15 Battle of New Orleans, Louisiana, January Sth, .... 489 

" Napoleon returns to France and recovers his throne, March, . 350 

" England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia combine against Napoleon, . 351 

" Napoleon compels the Prussians to evacuate Charleroi, Belgium, 

June 15th, . . . . . . . .351 

" Battles of Ligny and Quatre-Bras, Belgium, June 1 6th, . . . 351 

« Battle of Waterloo, Belgium, June iSth, . . . -351 

" Commodore Decatur humliles Algiers, June 30th, . . .491 

" Second abdication of Napoleon, July 2d, .... 352 

" Second capitulation of Paris, July yth, . . . • 35^ 

" Louis XVIII. restored to the throne of France, July 8th, . . 352 

" Napoleon banished to St. Helena, where he arrives October 2d, . 352 

" The Holy Alliance formed, September 25th, .... 353 

" The Germanic Confederation established, .... 365 

" Second Peace of Paris between France and the allies, November 20th, 353 

{8l6 Argentine Declaration of Independence, July 9th, . . . 438 

" Lord Exmouth humbles Algiers, August 27th, . . . 355 

" Indiana admitted as a State of the American Union, December, . 4^1 

1817 Battle of Chacabaco, Chili, — the Spaniards defeated, . . 439 
" President James Monroe's inauguration, March 4th, . , . 491 
" Admission of Mississippi into the American Union, . . . 492 
" Raids of the Seminole and Creek Indians in Georgia, . . . 491 
" Republican conspiracy in England, ..... 354 

1818 Battle of Maypu and emancipation of Chili, April 5th, . , . 439 
" The Wahawbees of Arabia subdued by Mehemet Ali, . . 368 
" General Jackson's second invasion of Florida and seizure of Pensacola, 491 
" Admission of Illinois as a State of the American Union, . . 492 

(819 Spain cedes Florida to the United States, . . , .491 

" Popular demonstration at Manchester, England, . . .' 355 

" European Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle. 

" Alabama admitted into the American Union, .... 492 

1820 Death of George HI. of England and accession of George IV., 

January, . • ^ • , • • • • • 355. 3^6 

" Conquest of Nubia and Kordofan by the Pacha of Egypt, . . 368 

" Revolution in Spain and reestablishment of the Cortes Constitution, 355 



568 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1820 Revolution in Portugal and establishment of a liberal constitution, . 356 
" Revolution in Naples and establishment of a liberal constitution, . 356 
" The Holy Alliance restores absolute monarchy in Naples, . . 356 
" Maine admitted into the American Union, .... 492 
" The Missouri Compromise agreed to, . . . . . 492 

1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena, May 5th, . . 352 
" Revolution in Piedmont crushed by Austrian powder, . . . 357 
" Adm^sion of Missouri as a State of the American Union, August 2ist, 492 
" Alexander Ypsilanti's proclamation to the Greeks, . . . 357 
* Commenpement of the Greek War for Independence, . . 357 
" Mexico becomes independent of Spain, ..... 435 
" San Martin rouses the Peruvians to revolution, . . . 439 
" War between Turkey and Persia. 

1822 Don Augustin Iturbide created Emperor of Mexico, . . 435 
" Brazd declared an independent empire, .... 356, 440 
" Desolation of Scio by the Turks, . . . . . 35S 

1823 A French army restores absolutism in Spain, .... 355 
" Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians, . . . 438 
" Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, overthrown, .... 435 

1824 Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi, Greece, April 19th, . , 358 
" Death of Louis XVIII. of France and accession of Charles X., . 354 
" General Lafayette's visit to the United States, . , . 492 
" The East-India Company involved in a war with the Burmese, . . 369 
" A Federal Constitution adopted in Mexico, .... 435 
" Battle of Junin, Peru, August 6th, — the Spaniards defeated, . . 440 
" Battle of Auyacucho and emancipation of Peru, December 9th, 438, 439, 440 

1825 General Guadalupe Victoria inaugurated President of Mexico, Jan. 1st, 441 
" John Quincy Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 493 
" War between Russia and Persia. 

" Death of the Czar Alexander I. and accession of Nicholas, . . 364 

" France acknowledges the independence of Hayti, . . . 334 

1826 Bloody desti-uction of the Janissaries at Constantinople. 

" Surrender of Callao, Peru, to the Peruvians, .... 440 

" Spanish American Congress at Panama, .... 440 

" Capture of Missolonghi, Greece, by the Turks, August, . . 359 

•' Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4th, . . 493 

1827 Intei-v-ention of England, France, and Russia in favor of Greece, . 359 
" Battle of Navarino and annihilation of the Turko- Egyptian fleet, Oct. 20th, 359 
" First Railroad in the United States built, .... 493 

1828 Revolution in Mexico and flight of General Pedraza, November, . 442 
" War between Russia and Turkey, ..... 359 
" Abolition of the Test Act by the British Parliament, . . . 366 
"' Establishment of the American System, .... 493 

1829 General Andrew Jackson inaugurated President, March 4th, . . 493 
" Catholic Emancipation Act passed by Parliament, . . . 366 
" Peace of Adrianople between Russia and Turkey, . . . 360 

1830 Death of George IV. of England and accession of William IV., June, 366 
" The city of Algiers taken by a French fleet, July 4th, . , . 361 
" Revolution in Paris and dethronement of Charles X., July, , . 360 
" Louis Phillippe created "King of the French," August 9th, . . 362 
" Belgium becomes an independent kingdom, . . . 363 
" Rebellion in Poland against Russian authority, November, . . 364 

1831 Popular movements in Gennany and Italy, .... 365 
" Battle of Ostrolenka, Poland, ]\Iay 20th, .... 365 
" Fall of Warsaw and end of the Polish insuiTCCtion, September, . 365 
" Assassination of John Capo d' Istria, the Greek President, . . 360 
'• Abdication of Don Pedro I. of Brazil and accession of Don Pedro II., 356 
" Mehemet All's first rebellion against the Ottoman Porte, . . 368 
" Dissolution of the Republic of Colombia, .... 440 

1832 Siege and capture of Acre, Syria, by the Egyptians, . . . 368 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 569 

PAGE. 

1832 Battle of Homs, Syria, July 8th, — the Egyptians defeat the Turks. 
" The Russians take the Circassian post of Himry, October 8th. 

" President Bustamente overthrown in Mexico, . . . 443 

" Santa Anna chosen President of Mexico, .... 443 

" Civil war in Portugal between Don Pedro and Don Miguel, . 356 

« Passage of the First Reform Bill by the British Parliament, . . 367 

" Black Hawk War in Illinois and Wisconsin, . . . 494 

" President Jackson's collision with the U. S. Supreme Court, . . 493 

" Nullification in South Carolina, November, . . . 49/} 

1833 Removal o*" deposits from the United States Bank, . . , 494 
" King Otho I. ascends the throne of Greece, March, . , 36c 
" The Sultan of Turkey cedes Syria to the Pacha of Egypt, . , 368 
" The British Parliament aljolishes slavery in the British West Indies, 367 
" Death of King Ferdinand VII. of Spain and accession of Isabella II., . 367 
•' Civil war begins in Spain between the Christinos and CarlistSj . 367 

1835 Beginning of the Texan War for independence, October, . . 443 
" Capture of the Alamo by the Mexicans, December 2d, . . 443 
" Commencement of the Seminole War in Florida, December 29th, . 494 

1836 Battle of San Jacinto, Texas, April 21st, — Santa Anna captured, . 444 
" Texas becomes an independent republic, .... 444 
" Arkansas admitted ifito the American Union, _ . . . 495 

1837 Michigan becomes a State of the American Union, . . . 495 
" Martin Van Buren inaugurated President of the United States, Mai"ch4th, 495 
" Death of William IV. of England and accession of Victoria, June, . 367 
" Rebellion in Canada against British authority, . . . 495 
" Osceola, the Seminole chief, treacherously made a prisoner, October, . 495 

1838 General Mexia's rebellion in Mexico, .... 444 
" Vera Cruz, Mexico, attacked by a French fleet, November, . . 444 

1839 Revolution in Peru and overthrow of General Santa Cruz, . . 441 
" Mehemet All's second rebellion against the Sultan of Turkey, . . 368 
" Battle of Nisib, Syria — the Egyptians defeat the Turks, June 24th. 

" England's opium war with China begins, .... 368 

" Anglo-Indian invasion of Afghanistan, .... 369 

1840 Acre and Beyreut, Syria, bombarded and taken by the British navy, . 368 
" The remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. brought to Paris, . 352, 370 
" Sanguinary insurrection in the city of Mexico, .... 445 

1841 Disastrous retreat of the British from Cabul, Afghanistan, . . 369 
" Canton, China, captured by the British and ransomed by the Chinese, . 369 
" Revolution in Mexico and downfall of Bustamente, . . . 445 
" General William Henry Harrison inaugurated President, March 4th, . 496 
" Death of President Harrison, April 4th. .... 496 
" John Tyler's inauguration, April 6th, ..... 496 

1842 Domestic difficulties in Rhode Island, .... 496 
" The Treaty of Washington settles the Maine boundary dispute, . 496 
" Treaty of Nankin between Great Britain and China, August 29th, . 368 

1843 Battles of Hyderabad, Maharajpore, and Punniar, India, . . 369 
" Annexation of Scinde and Gwalior to British India, . . 369 
" The Russians take the Circassian fortress of Akulgo by storm. 

1844 First experiment with the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, . . 497 
" The towns of Tangier and Mogadore, Morocco, bombarded by a French 

fleet. 

" Revolution in Mexico and overthrow and banishment of Santa Anna, 445 

1845 Florida admitted into the American Union, March 3d, . . . 497 
" Inauguration of President James Knox Polk, March 4th, . . 497 
" Annexation of Texas to the United States, July 4th, . . 497 
" Battle of Moodkee between the English and the Sikhs, December 6th, 369 

1846 Batdes of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon, and end of the First Sikh War, 369 
" The British Parliament repeals the Corn Laws. 

" Commencement of hostilities between the Americans and Mexicans, 

April 26, ....... . 498 



570 
1846 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 



PACK 
498 

. 498 
498 



Battle of Palo Alto, Texas, May 8th, 
Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas, May 9th, . 
The United States declare war against Mexico, May lith, . 
Capture of Matamoras, Mexico, by General Taylor, May 18th, . 
Revolution in Mexico and Santa Anna's restoration to power, . 446 

Capture of Monterey, Mexico, by General Taylor, September 24th, . 498 
Conquest of California by Colonel Fremont, . . . 498 

Battle of Bracito, Mexico, — the Mexicans defeated by Colonel Doni- 
phan, December 25th, ...... 49? 

Iowa admitted into the American Union, December, . . 497 

Battle of Buena Vista, Mexico, February 23d, .... 498 

Battle of Sacramento, Mexico, Februaiy 28th, . . . 498 

Siege and capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, March, . . 499 

Battle of Cerro Gordo, Mexico, April 1 8th, . . . . 499 

Battles of San Antonio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20th, . 500 

Battle of Molino del Rey, Mexico, September 8th, . . 500 

Battle of Chapultepec, Mexico, September 13th, . . . 5°° 

General Scott enters the city of Mexico, September 14th, . . yxi 

The French conquest of Algiers completed by the surrender of 

Abdel-Kader, ....... 370 

Civil war in Switzerland between the Catholics anci Protestants. 
Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the United States, 

February 2d, ........ 500 

Revolution in Paris and abdication and flight of Louis Philippe, Feb., 371 
Establishment of the Second French Republic, February, . . 37 1 

Popular movements in the German States, March, . . . 374 

The First Revolution in Vienna, March, .... 374 

Revolution in Milan, Italy, and expulsion of the Austrians, March, . 378 
Revolution in Berlin, March, ..... 374 

Sicily's revolt against the King of Naples, . . ... 378 

Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against the King of Denmark, . 375 

First Communist rising in Paris, May 15th, .... 372 

The German National Assembly meets at Frankfort, May iSth, . 375 

Archduke John of Austria chosen Regent of Germany, . . . 376 

Wisconsin admitted into the American Union, May, . . 5*^ 

Slavic insurrection in Prague, Bohemia, June, .... 37^ 

Great Communist insurrection in Paris, June, . . . 37^ 

The old Austrian field-marshal Radetzky defeats the Sardinians, July, . 379 
Second Revolution in Vienna, October, .... 37^ 

Siege and fall of Vienna, October, ..... 376 

Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly, . , . 376 

Hungarian rebellion against the Austrian emperor, . . . 3^° 

Revolution in Rome and flight of Pope Pius IX., November, . 379 

Establishment of a new Roman Republic, November, . . . 379 

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte inaugurated President of France, Dec. 20th, 374 
Abdication of Ferdijiand of Austria and accession of Francis Joseph, 376, 381 
The Austrians under Prince Windischgratz enter Peslh, Hungary, 

Januaiy 5th, ........ 381 

The Magyars lose the strong fortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, Jan. 30th, 381 
Battle of Kapolna, Hungary, February 26th and 27th, . . . 381 

The Emperor Francis Joseph proclaims a constitution for Austria, 

March 4th, . . . ... . . 378, 382 

General Zachary Taylor inaugurated President of the United States, 

March 5th, . . . . , . . .50c 

Renewal of the Schleswig-Holstein revolt against Denmark, March, 377 
Defeat of the Sardinians by Marshal Radetzky and abdication of 

Charles Albert," . . . . . . .379 

Terrific hand-to-hand fighting in Hungary, April, , . . 3^2 

Hungarian Declaration of Independence, April 14th, . . • 3^^ 

Loi is Kossuth created Governor of Hungary, April 14th, . . 382 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 571 

FAGE. 

1849 The Magyars under Gorgey carry Buda by storm, May 21st, . . 382 
'' The Austrian armies expelled from Hungary, May, . . . 382 
" Invasion of Hungary by the Austrian and Russian armies, June, . 382 
" The Magyars under Bem driven from Transylvania, , . 382 
" Surrender of Rome to a French army after a spirited siege, July 3d, . 38(1 
" Pope Pius IX. restored to his authority in Rome, . . . 380 
" Republican insurrection in Baden, ..... 377 
" Battle of Komorn, Hungary, July nth, .... 383 
" General Klapka's grand sortie from Komorn, August 3d, . , 383 
'' Terrific fighting in the Banat, Hungary, August 5th-Sth, . , 3S3 
" Battle of Temeswar, — defeat of the Magyars under Bem, August 9th, . 383 
" Governor Kossuth appoints Gorgey Dictator of Hungary, August loth, 385 
" Gorgey's treacherous surrender to the Russians at Villagos, August I3lh, 38 ; 
" The Austrians under Radetzky reduce Venice after a long siege, 

August 25th, ....... 3S0 

" Surrender of Komorn to the Austrians, September 29th, '. . 384 

" Thirteen Magyar generals and staff-officers executed at Arad, Oct. 6th, 384 

" The Punjab annexed to the AngloTndian Empire, . . . 369 

1850 Prussia becomes a constitutional monarchy, February 6th, . . 378 
" Death of President Taylor, July 9th, ..... 501 
" Inauguration of Millard iMllmore, July loth, . . . 501 
" Slavery agitation in the United States, ..... 500 
" The Compromise Act passed by the United States Congress, September, 501 
" Admission of California into the American Union, . . . 501 

1851 Louis Kossuth's visit to the United States. 
" War between France and Morocco. 

" The Coup d' Etat of Louis Napoleon, December 2d, . . . 384 

1852 The Rebellion of Tae-ping-wang in China begins. 
" Second war between the English and the Burmese. 

" Louis Napoleon proclaimed " Emperor of the French," December 2d, 3S6 

1853 Subjugation of the Cafhrs of South Africa by the English. 

" Marriage of the Emperor Napoleon HI. with Eugenie de Montijo, 3S6 

" Franklin Pierce inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 501 

" Nankin, China, captured by the Tae-ping rebels. 

" Santa Anna overthrows Arista's Administration in Mexico, . . 447 

" War breaks out between Russia and Turkey, October, . . . 386 

" Russian invasion of Turkey, ..... 386 

1854 Turkish victories on the Danube, . . . . . 387 
" Siege of Silistria by the Russians, ..... 3S7 
" Alliance of England, France, and Turkey against Russia, . . 387 
" Bombardment of Odessa by the allied fleets, April 22d, . . 387 
«' Allied expedition to the Crimea, ..... 387 
" Battle of Alma, September 20th, ..... 387 
" Siege of Sevastopol commenced, October 17th, .... 387 
" Battle of Balaklava, October 25th, ..... 387 
" Battle of Inkermann, November 5th, ..... 387 
" Insurrection in Madrid and flight of the queen-mother, . . 368 
« Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act by the United States Congress, . 502 
" Revolution in Mexico and final overthrow of Santa Anna, . . 447 

1855 Death of the Czar Nicholas of Russia and accession of Alexander II., . 387 
" Sardinia joins the allies in the Crimean War, . . . . 387 
" Sir Charles Napier's attack on Sweaborg, August 9th- 14th, . . 387 
" Fall of Sevastopol, September 9th, ..... 388 
" Capture of Kinburn by General Bazaine, October, . . , 388 
" Omar Pacha's victory over the Russians at the Ingour, November, . 
" Surrender of Kars, in Asiatic Turkey, to the Russians,. Nov. 2Sth, 
" Civil war in Kansas, ...... 



1856 Peace of Paris between Russia and the allies,, March 30th, 
" War between England and Persia, . 
•' War of England and France against China, 



3SS 
502 
388 
389 

389 



1/2 



CHR ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 



1856 Bombardment and capture of Canton by the English, . . 389 

1857 James Buchanan inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 502 
" The Dred Scott Decision of the United States Supreme Court, March 6th, 502 
" Mormon rebellion in Utah, ...... 503 

" Beginning of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India, April, . . 389 

" Massacre of Delhi, India, ...... 390 

" Massacre of Cawnpore, India, . . . . . 390 

" Siege of Lucknow, India, ..... 390, 391 

" General Havelock's victories over Nena Sahib on the Ganges, . . 39r* 

" Battle of Mungarvvar. India, September 2 1st, . . . 391 

" Siege and fall of Delhi, India, Septembei", . . . 390 

" Cawnpore attacked by 25,000 i-ebel Sepoys, December, . . 391 

1S58 Capture of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell, after a siege, March 17th, . 391 

" Reduction of Gwalior, the last stronghold of the Sepoys, June, . 391 

" War of France and Spain against Anam, .... 394 

" Civil war in Mexico between the Liberals and Conservatives, . 448 

1859 War breaks out between Austria and Sardinia, April, . . , 392 

" France joins Sardinia against Austria in the Italian War, May, . 392 

" Battle of Montebello, Italy, May 20th, ..... 392 

" Battle of Magenta, Italy, June 4th, ..... 393 

" Battle of Melegnano, Italy, June 8th, ..... 393 

" Battle of Solferino, Italy, June 24th, .... 393 

" Peace of Villa Franca between France and Austria, July llth, . . 393 

" Capture of Schamyl, the Circassian chief, by the Russians, August. 

" War breaks out between Spain and Morocco, October, . . . 400 

" John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, October 19th, . . 503 

" Execution of John Brown by the authorities of Virginia, Dec. 2d. , 503 

i860 The Spaniards under General Prim defeat 40,000 Moors, Jan. 2d. 

" Peace between Spain and Morocco, April, .... 400 

" Capture of Pekin, China, by the English and French, . . 389 

" Treaty of Tien-tsin, between England, France, and China, October, . 3S9 

" Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States, November, 504 

" Rebellious. movements in the Slave States, .... 504 

" Secession of South Carolina from the American Union, Dec. 20th, 504 

" General Garibaldi overthrows King Francis II. of Naples, . . 394 

1861 Attack on the United States Government steamer "Star of the West," 

January 9th, ........ 504 

" Secession of Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 

Texas, ........ 504 

" President Lincoln's first inauguration, March 4th, . . . 505 

" Fall of Fort Sumter and beginning of the American Civil War, 

April 14th, . . . ' . . . . .505 

" President Lincoln calls for 75,000 militia, April 15th, . . 505 

" Secession of Virginia from the American Union, April 17th, . . 505 

" Massachusetts troops attacked in Baltimore, .A.pril 19th, . . 505 

" Secession of North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, . . 506 

" Battle of Big Bethel, Virginia, June loth, .... 506 

" . Battle of Carthage, Missouri, July 5th, ..... 507 

" Battle of Bull's Run, Virginia, July 21, .... 506 

" Battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August loth, . . . 507 

" Capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, August 29th, . . 507 

" Capture of Lexington, Missouri, by the Confederates, September, . 507 

" Battle of Ball's Bluff, Virginia, October 2ist, . . . 507 

" Battle of Belmont, Missouri, November 7th, .... 50S 

" Capture of Port Royal, South Carolina, by Admiral Dupont, Nov. 7th, 50S 

" The Czar Alexander II. of Russia promises serf-emancipation, February, 395 

" Renewal of the Circassian war against the Russians, Jidy, 

" King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia created King of Italy, . . 394 

" Allied English, French, and Spanish expedition against ]\Iexico, 

December, ...... 400, 448 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 573 

PAGE. 

1862 Enttle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, Januaiy 19th, .... 50S 
" Capture of Roanoke Island, North Carolina, February 8th, . 508 
" Capture of Fort Donelson, Tennessee, by General Grant, Feb. i6th, . 508 
" Cattle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 6th, 7th, and 8th, . . 508 
" Victory of the Monitor over the Merrimac, March 8th, . . 509 
" Capture of Newbern, North Carolina, by Burnside, March 14th, , 509 
' Battle of Winchester, Virginia, March 23d, .... 509 
'' Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, April 6th and 7th, . . . 509 
" Capture of Island No. 10, Mississippi river, April 7th, . . . 509 
" Capture of Fort Pulaski, Georgia, by Captain Gillmore, April nth, 509 
• Capture of Huntsville, Alabama, by General Mitchell, April nth, , 505 
" Capture of Fort Macon, North Carolina, April 25th, . . 509 
" Capture of New Orleans by General Butler and Admii^at Farragut, 

April 28th, ........ 509 

" Evacuation of Yorktovvn, Virginia, by the Confederates, May 3d, . 510 

" Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia, May 5th, . . '. .510 

" Capture of Natchez, Mississippi, by Admiral Farragut, May 12th, . 510 

" Capture of Vera Cruz, Mexico, by the Spaniards, . . . ^48 

" Capture of Corinth, Mississippi, by General Halleck, May 29th, . 510 

" Battle of Fair Oaks, Virginia, May 31st and June ist, . . .510 

" Capture of Memphis, Tennessee, June 6th, - . . .510 

" The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond, Virginia, June 25th, — July ist, 510 

" Battle of Malvern Hill, near Richmond, Virginia, July 1st, . . 510 

- " Defeat of General Pope's army between Manassas and Washington, 

August 23 d-3 1st, . . . . . . • 511 

" Battle of Richmond, Kentucky, August 29th and 30th, . . 512 

" Garibaldi's defeat at Aspromonte, Italy, August 29th, . . • . 412 

" Battle of South Mountain, Maryland, September 14th, . . 5 1 1 

" Surrender of Harper's Ferry, Virginia, September 15th, . • 5'l 

" Battle of Antietam, Maryland, September 17th, . . . 512 

" Battle of luka, Mississippi, September 19th, .... 512 

" Battles near Corinth, Mississippi, October 3d, 4th, 5th, . . 512 

" Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, October 8th, . . . • -512 

" Revolution in Greece and flight of King Otho, October, . . 394 

" Insurrection in Poland against Russian authority, . . . 395 

" War between the whites and the Sioux Indians in Minnesota, . 513 

" Battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas, December 7th, . . .512 

" Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13th, . . 512 

" Battle of Murfreesborough, Tennessee, Dec. 20th — Jan. 4th, 1863, . 513 

" Sherman's unsuccessful attack on Vicksburg, December 29th, . 512 

1863 President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January 1st, . • S'S 
" Emancipation of the Russian serfs, P'ebruary ist, . . . 396 
" Prince George of Denmark becomes King of Greece, . , , 395 
" Battle of Port Gibson, Mississippi, April 29th, . . .514 
" Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia, May 2d, 3d, and 4th, . •514 
" Battle of Raymond, Mississippi, May 1 2th, .... 514 
" Battle of Jackson, Mississippi, May 14th, . . . .514 
" Battle of Champion Hills, Mississippi, May l6th, . . .514 
" Battle of Big Black River Bridge, Mississippi, May 17th, . .514 
" Capture of Puebla, Mexico, by the French, after a spirited siege, 

May i8th, ....... 448 

" West Virginia becomes a State of the American Union, June ist, .516 

" Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July ist, 2d, and 3d, . 514 

«' Surrender of Vicksburg, Mississippi, to General Grant, July 4th, . 514 

" Union victory at Helena, Arkansas, July 4th, . . . 515 

" Capture of Port Hudson, Louisiana, by General Banks, July 8th, -515 

" The draft riots in New York City, July 13th, 14th, and 15th, . 516 

" Capture of the City of Mexico by General Forey, June, . . . 449 

" Siege of Charleston, South Carolina, by General Gillmore, . . 515 

« Capture of Little Rock, Arkansas, by General Steele, September loth, .515 

" Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee, September 19th and 20th, . 515 



574 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

1863 Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee, November 23d, 24th, and 25th, . 516 

" Siege of Knoxville, Tennessee, l)y General Longstreet, November, 516 

1S64 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark, February, . . 396 

" Grant made a Lieutenant-General, February, . . . 517 

<' Battle of Olustee, Florida, February 20th, . . . -517 

" Massacre of Fort Pillow, Tennessee, April 1 2th, . . . 517 

" General Banks's Red River Expedition, Louisiana, . . -517 

" The Archduke Maximilian of Austria, Emperor of Mexico, . 449 

" Capture of Doppel, Holstein, by the Prussians, April i8th, . . 396 

' Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania, Virginia, May 5th-l3th, 518 

•* Battle of Cold Harbor, Virginia, June 1st, .... 518 

" Battle of Allatoona Pass, Georgia, June, . . . . 518 

" Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June, . . . .518 

" Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia, June, . . 518 

" Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 15th, . -519 

" Battle of Monocacy, Maryland, July 9th, . . . . 519 

" Capture of the island of Alsen by the Prussians, July 9th, . , 396 

'i War of Brazil and the A'-gentine Confederation against Paraguay, . 441 

" War between Spain and Peru, ..... 400, 441 

" War of England, France, and Holland in Japan. 

" Russia suppresses the Polish insurrection, .... 395 

" Peace of Vienna between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, October, . 396 

" Siege of Atlanta, Georgia, commenced by General Sherman, July 20th, 519 

" Burning of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, July 30th, . . -519 

" Farragut's victories in Mobile bay, August, . . . . 519 

" Capture of Atlanta, Georgia, by Sherman, September 2d, . '519 

" 'Sheridan's victory at Cedar Creek, Virginia, September 22d, . 520 

" Sheridan's victoiy at Fisher's Plill, Virginia, October 19th, . . 520 

" Nevada admitted into the American Union, October 31st, . . 520 

" Reelection of President Lincoln, November 8th, . . . 520 

" Sherman's grand march through Georgia, November and December, 520 

" Plood's army annihilated at Nashville, Tennessee, December 15th, . 520 

" Capture of Savannah, Georgia, by General Sherman, December 21st, 520 

1865 Capture of Fort Fisher, North Carolina, by General Terry, Jan. 15th, . 521 

" Capture of Wilmington, North Carolina, by Terry, February 22d, . 521 

" Charleston, South Carolina, evacuated by the Confederates, Feb. 1 8th, . 521 

" Lee's evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond, April 3d, . . 521 

" Surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox, Virginia, April 9th, . • 5^1 

" Capture of Mobile, Alabama, by General Canby, April 12th, . 522 

" Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14, . . . . 522 

" Andrew Johnson inaugurated President of the United States, April iSth, 522 

" Surrender of Johnston's army in North Carolina, April 26th, . 522 

" Capture of Jefferson Davis near Irwinsville, Georgia, May loth, . 522 

" Close of the Rebellion in the United States, May, . . . 522 

" Adoption of the 13th Amendment of the United States Constitution 

abolishing slavery, ....... 520 

" War between Spain and Chili, .... 400, 441 

" Russian conquests in Turkestan. 

?866 Alliance of Peru, Chili, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela against 

Spain, Januaiy, . . . . . . •441 

" Readmission of Tennessee into the American Union, June, . 523 

" The Seven Weeks' War of Prussia and Italy against Austria begins, 

June 14th, . . . . . . . .397 

" Battle of Custozza, Italy, June 24th, .... 398 

•' Battle of Sadowa, Bohemia, July 3d, ..... 398 

" Naval battle off the island of Lissa, — Austrian victory, . . 398 

" The Atlantic Telegraph Cable successfully laid, June, . . .523 

" Peace of Prague between Austria and Prussia, August 23d, , 398 

" The North German Confederation established, .... 399 

" Peace of Vienna between Austria and Italy, October 3d, , . 399 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 575 

PAGE. 

1866 Insurrection in the island of Candia against the Turks. 

" The French forces under Marshal Bazaine evacuate Mexico, December, 450 

1867 The Dominion of Canada established by the British Parliament, Feb. 
" Passage of the Military Reconstructiion Bill by the United States 

Congress, March, ...... 523 

" Nebraska admitted as a State of the American Unic n, J'^""-T"y 15th, 523 

" Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States, March, . , 523 

" Siege of Vera Cruz and Mexico by the Liberals of Mexico, . , \~,z 

" Capture and execution of the Emperor Maximilian at Querctaro, 

June 19th, ... . . . . . 451 

«' Passage of the Second Reform Bill by the British Parliamen', August, 399 

" Garibaldi's movement on Rome, September, . .* . .413 

" War between Great Britain and Abyssinia, November, . , 399 

1868 Impeachment of President Johnson, February, .... 523 
" King Theodore of Abyssinia defeated and killed by the English, April, 399 
" Acquittal of President Johnson after a trial of several weeks,' May i6lh, 523 
" Revolution in Spain and flight of Queen Isabella II., September, . 400 
" General U. S. Grant elected President of the United States, Nov. 3d, 523 
" Insurrection in Cuba against Sjianish authority, November, . 400, 421 

1869 Inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, .... 424 
" Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, May, . . . 424 
«< Disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, August, . . 399 
" Carlist insurrection in Spain, August, .... 400 
" Republican insurrection in Spain, September, .... 400 

1870 President Lopez of Paraguay defeated and killed by the Brazilians, 441 
" Adoption of the 15th Amendment of the United States Constitution, . 424 
" Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern a candidate for the crown of Spain, 401 
" France declares war against Prussia, July 15th, . . . 402 
" Prussian invasion of France, July 30th, .... 402 

" Skirmish at Saarbrucken, August 2d, . . ... . 402 

« Battle of Weissenburg, August 4th, . . . . 403 

" Battles of Woerth and Forbach, August 6th, .... 403 

" Great battles near Metz, August i4th-iSth, . . . 403 

" Battle of Gravelotte, France, August 18th, . . . .403 

" Battle of Beaumont, France, August 30th and 31st, . . 404 

" Battle of Sedan, France, September 1st, .■ . . . 404 

" Surrender of McMahon's army and of Napoleon III., September 2d, 405 

" Revolution in Paris and establishment of the Third French Repuljlic, 

September 4th, ....... 405 

" Siege of Strasburg by the Germans, August and September, , 405 

" Investment and siege of Paris by the Germans, September i6th, . 407 

" Italian military occupation of Rome, September 20th, , . 413 

" Surrender of Strasburg to the Germans, September 27th, . 406 

" Bazaine's surrender of Metz, October 27th, .... 407 

" French victories near Orleans, November 9th and loth, . . 40S 

" The Duke of Aosta elected King of Spain with title of Amadeus I., 

November 17th, ....... 400 

1 87 1 Bombardment of Paris by the Germans, January, . . . 409 
" Battle of St. Quentin, France, January, .... 41° 
" Battle of Vendome, France, January 6th, .... 4"'^ 
" Battle of Le Mans, France, January nth, .... 410 
" Battle of Belfort, France, January, . . . . .410 
" King William of Prussia proclaimed Empepor of Germany, Jan. 19th, 409 
" Capitulation of Paris to the Germans, Januaiy 27th, . . .411 
" The French National Assembly meets at Bordeaux, February 14th, 411 
** Peace of Paris between France and Germany, March 2d, . .411 
" Red Republican insurrection breaks o\it in Paris, March 17th, . 414 
" Battle of Courbevoie, near Paris, April 3d, .... 415 
" Siege and bombardment of Paris by the Versaillists, April and 

May, 416,417. 41^ 



576 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 

PAGE. 

" Ten-ible fighting in Paris, May 2ist-27th, . . 418, 419, 420 

" Battle of Pere la Chaise, Paris, May 27th, .... 420 

" End of the Paris rebellion. May 28lh, .... 420 

" Treaty of Washington between the United States and England, May, . 524 

" Victories of the United States navy over the Coreans, June loth-iith, 524 

" Revolution and civil war in Mexico, October, . . . 450 

1872 Carlist insurrection in Spain, June, . . . . . 4.'>f 
" Death of President Juarez of Mexico, June 1 8th, . . . 451 
" Close of the Mexican civil war and presidency of Lerdo de Tejada, . 451 
" The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal, . . , . 525 
" General Grant reelected President of the United States, Nov. 5th, . 525 
" Death of Hotace Greeley, November 29th, . . . 525 

1873 Death of the Ex-Emperor Napoleon III., January 9th, . . . 412 
" Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain and establishment of a Spanish 

Republic, February nth, . . . . . .421 

" Second inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, , . 525 

" Abolition of slavary in the Spanish island of Porto Rico and dissolution 

of the Spanish National Assembly, March 22d, . . . 422 

" Carlist insurrection in Spain, ..... 422 

" War between Russia and Khiva, ..... 432 

" Domestic difficulties in Louisiana, ..... 525 

" War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon, .... 525 

" Resignation of President Thiers and election of Marshal McMahon as 

President of France, May 24th, ..... 430 

" War between the British and the Ashantees, . . .432 

" Communist insun-ection in Spain, ..... 424 

" War between the Dutch and the Atcheenese of Sumatra. 

" The Virginius dispute between Spain and the United States, . . 526 

" Bombardment of Cartagena, Spain, by the Government forces, . 426 

1874 Coup d' etat of General Pavia in Spain, January 2d, . . . 427 
" Passage of a military bill by the German Parliament. 

" Fall of Cartagena, Spain, Januaiy 15th, .... 428 

" Capture of Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, by the British, February, 432 

" Fall of Gladstone's Ministry in England, February, . . . 432 

" Egyptian victories in Darfur. 

" Siege of Bilbao, Spain, by the Carlists, March and April, . . 428 

" Relief of Bilbao by Marshal Serrano's aniiy, May ist, . . 429 

" Civil war in Arkansas, April and May, ..... 527 

" Veto of the currency-inflation bill by President Grant, April, . 526 

" Republican defeat at Estella, Spain, and death of Marshal Concha, 

June 25th, ........ 429 

" Capture of Cuenca, Spain, by the Carlists, July 13th, . . 429 

" Attempted assassination of Prince Bismarck, July 14th, . .431 

" Iceland's millenium, August. 

" Insurrection in Louisiana, September, ..... 527 

" Prince Alphonso proclaimed King of Spain, December 31st, . 429 

1875 Admission of Colorado as a State of the American Union, March 4th, 528 
" Centennial Celebration of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, . 528 
" Centennial Celebration of the capture of Ticonderoga, May I oth, . 528 
" Centennial Celebration of the Mecklenburg Declaration, May 20th, 528 
" Centennial Celebration of the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, . 528 
" Insurrection in the Herzegovina against the Turks, July, . . 433 
" Capture of Seo de Urgel, Spain, by the Alphonists, August, . . 430 
" War between Russia and Khokand, September, . . , 432 
" General Kauffmann defeats 30,000 Khokand troops, September 4th, , 433 
" Khokand occupied by General Kauffmann, September i6th, . 433 
" War between Egypt and Abyssinia. 

" War between the English and the Malays of Malacca, November. 

" French Constitution completed, December, .... 432 

1876 The United States Centennial Celebration, May loth — Nov. loth, . 538 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX 

AND 

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY 

OF 

PROPER NAMES. 



A. 




Page. 


Page, 


Aaron (A'-ron), 




. 28 


yEolian (E-o'-le-an) . . . ,37 


Ab-bas (Ab-basO, . 




124 


^quians (E'-qni-ans), ... 71 


Abbasides (Ab'-bas-ides), 




. 124 


^tolia (E- to'- le-a) . . . .35 


Abdel Kader (Ab'-del Ka'-der), 




S?'^ 


^tolian (E-to'-le-an), ... 62 


Abdelrahman (Ab-del-rah'-man), 




. 124 


^toleans (E-to'-le-ans) . . .63 


Abderrahman (Ab-der-rah'-man, 




124 


Affra (Af'-tra>, .... 375 


Abel (A'-bel),. 




. 21 


Africa (Af'-re-ca), , 22, 26, 27, 35, 90, 54 


Abensberg (A'-bens-berg), 




340 


African (Af -re-can), ... 94 


Abcrcrombie (Ab'-er-crom'-bie), . 


304 


3°Si 333 


Africans (Af re-cans), . . . 118 


Abo (A'-bo), . 




. 281 


Africanus, Scipio (Sy)'-e-o AP-re-can-us) 81 


Aboukir (A-boo-kur'), . 




328 330 


Afghan (Af'-gan) . . . .369 


Abraham (A'-bra-ham), . 




. 27, =8 


Afghanistan (Af-gan-is-tan') . . 35, 369 


Absalom (Ab'-sa-lom), . 




31 


Afghans (Af'-gans), . . . '.281 


Abubekir (A'-bu-ba'-ker), . 




121, 127 


Agag (A'-gag), . ... 30 


Abyssinia (Ab-ys-sin'-i-a), 




25 


Agamemnon (Ag-a-mem'-non), . . 38 


Abyssinian (Ab-ys-sin'-i-an), 




• 399 


Agesilaiis (A-jes-e-la'-us), . . 52 


Abyssinians (Ab-ys-sin'-i-ans) , 




T06 


Agis (A'-jis), . . . ,59,62 


Acadia (A-ca'-di-a) . 




300, 301 


Agra(Ag'ra). . . • .300 


Acadians (A-ca'-di-ans),. 




303 


Agricola, Julius (Ju'-le-us Ag-re'-co-la) . 98 


Acarnania (A-car-nan'-i-a), 




. 35 


Agrigentum ( Ag-re-jen'-tum), . . 65 


Achaia (A-ka'-a) 


35, 6ij 62, 63 


Agrippa, Meneuius (Me-nen'-e-us A-grip'-pa) 70 


Achaian (A-ka'-an) 


61, 62,63 


Agrippina (Ag-re-pi'-na), . . 95 


Achilles (A-kil'-lees), 




38,56 


Augilas (Au-ge'-las), . . . 426 


Acre (A'ker), 


138 


140, 330 


Ahab (A-hab), .... 31 


Acropolis (A-krop'-o-lis) 




• 44 


Ahriman (Ali-re-man'), . . .35 


Actium (Ak'-she-um), , 




93 


Aix la Chapelle (Akes-la-Sha-pel'), 129, 251, 286 


Aiam (Ad'-am) . , 




. 21 


. . . 302 


Adams (Ad'-ams), 


464 


.479' 481 


Akbar (Ak'-bar), ... 215 


Adams, John (Jon Ad'-ams). 


464 


•178, 480 


Alabama (Al-a-bam'-a), . . 4S9, 519 525 


Adams, John Quincy (Jon Quin-cy 


Ad'- 


ams) 


Alamance (Al-a-mance'), . . 458 






492. 493 


Alamo (Al'-a-mo), . . 443, 444 


Adams, Samuel (Sam-yel Ad'ams) . 


. 461 


Aland (A'-land), . . . 277 


Adda (Ad'-da). . 




326 


Alans (A'-lans) . . , .111 


Adherbal (Ad-her'-bal), 




. 85 


Alaska (A-lns'-ka), .... 523 


Adige (Ad'-ij), 




335 


Allatoona Pass (Al-a-too'-na Pass), . 518 


Adolph (A'-dolO, 




. 166 


Alba (Awl'-ba) . . .63. 6€ 


Adrian (A'-dri-an), . , 




99 100 


Alban (Awl'-ban), . . .65, 6j 


Adrianople (A'-dn-an-o-pel). 




109, 360 


Albania (Al-ba'-ne-a), . . . 3f 


Adriatic (A-dri-at'-ic) 




891 143 


Albans (Awl'-bans), ... 68 


^gean (E-je'-an), 




38, 40, 45 


Albany (Awl'-ba-ne), . . , 260, 303 


iEgospotamos (E'-gos-pot-a'-mus 


)' . 


50 


Albemarle (Albe-marl'), . . 244 


iEmilianus (K-mil'-i-an-us) 




. 104 


Alberoni (Al-ba-ro'-ne), . . . 270 


/Emilius, Paulus (Pawl-us E-mil'- 


i-us) 


, 63, 79 


Albuquerque (Al-boo-ker'-ka), . 193 


/Eneas (E-ne'-as) 


. 


. 65 


Albert (Al'-bert), . . .37* 



37 



(577) 



578 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Albi (A!'-be), . _ , 

Albigenses (Al-be-jen'-sees), 

Albinus, Clodius (Klo'-di-us Al-b: 

Alboin (Al'-bo-in), 

Albtiera (Al-boo-a'-ra), . 

Alcibiades (Al-ci-bi'-%dees), . 

Aleoy (Al-ko'-e), . 

Alcuin (Al'-'<u-in), . , 

AUemanni (AUle-man'-ni), 

Aleppo (A-iep'-po), . 

Alert (A-lert'), 

Alessandria (Al-es-san'-dri-a), 

Alexander (Al-ex-an -der), . 





. 150 


141, 


149, 150 


i'-nus) 


lOI 


. 


119 




342 


• 


49i 50 



IQ9, 



e-dus) 



485 

• 357 

26, 27, 35, 54, 55 

56, 57, 58 

AlexanderCastriotto (Cas-tre-ot'-ta), . 190 
Alexander Farnese (Far'-nese), . . 217 

Alexander Severus (Sev'-e-rus), , . 102 

AlexandraVictoria (Al-ex-an'-draVic-Co'-ri-a), 

367 
Alexandria (Al-ex-an'-dri-a) 
Alexandrian (Al-ex-an'-dri-an), 
Alexi s (A-lex'-is) 
Alexius ( A-iex'-i-us), 
Alfred (Al'-fred), 
Algarve (Al-garve), 
Algeria (Al'-je-re-a), . 
Algerine (Al'-je-reen), 
Algerines (Al'-je-reens), 
Algidus, Alount (Mount Al'-j 
Algiers (Al-jeers), . 205, 2 
Algonquin (Al-gon'-quin), 
Alhama (Al-ha'-ma), . 
AH (Al'-ee), 

Ali, Hyder (Hy-der Al-ee), 
AH Mehemet (Me-hem'-et Al 
Aliwal (Al'-e-wal), 
Alicante (Al-e-kan'-ta), . 
Alien Law (Ail'-yen Law) 
Alleghanies (Al-le-ga'-nees), 
Alleghany (Al-le-ga'-ny), 
Allen (Al'-len), . 
AUia (Al'-li-a), . 
Alma (Al'-ma), 
Almagro (Al-ma'-gro), 
Al JVIansur (A! Man'-soor), 
Alinanza ( Al-man'-za), 
Almeida (Al-ma'-e-da). 
Almenara (Al-ma-nah'-ra),j 
Almeria (Al-ma'-re-a), 
Almonte (Al'-mont), . 
Alphonsists (Al-fon'-sists), 
Alphonso (Al-fon'-so), 11 

Alps (Alps), 
Alsace (Al'-sase,), 
Alsen (Awl'-sen), . . 

Altona (Al-too'-na), . 
Altranstadt (Al'-tran-stot), 
Alva (Al'-va), 
Alvarez (Al-var'-ez), . 
Alvinzi (Al-vm'-zi), . 
Amadeus (A-ma'-de-us), . 
Amaru Tupac (Am'-a-ru Tu' 
Amboise (Am-boi'-se), 
Ambracia (Am-bra'-she-a), 
Ambrister (Am-bris-ter), 
Ameers (A'-meers), . 
Amelekites (A-mel'-e-kites), 
America (A-mer'-i-ca), 
American (A-mer-i-can), 



27> 56, 57, 64 
60 

• 273 
. 138 

171,172 

15S 

So, 402, 428 

480 

. 491 

71 

361,480,491 

. 480, 491 

• 425 
121,123 

■ 299 
359,368 

• 369 
424, 425, 426 

. 481 

491 

470, 478 

460. 462 

• 72 
387 

. 214 
124 
. 271 
193 
. 271 
425 
446, 48S 
421,430 
[65,421,429,430 

79, 315, 317.319 
284, 406, 412 
396 

• 277 
275 

. 207 
447 

• 326 
400, 421, 422 

433,434 

219 

. 93 

492 

• 369 
30 

193,300,314,455 
460, 462, 465, 468 



pac 



),. 



Americans (A-mer-i-cans), 455, 460,462,463, 464 
Amerigo Vespucci, (A-mer-e'-go Ves-poot'- 

she), ..... 193 

Amherst (Am'-herst), . . 289,290,305 

Amidas (Ame'-e-das), . . . 255 

Amiens A-me-ong'), .135,333,334,408,410 
Ammoiv, Jupiter (Ju'-pi-ter Am'-mon), . 56 
Ammonites (Ani'-mon-ites), . . 29 

Amoreaux (A-mo-ro'), ... 420 

Amorites (A'-mor-ites), ... 29 

Amos (A'-mos), , , . • 32 



Amoy (A'-moy), .... 369 
Amphictyon (Am-p_hic'-ty-on), . . 39 

Amphictyonic (Am-phic'-ty-on-ic), . 39, 53 
Ampudia (Am poo'-di-a), . . . 498 

Amru (Am'-ru), . . . .122,123 

Amsterdam (Am'-ster-dam), . . . 251 

Amulius (A-mu'-li-us), ... 66 

Amura'h ( Am'-u-rath). . . . 191 

Anabaptists ( An-a-bap'-tists) . . 207 

Anam (An'-am), .... 394 

Ancona (An-co'-na), . . . 365 

Ancus Martius (An'-cus Mar'-she-us), . 6S 
Anderson, Robert (Rob'-ert An'der-son), 505 
Andes ( An-dees'), .... 439 
Andre, John (Jon An'-dre), . . 472 

Andreas Dona (An'-dre-as Do'-ri-a), 144,204 
Andreas Hofer (An'-dre-as Hof-er), . 341 
Andrew (An'-droo), .... 189 
Andros, Sir Edmund (An'-dros), . 259 

Angele-land (An'-gle-land), . . 120, 171 

Angelo, St. (Saint An'-je-lo), . . 204 

Angles (An'-gles), .... 120 
Anglia, East (East An'-gli-a), . . 120 

Anglican Church (An'-gli-can), . 211,222 
Anglo-Saxons (An'-glo-Sax'-ons), . 120 

Angora (An-go'-ra), .... 191 
Angostura (An-gos-too'-ra), . . 437 

Angouleme (An-gcu-!eme'j, . 202,354,356 

Anjou (An-joo'), . 145,150,165,173,174,182, 
220, 268, 209,272 
Ankarstrom (An'-kar-strom), . . 296 

Anna (An'-na), .... 278 
Annapolis (An-nap'-o-lis), . . 300, 475 

Anne (Ann), . . . 248,269,278 

Anne Boleyn ( Bo'-len), . 209,210,222 

Ansgar (Ans'-gar), . . . 186 

Anson (An'-son), .... 287 
Antalcidas ( An-tal'-cedas), . , 52 

Antediluvian (An-te-de-lu'-ve-an), . . 21 

Antediluvians (An-te-de-lu'-ve-ans), . 21 

Anthemius 1 An-the'-me-us), . . ,112 

Antichrist (An'-te-krist), . . 235 

Antietam (An-tee'-tam), . . . 512 

Antigonus (An-tig'-o-nus), . 60,61,62 

Antioch (An'-te-ok), . . 64, 122, 136 

Antiochus (An-te-ok'-iis), . . 63, 64 

Antiochus Epiphanes (An-ti-ok'-us E-pif'-a- 

nees), ..... 64 

Antipater (An-tip'-a-ter'), . , 54, 59 

Antoinette, Marie (Mar'-e An-toi-net') . 310 

Antonin\is Pius ( An-to-ni'-nus Pi-us) . 100 

Antonio (An-to'-ne-o), . . . 216 

Antonio de Levya (An-to'-ne-o de Lev-ya'), 203 
Antonio, San (San An-to'-ne-o), 427, 447,500 
Antonius fAn-to'-ne-us), . . . 133 

Antony, Mark (Mark An'-to-ny), 89. 91, 92, 93 
Antwerp (Ant'-werp), . . 156, 363- 3^4 

AnviUe, Duke d' fDuke de An'-vil),. . 303 

Aosta, Duke of (."V-os'-ia), . . 4°° 

Apis(A'-pis), . . • .56 

Apollo (A-pol'-Io), . . 36.39,53,61 

Appalachian (Ap-pa-!a'-chi-an), . 265 

Appius Claudius (-\p'-pi-us Clau'-di-us,) 71, 72 
Appomattox (Ap-po-mat'-toxj, . 518, 521 
Apraxin (A-prax'-in), . . .65, 79, 145 

Apulia (A-pur-e-a\ ... 79 

-AqucE Sextiae (A-que-Sex-she'-a), . . 35 

Aquitaine (A-que-tain'), . . 126, 148 

Aquitania (A-que-tan'-e-a), . . -94 

Aquitanians (A que-tan'-e-ans), . . 127 

Arab ('Ar'-ab), . . . .126 

Arabella Stuart (A-ra-bel'-la Stu'-art), 232, 233 
Arabia (A-ra'-'bi-a), . 25, 28, 121, 122, 368 

Arabian (A-ra'-bi-an), 58,120, 121,122,124, 125 
Arabians (A-ra'-bi-ans), . . 121, 122, 123 

Arabs (Ar'-abs), . . 28, 120, 123, 124, 125 

Arad (Ar'-ad), . . . 3S3, 384 

Arago, Emanuel (E-man'-yel Ar'-a-go), 371, 4^6 
Aragon (Ar'-a-gonj, 225, 146, 150, 158, 159 

202,260 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



579 



Ararat (Ar'-a-rat), . . ■ 

Arams ^A-ra'-tus), 

Arbela (Ar-bel'-a), 

Arbogastes (Ar-bo-gas'-tees), 

Arbuthnot (Ar'-buth-not), 

Arc, Joan of (Jo'-an of Arc), 

Arcadia (Ar-ca'-de-a), 

Arcadiiis (Ar-ca'-di-us), . 

Arc de Tri( mphe f Ark de Tre-omphe') 

\rchidamu5 (Ar-ke-da'-mus), . 

\rchimedes (Ar-ke-me'-dees), 

Arcis (Ar'-se), . . . 

Areola (Ar-ko'-la), . , 

Aidea (Ar'-de-a), . 

Areopagus (Ar-e-op'-a-gns) , 

Argentine (Ar'-jen-teen), , . 438, 

Argive (Ar'-give), . , , 

Argo (Ar'-go), 

Argolis (Ar'-go-Iis), , . 

Argos (Ar'-gos), . 

Argonautic (Ar'-go-naut'-ik), 

Argus (Ar'-gus), . 

Argyle, Duke of (Ar-gile'), • 

Anan (A'-re-an), . , . 

Ariana (A-re-an'-a), . . 

Arista (A-rees'-ta), . . 446, 

Aristides (A-ris-ti'-dees), . . . 

Aristobulus (Ar-is-tob'-u-lus), . 

Aristodemus (Ar-is-to-de'-mus), 

Aristogiton (Ar-is-to-git'-ton), 

Aristomenes (Ar-is-tom'-e-nees), . 

Aristotle (Ar-is-tot'-el), . 

Arius (A'-re-us); .... 107 

Arkansas (Ar-kan'-sas), 493, 506, 307, 509, 512, 

513, 5151 527 
Arkansas Post (Ar-kan'-sas Post), . . 513 

Arlington Heights (Ar'-ling-ton Hights), 506 
Armada LAr-ma'-da), . . 217,224 

Armand Marrast (Ar'-mong Mar-rah'), . 374 
Armenia (Ar-me'-ne-a), . . 21, 281 

Arminians Ar-min'-e-ans), . . . 218 

Armistead (Arm-is-ted'), . . , 489 

Armstrong (Arm'-strongi, . , 304 

Arnaud, St. (Saint Ar'-no), . . 387 

Arnold, Benedict (Ben'-e-dict Ar'-nold), 460, 
462, 467, 472, 478, 474 
Arnold Winkelned (Ar'-nold Win'-kel-ried), 168 
Arnolph (Ar'-nolf), .... 159 
Arpad (Ar'-pad), . . . 129, 189 

Arras (Ar'-ras), . . . 156, 408 

Arrondissements (Ar-ron'-dis-ments), 370, 418 
Artaphernas (Ar-ta-fer'-nas), . . 45 

Artaxcrxes Longimanus (Lon'-jim-an'-us), 34 
Artaxerxes Mnemon (Ar-ta-zerk'-zees Ne'- 



61, 62 

56,57 

110 

471, 492 

155,181 

• 35 
no 

4X6, 418 

349 
. 80 

49 

. 326 

. 68 

• 43 

i4o, 441 

. 61 

38 

35, 3S 

35,37.61 

. 38 

4S8 

246, 278 

no 

• 57 
447, 498 
6, 47, 48 



mon), .... 


51 


Artemisium (Ar-te-me'-se-um), 


. 46 


Arthenay (Ar-te-nay'), . 


408 


Arthur Ar'-ther), 


. 149 


Artois Ar-twah'), . 


. 310, 354 


Aruns (A'-runs), 


68, 69 


Ascalon (As'-ca-lon), 


138 


Aschaffenburg (As-chaf-fen-burg) 


• 284, 398 


Ashantee (Ash-an-tee'), . 


432 


Ashantees (Ash-an-tees'), 


• 432 


Ashhurton (Ash'-bur-ton), 


496 


Ashley ('Ash'-ley\ . 


• 245 


Ashley Cooper (Coop'-er), 


264 


Ashur (Ash'-er), 


. 24 


Asia (A'-she-a), . 


22,26, 27, 35 


Asia Minor f A'-shea Mi— nor), 


22,40,44,45 


Asiatic (A-she-at'-ik), 


37,58,388 


Asmonians (As-nio'-ne-ans), . 


. 64 


Asnieres (As'-niers), 


417 


Aspern As'-pern), 


■ 340 


Aspromonte (As-pro-mont') 


413 


Assassins (As sas'-sins) 


141, 142 


Assaye (As-sa'-ya), 


.299, 300 


Assemblyists (As-sem'-bly-ists), 


415,417 


Assisi, Francis of (As-se'-se), . 


133 


Assy (As'-se), . 


• . 204 



Assyria (As-syr'-e-a), . . .24, 27 

Assyrian (As-syr'-e-an), . . 24, 32 

Astracan (As'-tra-kan), . . .188 

Austragal Judgment (Aus-tra'-gal), . . 897 

Asturias (As-tu'-re-as), . . .1)5,339 

Astyages (As-ty-a'-gees), . . .33 

Atalayga Castle (At-.a-ly'-a), . . 428 

Athena (Ath-e'-na), . . 33 

Athenian (Ath-e'-ne-an), . . 42,43,44 

Athenians, . . ' . 45,48,49 

Athens (Ath'-ens), , 35, 37, 42, 43, 46 

Atkinson (At'-kin-son), . . . 494 

Atlanta (At-lan'-ta), . . 518,519,520 

Atlantic (At-lan'-tic),, . 37,04,194.195 

Attalus (At'-ta-lus), . . ' . ' 84 

Attica (At'-te-ka), . . . .35 

Attiia (At-til'-a\ . . . .1)2 

Auerstadt (Ou'-er-stot), , . . 337 

Augereau (O-zhe-ro') . . .327,350 

Aughrim (Au'-grim), .... 248 
Augsburg (Ougs'-burg), . ' . 201,207,254 
Augusta (Au-gus'-ta), . . 471,473,474 

Augustenburg (Au-gus'-ten-burg), .396,793 

Augustine (Au'-gus-teen), . . . 120 

Augustine, St. (Saint Au'-gus-teen), . 133 
Augustinian f Au-gus-tin'-e-an), . 133, igg 

Augustulus, Romulus (Rom'-u-lus Au-gus'-tu- 

lus), . . . . . I,g 

Augustus (Au-gus'-tus . . "93, 94 

Augustus, Philip (Fil'-!p Au-gus'-tus), 149, 150 
Aulus Plautius (Au'-lus Plau'-te-us ), . 95 

Aurelian (Au-re -le-an), . . ' . 105 

Aurelius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Au-re'-le-us), . luo 
Aurungzebe (Au-rung-zebe'), . .215,281 

Aruns (A'-runs), . . . .68 

Austrasia (Aus-tra'-she-a), . . 126 

Austria ( Aus'-tre-a), . 138, 166, 167, 168, 398 
Austrian (Aus'-tre-an), . 167,168,341,398 

Austrians (Aus'-tre-ans). . 282, 284, 2!i8 

Auxerrois, St. Germaine 1' (Sang Zher'-men- 

lo-zer-waw'), .... 219 

Avars (Av'-ars), . . . 128,129,159 

Aventme Hill (Av'-en-tin Hill), . 68 84 

Averill, William W (A%''-er-il), . . 547 

Averysborough (Av'-er-is-bur'-o), . .521 

Avignon (A-vin'-yon), . . 142, 150, 169 

Avitus (A-vi'-tus), .... 112 
Avon (A'-von), .... 490 
Avron !'Av'-ron), '. . . , 409 

Axel Oxenstiern (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 
Ayacucho (I-a-coo'-cho), . 438,439,440 

Ayesha (I'-sha\ .... 121 
Azincourt (A-zhin-koor'), . i54, i5S,i8i 

Azores (A-zores'). . . . 193 

Azov (A'-zov), .... 253 

Aztec (Az'-tek .... 214 
Aztecs, . . . . .214 

B. 

Baal (Ba'-all, . 
Baalbec (Ba'-al~bek), 
Babel (Ba'-bel), 
Baber (Ba'-ber>, . 
Babylon (Bab'-e-lon), . 
Babylonia (Bab-e-Io-ne-a), 
Babylonian, 
Babylonians, . . 

Bacchus (Bak'-kus\ 



• 24, 2 
122 

• 21,22 

215 

24, 23 
24 

24,25,27,33 
. 3a 

36 

Bacon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ba'-kon'), . 257 
Bactrian (Bac'-tre-an), ... 57 

Bactnana (Bac-tre-an'-a), . . .57 

Badajoz (Bad-a-hoce'), . . . 342 

Baden (Bad'-en), . 170,207,374,37; 377 

Baden Durlach (Bad'-en-Dur'-lok), . 227 
B.agdad (Bag'-dad), . . 124,125,191 

Bagratian (Ba-gra'-shan), . •336,343 

Baiily (Bal'-ye), . , 312,313,321 

Bainbridge (Bain'-bridge), . . 481 

Bajazet (Baj'-a-zet), .... 191 
Bakei Edward D (Ba'-ker), . . 508 



5 So 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Balaklava (Bal-a-kla'-va), . . . 387 

Balbinus (Bal-bi'-nus), . . . 103 

Balboa (Bal-bo'-;i), .... 194 
Baldwin of Flanders (Bald'-win), . 13S, 139 

Baliol, John (Jon Bal'-e-ol), . . 176,177 

Balkan (Bawl'-kan), . . . 360 

Ball's Blufr( Ball's Bluff), . . 507,508 

Baltic (Bawl'-tic),. ... 27 

Balriniore (Eawl'-te-more), . 261,262,489,505 
Banat (Ban'-at), . . . .381,383 

Banda Oriental (Ban'-da O-re-en'-tal), . 440 
Baner (Ban'-er), .... 231 
Bangalore ( Ban-ga-lore'), . . . 299 

Banks, Nathaniel P. . . 510,511,514, 

515,516 
Bannockburn (Ban-nok-burn'), . . 177 

Bapaume (Ba-paum'), . . . 410 

Bar (Bar), ..... 294 
Barak (Bar'-ak), . . . -29 

Barbadoes (Bar'-ba-does), . . 264 

Barbarossa, Frederic (Bar-ba-ros'-sa), 137, 149, 
162, 163,194 
Barbarossa. Hayraddin (Hay-rad'-din), . 204 
Barbaroux (Bar-bar-roo'), . 317,321 

Barbary (Bar'-ba-ry), . . .355 

Barca (Bar'-ka), .... 40 

Barcas, Hamilcar (Ha-mil'-kar (Bar'-kas),77, 78 
Barcelona (Bar-se-lo'-na), . 270,424,426,427 
Barclay (Bar'-klay), . . . 4S6 

Barclay, Robert, .... 266 
Barclay de Tolly (Bar'-klay de Tol'-ly), 343, 

^ , 344,347 

Barebone (Bare'-bone), . . . 242 

Barenberg ( Ba'-ren-berg), . , . 228 

Barenklau (Ba-renk'-low), . , 283 

Barksdale (Barks'-dale), . . . 514 

Barlow, Arthur (Ar'-thur Bar'-lo), . 255 
Barnave (Bar-nav'), .... 321 
Barnet (Bar'-net), . . . 183 

Barnveldt, Van Olden), (Van Ol'-den Barn'- 

velt), ..... 218 
Barragan (Bar'-ra-gan), . . . 444 

Barras (Bar'-ras), . . 324, 325 

Barrere ( Bar-rare') . . . -321 

Barrot, Odillon (O-deel'-yong Bar-ro'), 371 
Bartholomew, St. (Saint Bar-thol'-o-mew), 219, 

220 
Bashaw (Ba-shaw'), . . . 481, 482 

Basle (B.a'-sel), . . 166, 170, 171, 325 

Basque Provinces (Bask), . . 422, 427 

Bassantello (Bas-san-tel'-lo), . . 160 

Bastile (Bas-teel'), , . . 314, 315 

Batavia (Ba-ta'-ve a), . . . 218 

Batavian, .... 325, 329, 334 
Bath (Bath), . . . .238 

BatignoUes (Bat-ig-noles'), . . . 414 

Baton Rouge (Bat-on Roozh'), . 511, 515 

Baudin (Bo'-din), .... 385 
Baum (Bourn). .... 467 
Bautzen (Boutz'-en), .... 347 
Bavaria (Ba-va'-re-a), . 12S, 159, 167, 336 

Bavarian, ..... 167, 297 
Bavarians, .... 270, 403 
Bayard, Chevalier (Chev-a-leer' By'-ard), . 203 
Bayonne (Ba-one'), . . 339, 348, 427 

Baylen (Bi'-len), . . . . 339 

Bazaine (Ba-zang'), . 38S, 402, 403, 404, 405, 

407, 450 
Beam (Ba-arn'), .... 219 
Beaugency (Bo'-zhen-sy), . . 408 
Beanharnais, General (Bo-har'-na), 321, 323, 325 
Beauharnais, Eugene (U-geen'), . 335, 343 

Beauharnais Hortense (Or-tangs'), . 386 

Beaujou (Bo-joo'), .... 417 
Beaulieu (Bo-loo') . . . 326 

Beauregard, Pierre G. F. (Bo'-re-gard), . 505, 
506, 509, 518 
Beausejour (Bo-se-jour'), . . 303 
Becket, Thomas ft (Tom-as ii Beck'-et) . 174 
Bedell (Be-dell') 462 



Bedford (Eed'-ford), . 
Bedloe (Bed'-lo), . 
Belfast (Bel'-fast), . 
Belfort (Bel'-fort), 
Belgian (Bel'-je-an), . 
"ielgians, 



246 

. 489 

. 410, 412 

• 3631 404, 405, 4" 
363, 364 



Belgium (Bel'-je-um), . 217, 298, 351, 363, 364. 

404, 406 
Belgrade (Bel-grade'), . 135, 190, 192, 279, 280 
Belisarius ( Bel-e-sa'-re-us ), . . 117, 118 

Bell, John (Bell), .... 504 

Belleisle (Beli-ile'), . . . ,283 

Bellerophon (Btl-ler'-o-fon), . . 352 

Belleville (Bell'-vil), . . 414, 415, 429, 42c 

Belmont (Bel-mont), ... . 508 

Beloochistan (Be-loo-chis-tan') . . 35 

Belshazzar (Cel-shaz'-zar), . . .25, 33 
Belus (Bel'-us), .... 24 

Belvedere (Bel-ve-deer'), . . . 340 

Bem, .... 365, 381, 383 

Bemis's Heights (Bem'-is's Hights), . 467 

Bender (Ben'-der), . . . 276, 294 

Benedek (Ben'-e-dek), . . . 398 

Benedetti (Ben-e-det'-te), . , . 402 

Benedict of Nursia (Ben'-e-dict of Nur'-she-a), 

^33 
Benedictine (Ben-e-dic'-teen), . 133, i8fi 

Benevento (Ben-e-ven'-to), . . 165 

Bengal (Ben-gawl'), . . . 389, 390 

Benito Juarez (Ben -e-to Whaw-ar'-ez), 447, 448, 
449, 450, 451 
Benjamin (Ben'-ja-min), . . 30, 31 

Benningsen(Ben'-ning-sen), . .3371338 

Bennington (Ben'-ning-lon), . . 467 

Bentonville (Ben'-ton-vil), . . 521 

Berber (Ber'-ber) .... 124 
Beresford (Ber'-ez-ford), . . . 342 

Beresina (Ber-e-ze'-na), . . . 346 

Berg (Berg), .... 226 

Bergen (Berg'-en), . . . 266, 290 

Bergerot (Ber-jer-o'), . . . 415 

Berghen (Ber'-jen), .... 330 
Berkeley (Eerk'-le), . . 256,257,266 

Berlin (Ber-lin'), . . 288,291,337,412 

Bermuda Hundred (Ber-mu'-da Hundred), 518 
Bernadotte (Ber'-na-dot),. . 342, 347 

Bernard (Ber'-nard), .... 457 
Bernard, St. (Saint Ber-nard), . . 332 

Berne (Bern), . . . 167, 328 

Bernese (Bern'-ese), ... 328 

Bernhard (Eern'-hard), . . . 231 

Bernhard of Weimar /Wi'-mar), . 231 

Berri, Duke of (Ber'-re), , . . 156 

Bertha (Ber'-tha), . . . 147 

Berthelemy (Ber-thel'-e-me), . 327 

Berthier (Ber-te-a'), . . . 327 

Berthold Schwartz (Bert'-old Schwartz), 192 
Berwick (Ber'-wick), . . , . 271 

Besancon (Be-zong'-soang), . . 411 

Bessieres (Bes-se-er'), . . . 347 

Bessus (Bes'-sus), ... 57 

Bethlehem (Beth'-le-hem), . . .94 

Beuret (I'oo-ra'), .... 393 
Beyreut (Ba-root'), .... 368 
Big Bethel (Big Beth'-el), . . 506 

Big Black River Bridge, . . ,, 514 

Bicctre (Be-set-ra'), . . , 407 

Bicocco (Be-kok'-ko), . . 202 

Biddle (Bid'-del), . . .490 

Bienville (Be-ang'-veel), . 301 

Biloxi (Be-lok'-se), . . 30c, 

BiUaiid Varennes (P,il'-lo Va-ren'), 323, 32/ 
Bingham (Bing'-am), . . 484 

Biron (Ei'-ron), . . . 321, 430. 

Bismarck (Bis'-mark), 397, 401. 406, J'^8, 411, 
412. 43t, 43a 
Bithynia (Eith-in'-e-a), . . 60, Si 

Bittenfeld (Eit'-ten-feld), . . . 39^ 

Bizoin, Glais (Glai Bizh-oin'), . 406 

Blackburn's Ford (Black'-burn's), . 5^6 



ALPHABE riCAL INDEX. 



372 



173 



85 



1 66, i6g, ?26, 283, 2S9 

. 169, 228 

. . 226, 227 



Black Forest, ..... 326 
Black Sea, . 34,38,40,51,295,38'/, 
Blaokstone (Black'-stone), . 
Bladensburg (Blad'-ens-burg), . . 

Blair, Francis P., . . . 

Blake ..... 

Bliikeley (Blake'-le), . ' . . ' 

Blanc, Louis (Loo'-e Blong), 
Blanche (Blanch), . 
Blanqui (Blon-kee'), . . 

Blenheim (Blen'-hime), . . 

Block, Adrian (A'-dri-an Block), 
B.ois (Bl >vaw), . . . 136. 

Bloonifitld, Joseph (Blooni'-field), . 
Blount, Sir George, . . . 279 

Blucher (Blook'-er), 347, 348, 349, 351, 352 

Blum, Robert, .... 376 

Blunt, ... . 512, 515 

Boadicea (Bo-a-de'-she-a), . . .96 

Bocchus (Bok-kus), 
Boeflf, La (La Buf), . 
Boeotia (Be-o'-she-a), 
Bogota (Bo-go-taw'), 
Bohemia ( Bo-he'-me-a), 
Bohemian, . 

Bohemians, .... 
Bohemond (Bo'-he-^mond), 
Bois de Boulogne (Boi de Boo-lone'), 417, 418 
Bokhara fBo-ka'-ra), . . iqo, 432 

Boleslaus (Boies'-laus), . . ' . 1S6 

Boleyn, Anne (Ann Bo'-len), 209, 210 

Bolingbroke (Bo'-ling-broke), . 180, 272 

Bolivar, Simon (Si'-mon Bo-le'-var), 436, 437, 

438, 440 
Bolivia (Bo-lee'-ve-a), . , 438, 439, 441 

Bologna (Bo lonc'-y.i), . . . 366 

Bombay (Bom'-bay), . . . 298 

Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon (Bo'- 

na-part), . . ' . . 370, 371, 372 

Bonaparte, Jerome (Jer-ome'), . . 338 

Bonaparte, Joseph . . 336, 339, 346, 438 
Bonaparte, Louis (Loo'-e), . . 336, 341 

Bonaparte, Lucien 'Lu'-she-en), . . 331 

Bonaparte, Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on), . 322, 323, 
326, 327, 328, 329,-330, 331 
Bonapartes, ..... 436 
Bonapartists (Bo-na-part'-ists),35o, 384, 411, 430 
Bonhomme Richard (Bon-hom'), . . 470 

Boniface (Bon'-e-face), . . .126, 151 

Boone, Daniel (Dan'-yel Boon), , . 470 

Booth, John Wilkes, . . , 522 

Bora, Catharine of (Bo'-ra), . . . 201 

Bordeaux (Bor-do'), . 179, 348, 362, 411, 412 
Borgne (Borni, 
Bornheimer (Born-hi'-mer), 
Borodino vBor-o-de'-no), 
Boscawen (Bos-caw'-en), 
Bosnia (Bos'-ne-a), . 
Bosquet (Bos-ka'), 
Boston (Bos'-ton), 258,259, 457, 



Bostonians (Bos-to'-ne-ans), 
Bos worth Field (Boz'-wiirti), 
Bothnia (Both'-ne-a), 
Bothwell (Both'-well), 
BoLifflers (Boof'-flers), . 
Bouillon (Bool-yong'), 
Boulevardi (Bool-vards'), 
Boulogne (Boo-lone'), 
Bo-.i;quet (Boos-ka'i, 
BcurbaV'' 'Boor-ba'-ke), . 
Be urccrs Boor'-bon), 
Bourfionr,, 

Bourgeoisie (Bour-jeoi -see), 
Bouvines (Boo-veen'), 
Bowyer, Fort (Bow'-yer), , 
Boxer (Box'-er), . . 

Boyaca (^Boy-ak'-ka), , 

Bovne (Boil), . 

Bozrah (Be z'-rah), . , 





• 490 




• 376 


• 


• 344 




• „ 305 


. 


228, 433 




387 


S7i 458, 


459, 460, 


461 


, 462, 463 




2591 4S7 


. 


. 184 


. 


130 


. 


222, 223 




271 




135, 136 


3S5, 405, 414 


205, 211 


333, 335 


. 


. 420 




410,411 




156, 221 


291,332 


348, 350 




370, 414 


• 


149 


. 


, 4S9 


. 


48S 




• 437 




248, 254 


. 


. 122 



Bozzaris CBot-zar'-is), . . 358 

Bracito CBra-se'-to), .... 499 
Braddock, Edward (Brad'-dock), 286, 303 

Bradford, William (Brad'-ford), . .257 

Bradstreet f Brad'-street), . , 290, 305 

Bragansa (Bra-gan'-za), . 216 339, 440 

Bragg, Braxton (Brax'-ton Bragg), 512, 515, 510 
Brahma ( Bram'-a), ... 23 

Br.ihminical (Bram-in'-ic-al), . . 23 

Brahmins (Branr'-ins), ... 23 

Brahilov (Bra-e'-lov), . . . 35^ 

Brandenburg (Bran'-den-burg), 128, 169, 207, 
208, 226, 251, 252, 281, 287 
Brandt, Joseph (Brant), . . 467, ^,69 

Brandywine (Bran'-de-wine), . . 466 

Braunau (Brou'-nou), . . . 226 

Bravo (Bra'-vo), .... 435. 441 
Brazil (Bra'-zeel), . i93i 339, 356, 440, 441 
Brazilian (Bra-zeel'-yan), . . 441 

Brazilians, .... 438, 440 
Breadalbane (Bre-ad-al'-bane), . 248 

Breckinridge, John C. (Brek'-in-nj), 502 504, 

5" 
•Breda (Bra'-da), .... 244 

Breed's Hill, .... 461 

Breitenfeld (Bri'-ten-feld) . . . 229 

Brennus (Bren'-nus), . . 61, 72, 73 

Bremen (Brem'-en), .... 163 
Breslau (Bres-lou), . . . igo, 283 

Brest, ..... 318, 482 
Bretagne (Bre'-tan), , 146, 149, 156, 157 

Bretons (Bre'-tons) .... 157 
Bridgewaier (Brij'-wau-ter), . . 238 

Brienne (Bre-en'), . . . 348, 349 

Brienne, Lomoine de (Lo-mo-ne' de), . 311 

Bright, John (Erite), . . ' •. 399 

Brahuega (Brah'-we-ga), . . . 271 

Erissot (Brees'-so), . . . 317 

Bristol (Bris'-tol), . . 195, 238, 367 

Britain (Brit'-tn), . . 89, 9;, 96, 106, 120 

Britain, Great . 278, 306, 308, 460, 463, 475, 484 
Britannicus (Brit-an'-ne-kus), . . 95 

British (Brit'-ish\307, 308, 309, 328, 33t,45S, 504 
Britons I Brit'-ons), . . 89,95,96,98 

Brittany (Brit'-ta-ne), . . 157,158 

Brock, Sir Isaac , . . 4S4, 485 

Broglie (Brole'-ye), .... 431 
Broglio ! Brole'-yoi, . . . 313 

Brown, Jacob . . . 4S7, 488 

Brown, Benjamin Gratz . . . 525 

Bruce, Robert . . . 176, 177 

Brueyes (Brays), .... 328 
Bruges (Bru'-jez), .... 156 
Brumaire (Bru'-mer), . , . 331 

Brundusium (Bran-du'-ze-um), . . 92 

Brune, ..... 330 
Brunei (Bru-nel'), .... 420 
Brunswick (Bruns'-wick), 163, 227,228,278, 289 
290, 318, 337, 351 
Brussels (Brus'-sels), . . 216, 351, 363 

Brutus (Bru'-tus), . . 68„69, 91, 92, 456 

fjrutium 1 Bru'-te-um), ... 65 

Bucharest (Boo-ka-rest'), . . . 343 

Buccphala (Bu-sef'-a-la), ... 58 

Bucephalus (Bu-seP-a-lus), . . .58 

Buchanan, Franklin (Buk-an'-an), . 519 

Buchanan, James . , 502, 503, 504 

Buchez iBoo-shez'), . . . 372 

Euckersdorf (Buck'-ers-dorf), . . 292 

Buckner, Simon Bolivar iBuck'-ner), . 508 
Buena Vista (Bwa'-na Vees'-ta), . 447, 498 
Buenos Ay res (Bo'-nos Airz;, . 438, 439 

Buda (Boo'-da), . ' . . 376, 3S2 

Buddha (Bood'-da), . . 23 

Budenbrock (Boo'-den-brock), . 283 

Buell, Don Carlos (Don Car'-los P I'-el), =;o9 
Buftalo (Buf-fa-lo), . . , ' . 487 

Buford (Bu'-ford), . . . 471 

Bug (Boog), ... .365 

Bulgaria (Eul-ga'-re-a), . . , 133 



582 



ALPHAbSTICAL INDEX. 



Bulgarians, . . . . . 

Bulgaris, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Bool- 

gar'-is), 
Bull's Run, . . . 506, 507, 

Bulow ( Boo'-lo), .... 

Bunker s Hill ^Bunk'-er's), . . 307, 

Burgesses (Bur'-ges-ses), 

Burgos (Boor'-goce), . . . . 

Burgoyne (Bur-goin'), . 461, 466, 467, 
Burgundians, (Bur-gun'-de-ans), 
Burgundy (Bur'-guu-de), 126,129, '4^i '54> 
156, i57i 
Burke, Edmund, . . . 29S, 

Burleigh (Bur'-le), . . 223, 

Burnside, Ambrose E. (Burn'-side), 508, 509, 

514, 
Burr, Aaron, . . . 481, 

Burrhus (Bur'-rus), .... 

Burrows (Bur'-rose), 

Busaco (Boo-sak'-ko), 

Bussolongo (Boos-so-lone'-go), . 

Bustamente (Boos-ta-men'-ta),442, 443, 444, 

Bute, Earl of, . . 

Butler (ButMer), 

Butler, Benjamin F., . 507, 509, 

Butler, John, . . • 467, 

Byng, ...... 

Byron (By'-ron), .... 

Byzantine (Be-zan'-tin), 113, 117, 118, iig, 

123. '39. 191 
Byzantium (Be-zan'-she-um), , 40, 47. 

Byzas (By'-zas), .... 

c. 



342 

379 
445 
292 
230 
S'8 
469 
279 
358 
122, 
192 
107 
4c 



Cabal (Ka'-bal), 

Cabet (Ka-ba'), . 

Cabot, John (Ka'-bot), 

Cabot, Sebastian (Se-bas'-che-an), 

Cabral (Ka-braF), 

Cabrera ( Ka-bra'-ra), 

Cabrinity (Ku-brin'-e-te), , 

Cabul (Ka'-bool), . . 

Cade, Jack, 

Cadesiah (Ka-de'-she-a) . 

Cadiz (Ka'diz), 

Cadmea ( Kad'-me-a), . . 

Cadmus (Kad'-mus), . 

Cadorna (Ka-dor'-na), . 

Cadoudal, George (Ka-doo'-dal), 

Caernarvon (Kar-nar'-von), , 

Caisar, Julius f Ju'-!e-us Se'-zer), i 

CsBsar. Octavius (Ok-ta'-ve-us), 

Caesars, .... 

Cain, .... 

Cairo (Ki'-ro), 

Caius Gracchus (Ka'-e-us Grak'-us) 

Caius Marius (Ma'-re-us), 

Calabria (Ka-la'-bre-a), 

Calais (Kal'-la), 152, 156, 178, 182, 202, 

Caledonia, (Kal-e-do'-ne-a), - 

Caledonians, 

Calcutta (Kal-cut'-ta), 

Calhoun, John C. (Kal-hoon'), 

Calicut (Kal'-e-kut), 

California (Kal-e-for'-ne-a), 447, 498, 

Caligula (Ka-lig'-u-la), . 

Caliph (Ka'-lif), . . 121, 122 

Caliphate (Ka'-lif-ate), . * . 123, 

Caliphi, .... 

Calixtints (Ka-lix'-tins),. 

Callao (Kal-la'-o), . . . 

Calmar, Union of (Kal'-mar), . 

Calonne (Ka-lon'), 

Calvary ( Kal'-va-re"i. . . 

Calvert, Cecil (Sis-il Kol'-vert), 

Calvin, John (Kal'-vin). 

Calvinism (Kal'-vin-ism), 

Calvinists (Kal'-vin-ists), 



244, 245 

372 

. 195 

195 

• 193 

430 

422, 437 



122 

27. 37 

37 

• 37 
413 

• 335 
176 

89, 90, 91 

92,93 

93 

. 21 

123, 328 
. 84 

8s 

65, 145 

209, 212, 

213, 2l8 

. 120 

99 

. 299 

I 493, 494 
193 

499, 500, 

501, 524 

■ 94, 95 

I 123, J24 

124, 125 
. 125 

170 

44°, 441 

186 

. 311 

94 

. 261 

217, 222 
, 218, 219 



Cambaceres (Kam-ba-ser'), . , , 331 

Cambray (Kam-bra'j, . . 144, 158, 206 

Cambresis, Chateau (Sha-to' Kong-bra- ze'), 206, 

218 
Cambridge fKarae'-brij), . . 258, 460 

Cambyses (Kam-bi'-seez), . . 34 

Camden (Kam'-den), . 2C6, 471, 473 

Camerletta (Kam-er-let'-ta), . . 393 

Camilla Desraoulins (Ka-meel' Da-mo-long' j 

313, 317, 318, 32j 

Camillus (Ka-mil'-lus), . . 72, 73 

Campania (Kam-pan'-e-a), . 65, 74 

Campbell (Kam'-el), . . 461;, ^7-; 

Campbell, Sir Colin (Ko'-linJ, . 390,391 

Campbells, . . . . .2.' 

Campo Formio (Kam'-po For'-me-o), , -^2-] 

Canaan (Ka'-nan), . . . 28, 29 

Canaanites (Ka'-nan-ites), . . .29 

Canada (Kau'-a-da), 301, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307 
Canadian (Ka-na'-de-an), . . 31x1 

Canalize (Ka-nal'-e-zo), . . . 445 

Canby (Kan'-be), . . . 522, 526 

Candahar (Kan-da-har') . . . 369 

Cane River, .... 517 

Cannae (Kan-ne'), . . . -79 

Cannes (Kan), .... 350 

Canning (Kan'-ning), . . . 359 

Canrobert (Kan'-rob-ert), . 387, 402 

Canterbury (Kan'-ter-ber-re), 120,174, '79, 210, 

234 
Canton (Kan-ton'), . . , 369 

Canute (Ka-nute'j, . . . .172 

Cape Cod, ..... 257 
Cape Fear River, . . . 195, 264 

Capet (Kah-pa'), . . . 146, 152 

Capet, Hugh (Hu), . . , 146, 147 

Capitol (Cap'-e-tol), . . 73, 489 

Capiloline Hill (Ka-pit'-o-line), . 66, 67 

Capitolinus (Kap-it-o-li'-nusi, . . 73 

Capo d' Istria (Ka'-po Dees'-tre-a), 359, 360 
Cappadocia (Kap-pa-do'-she-a), . 105 

Capreae (Ka-pre'-e), . . . -94 

Capua (Kap'-u-a), . . , 74, 80 

Capuan, • . . . . 3o 

Carabobo (Kar-a-bo'-bo), . . 437 

Caracalla ( Kar-a-kal'-laj, . . loi, 102 

Caraccas (Ka-rak'-kas), . . 435, 436 

Caractacus (Ka-rak'-ta-kus), . . -95 

Carbonari (Kar-bo-na'-re), . . 356 

Carinthia (Ka-rinth'-e-a), , . 208, 226 

Corasmin (Ko-ras'-min), . . . 190 

Corasmins, . . . . -139 

Carinus (Ka-ri'-nus), . . . 105 

Carlisle (Karl'-ilej, . . . .177 

Carlist (Karl'-ist), 368, 400, 422, 424, 427, 42S, 

429, 430 
Carlists, . 366, 367, 400, 422, 427, 428, 429, 430 
Carloman (Kar'-lo-man), . . 126, 127 

Carlos, Don (Don Kar'-los), 215, 280, 367, 368. 
421, 422, 427, 430 
Carlovingian (Kar-lo-vin'-je-an), 126, 129, 146. 

r, ■ ■ '59 

Carlovingians, . 

Carlsruhe (Karls'-ru), , 
Carlstadt (Karl'-stot), 
Carmania (Kar-man'-e-a), 
Carmfax Ferry (Kar'-ne-iax Fer'-re 
Carniola (Kar-ne-o'-la), . . 

Carnot {Kar'-no"), . . 

Carolina (Kar-o-Ii'-na), . 
Carolinas, . . . 

Caroline (Kar'-o-line), . 
Carolinians (Kar-o-li'-ne-ans), 
Carpenter's Hall, . . 

Carrera (Kar-ra'-ra), 
Carreras, 

Carrier (Kar-re-a') 
Cartagena (Kar-ta-je'-na), 



Cartagenian (Kar-ta-ge'-ne-an), . 
Carteret Sir George (Kar'-ter-et), 



. 126 

377 

, 200 

58 

. 307 

166 

• 327 
264 

. 264 

327. 33f 

2f5, 46; 504 

. 4ni: 

439 

• 439 
3=4 

424, 425, 426, 428 



266 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



583 



. 425 
38 

4271 430 
. 65 

378 
. 278 

472 

319 
210 
210 



318, 



Carteret Philip (Fil'-ip) . . .266 

Carthage (Kar'-thage) 27, 62, 63, 66, 77, 7S, 80, 
81, 82, S3, 123 
Carthagena (Kar'tha-je-na), . 78, 280, 436, 437 
Carthaginian (Kar-tha-jin'-e-an), 76, 77, 78, 79, 
81,82,83 
Carthaginians, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 
Carth isians (Kar-thu'-she-ans), . . T33 

Carticr, James (Kar-te-a'), . . 195 

Carus (Ka'-rus), . • . .105 

Carver, John (Kar'-ver), . . 257 

Cashmeie ( Kash'-meer), . . . 371 

Casimir (Kas'-e-mer), . . . 187 

Casimir the Great, . . . • 187 

Casino, Mount (Kas-e'-no) . . 133 

Caspian Sea (Kas'-pe-an), . • • 33. 34 

Cassander (Kas-san'-der) . . 60 

Cassandra (Kas-san'-dra) . . . 358 

Cassano (Kas-sah'-no), . . . 329 

Cassavo (Kas-sa'-vo) . . . 19 1 

Cassel (Kas'-sel), .... 405 

Cassius (Kash'-e-us) . . . 89,91,92 

(■^astanos (ICas'-ta-noce') . . . 339, 340 

l>steIar(Klas-te-!ar') 421, 422, 423, 425, 426,427 
Castiglione (^Kas-teel-yo'-na) . . .418 

Castile (Kas'-teel), 125, 158, 159, 165, 194, 269 
Castilian (Kas-teel'-yan) . . 158 

Castillo de las Galerus (Kas-teel'-yo-da-las 

Gal-a'-rus) .... 
Castor (Kas'-ter), . 

Catalonia (Kat-a-lo'-ne-a), 158, 422, 422, 
Catana (Ka-tan'-a) 
Catania (Ka-tan'-ea) . . 

Catharine I. (Kath'-a-rin), . 
Catharine II., 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 
Catharine de Medicis \Med'-e-che) 
Catharine Howard (How'-ard), 
Catharine Parr, ... 1 

Catharine of A ragon (Ar'-a-gon), . 209,210 
Catharine of Braganza (Bra-gan'-za), . 244 

Cathelineau (Kath'e-lin-o'), . 322 

Catholic (Kath'-o-lik), . . . 206 

Catholicism (Ka-thol'-e-sism) 
Catholics, .... 

Catiline, Sergius (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line) . 8S 
Latinat (Kah'-te-nah) . . . 255," 268 

Cato the Elder ( Ka'-to) . . .82 

Cato the Younger, ... 00 

Catulus (Ka-tul'-us) ... 85, 86 

Caucasus (Kau'-kas-us) . . . 188 

Caudine Forks (Kaw-dine), . .74, 75 

Cavaignac ( Kav'-en-yakj, . 371, 372, 373, 374 
Cavaliers (Kav-aleers'), . . 236 

Cavour ( Kav'-oor), .... 393 
Cawnpore (Kawn'-pore) . . 390, 391 

Cayenne (Ki'-en), .... 386 
Cecil (Sis'-ili, .... 224 
Cecrops (Se'-krops), . . . .37 

Cedar Creek (Se'-der), . . . 520 

Cedar Mountain. .... 511 
Centreville 1 Sen'-ter-vil). . . 506 

Ceraunus, Ptolemy (Tol'-e-me be-raw'-nus), 61 
Ceres (Se'-rees), . . . .36 

Cerisoles (Se-ris'-o-lees). . . 205 

Cerro Gordo (Seer'-o Gor'-do), . 447, 499 

Cevalles (Se-vals'), . . . 451 

Cevennes (^Sa-ven'), .... 269 
Ceylon i,Se-Ion') .... 193 

Chacabaco ( Cha-ka-ba'-ko), . , . 439 

Chseronea ( Ker-o-ne'-a), . . 53 

Chaldea (Kal-de'-a), . , . 23, 99 

Chaldean, .... 27 

t.-"i"ildeans, . . . . .24 

Chalgrave Field (Shal'-grave), . . 237 

Chalier (Shal-e-a') .... 322 
Chalons (Sha-loang'), . . . 112 

Chalons-sur-Marne (-soor-M§rn). 402, 403, 404 
Chambersburg (Cham'-bers-burgi, . 519 

Chambly (Sham' ble), . . . 462 

Champagne (Sham'-pane), 146, 147, 148, 349 



Champ de Mars (Shong iter Mat), 315, 420 

Champion Hill (Cham'-j e-on), . . 514 

Championnet (Sham-pe-o'-na), . . 327 

Champaubert (Shong-po'-ber), . . 349 

Champlain, Lake (Sham-plain'), . . 300 

Champlain, Samuel, 300, 304, 460, 462, 466. 48"; 

488, 48L 
Champs Elysees (Shong-E-lees'-e) 412, 416, 41& 
Chancellorsville (Chan'-cel-lors-vil),. . 514 

Chandler (Chand'-ler) . . , 487 

Changarnier (Shan-gar'-ne-a), . . 374 

Chantilly ("Chan'-til-le), . . . 511 

Chanzy (Snon'-ze), . . . .410 

Chaos (Ka'-os), .... 36 

Chapultepec (Cha-pool'-te-pek) . 447, 500 

Charette (Shar-et'), . . . 322 

Charlemagne (Shar'-le-mane), 119, 126, 127, 128 

129 
Charleroi (Shar-ler-waw'), . . 351 

Charles, 126, 129, 145, 146, 150, 151, 154, 155, 
'57! '58, 159, 165, '16S, 171, 200, 20J 
Charles Felix (Fe'-lix), . . . 357 

Charles Martel (iMar-tel'), . . 124, 126 

Charles the Courteous, . . 157, 158 

Charles the Fair, . . . .151,152 

Charles the Fat, . . . 129, 159 

Charles the Simple, . . . 146 

Charles the Wise, . . . .154 

Charles the Victorious, . 155, 156, iSi, 182 

Charles I., of England, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 

239, 240 
Charles II., of England, . 243, 244, 245, 246 
Charles II., of Spain, . . . 268 

Charles III., of Spain, . . . 291 

Charles IV., of Germany, . . . i6s 

Charles IV., of Spain, . . . 339 

Charles V., of Germany, 171, 200, 201, 202,203, 
204, 205. 2q6, 207, 20S, 2og 
Charles VI., of France, . . x 154, 155 

Charles VI., of Germany, . .272,282 

Charles VII., of Germany, . . 283,284 

Charles IX., of France, . . .219,220 

Charles IX., of Sweden, . . . 212 

Charles X., of France, . 354- sS'^, 361, 363 

Charles X., of Sweden, . . . 232 

Charles XL, of Sweden, . . . 232 

Charles XII., ofSweden,273,274, 275, 276, 277, 

278 
Charles XIII , of Sweden, . . .341 

Charleston (Charles'-ton), 265, 463, 469, 470, 471 
474, 475, 494- 504, 5o8, 515, 520, 521 
Charlestown (Charles '-town), . . 258, 461 

Charlotte (Shar'-lot) . . 461, 471, 528 

Charlotte Corday (Kor'-da) . . .321 

Charlottesville (Shar'-lots-vil) . . 511 

Charoiois (Shar-o-lwaw'). . • -15^ 

Chartres (Shar'-ter), . . .221 

Chasse, . . . . -522 

Chasse fShas-sa'), . . . 3^3 

Chasu du Marne (Shas'-su du Marn), . 419 

Chateau ( Shah-to'), • • • 405 

Chateau Cambresis (Kong-bra-zee'), 206, 218 
Chateau d' Eau (Shat'-o-do'), . . 37' 

Chateau Thierry (Ta-er'-re), . . 349 

Chateaux (Shah-to'), . • • 3^4 

Chatillon (Shah-teel-yoang'), . 349,416 

Chattanooga (Chat-ta-noo'-ga), . 515, 516 
Chaudiere (Sho-de-air'), . . • 462 

Chaumette (Shomet'), , • • 323 

Chauncey (Chaun'-se), 486, 487 

Cheatham (Cheet'-ham) . . 508 

Chenah (Che-nah';, . . 369 

Cheops (Ke'-ops), . " ■ 26 

Cherbourg (Sher'-burg), . • 5t9 

Cherokee (Cher-o-kee'j, . . 3°^, 494 

Cherry Valley, . . . .469 

Cherub (Cher'-ub), . . . .49° 

Chesapeake (Ches-a-peek'), . 465, 483, 488 
Chester (Ches'-ter), . 238,266,^67,466 

Chevaux-de-frise (She-vo-de-frise'), . 466 



584 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Chickamauga (Chick-a-maw'-ga), 

Chickasavs (Chick'-a-saws), 

Chi-hoang-ti (She-woiig'-ti), 

Chihuahau (She-wah'-wah), 

Childeric (Shil'-der-ik), 

Chili (Chil'-Ie), . 

Chilian (Chil'-e-an), . 

Chilians, .... 

ChiUianwallah (Chil-yan-wal'-lah), 

Chilpanzinco (Chil-pan-zin'-go), 

China (Chi'-na), 22, 23, 119, 190, 

Chinese (Chi'-nese), . 22, 

Chippewa (Chip'-pe-waw), . 

Chisselhurst (Chis'-sel-hurst), , 

Chivalry (Shiv'-al-re), 

Chlopiki (Klo-pe'-ke), 

Chlorus, Constantius (Con-stan'-shus Klo'- 

rus ), 
Christian I. (Krist'-yan), 
Christian II., . . 

Christian III., . 
Christian IV., . 

Christian VIII., . 
Christiana (Krist-e-an'-a), 
Christina (Kris-ti'-na), 
Christines (Kris'-ti-noes), 
Christopher Columbus (Kris'-to- 

lum'-bus), . 
Chowan (Sho-won'), . • 

Churchill (Church'-ill), . 
Churubusco (Choo-roo-boos'-ko), 
Cialdini (Si-ai-din'-ij, . . 

Cicero (Sis'-e-ro), 
Cilicia (Sil-ish'-e-a), . . : 

Cilician, 

Cilicians, .... 
Cimbrians (Sim'-bre-ans), 
Cimon (Si'-mon), , . 

Cincinnati i^Sin-sin-at'-e), 
Cincinnatus (Sin-sin-at'-us), 
Cineas iSin'-e-as), 
Cinq Mars (Sang Mars), 
Cintra (Sin'-tra), . . 

Circassia (Ser-kash'-ya), 
Circassian, 

Cisalpine Gaul (Sis-al'-pine Gawl), 
Cisalpine Republic, 
Cissey (Sis'-see), 
Cistercians (Sis-ter'-shans), 
Clair, St., Arthur (Saint Klare), 
•CU;irvaux (Klair-vo'), 
Clamart (Kla-mar'), 
Clarence (Klar'-ence), . 
Clarendon (Klar'-en-don), 174, 
Clarke, George Rogers (Klark), 
Clarke, Fort , 

Claudius (Klau'-de-us), , . 

Claudius, Appius (Ap'-pe-us'), 
Claudius Marcellus (Mar-sel'-lus), 
Claudius Nero (Ne'-ro), 
Claverhouse. Graham of (Klav'-er- 
Clay, Green (Kla), 
Clay, Henry, 
(^layborne (Klay'-born), 
Claypole, Mrs (Kla'-pole), 
Clement (Klem'-ent), 
Cleombrotus (Kle-om'-bro-tus), 
Cleomenes (Kle-om'-e-nees), 
Cleopatra (Kle-o-pa'-tra), 
Clermont (Kler-mont'), . 
Jlery (Kler'-e), . . 

Cleveland (Kleev'-land), 
Cleves ' Kleevs) 
Clichy (Klish'-e), 
Clifford (Klif -ford), . 
(;iinchait ( Klang-shar'), . 
Clinton, De Witt (De Witt' Klin'- 
Clinton, George, 

Clintc n, Henry, 461, 463, 464, 467, 468, 469, 470, 
47M 4721 473. 474 



• 


5'5 


51D 
301 


. 


22, 23 




449 


499 
126 


400 


.439 


441 
439 
439 
369 
434 


368 


)369, 


389 


363 


369. 


389 
.48S 
412 




131, 


132 




364, 


365 


bus 


Klo'- 


106 
186 


• 


*i86. 


213 

213 




227, 


228 
396 
264 
232 
36S 


-fer 


Kol 






194, 


264 
269 




447, 


500 
393 




83 


. 92 


55, 


37,88 


. 92 

87 


, 


8s, 86 




45, 47, 48 






525 






71 


. 




79 




• 


249 


. 


• 


340 




. 


395 






395 


65, 


72, 78, 89 


• 


. 327, 


329 
419 
133 


• 


'466 


467 
137 




410, 


417 




183, 


336 


244 


, 264 


524 

470 

507 

95 




7 


, 72 
78 
80 


--house), 


248 






486 


. 


494 


501 




261 


262 

161 
52 
62 


• 


90,9 


2,93 
135 
373 
472 


. 


210 


226 


• 


. 414 


419 
245 
419 


-ton 


i 


493 




482 


483 



Clissons, Oliver (Klees-song'), . . 154 

Clitus (Kli'-tus), ... 54, 55, 59 

Clive (Klive), .... 291 

Clodiiis Albinus (Klo'-de-us Al-bi'-nus), 107 

Clootz (Kloots), .... 323 

Clos St. Lazare (KIos Sang La-zhar') . 373 

Clostergrab (Klos'-ter-grab), . . 226 

Closterseven (Klos'-ter-sev-en), . . 288 

Clotilda (Klo-til'-da), .... 392 
Cloud, St. (Sang Kloo'), . . 331, 393 

Clovis (Klo'-vis), . . . 125, X20 

Cluseret (Kloo-ser-a'), . . . 426 

Clusian (Kloo'-se-an), . . . 69, 72 

Clusians, . , . . . 72 

Clusium ( Kloo'-se-um), . . . 69, 73 

Clyde (Klide), . . . .101 

Clypea (Kly-pe'-a), ... 77 

Cnaeus Pompey (Ne'-us Pom'-pe), 87, 88,89, 9° 
Cneius Pompey (Ne'-us), . . 90 

Cobb, Howell (How'-el Kob), , . 505 

Cobham (Kob'-ham), . . . iSi 

Coblentz (Kob'-lentz\ . . 348, 402 

Coburg, Prince of (Ko'-burg), . . 320 

Cochabamba (Ko-cha-bam'-ba) . . 439 

Cochin China (Ko'-chin Chi'-na), . 394 

Cochrane (Kok'-rane), . . 439, 489 

Cockburn (Ko'-burn), . . . 488 

Codes, Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-us Ko'-klees), 6g 
Cod, Cape, .... 257 

Coddington, William (Kod'-ding-ton), . 263 
Codomanus, Darius (Da-ri-us Kod-o-man'- 

".sj, . . . _ 54, 55, 56, 57 

Codrington, Sir Edward (Kod'-ring-ton), . 359 
Codrus (Ko'-drus), . . . 39, 43 

Cohoes Falls (Ko'-hose"), . . 467 

Cola di Rienzi (Ko-la de Re-ain'-ze), . 142 

Colbert ( Koal'-bair), . . 

Colchis (Kol'-kis), . 
Cold Harbor, 

Colfa.v, Schuyler (Ski'-ler Kol'-fax), 
Coligni ( Ko-leen'-ye), 
Coliseum (Kol-e-se'-um), . . 

CoUatinus (Kol-lat'-in-us), 
Colleton (Kol'-ton), . 
Collier, Sir George, (Kol'-yer), . 
CoUifigwood (Kol'-ling-wood), 
CoUot d' Herbois (Ko-lo-der-bwaw'), 
Colo.gne (Ko-lone'), . , . . 207 

Colombia (Ko-lom'-be-a), 435, 436, 437, 438,440 
Colonna (Ko-lon'-na), . . . 142 

Columbia (Ko-lum'-be-a"), . . . 521 

Columbus, Christopher (Kris'-to-fer Ko-lum'- 

bus), . . . 193,194,195 

Commodus (Kom'-mo-dus), . 100, loi 

Commune (Kom'-mune), 314, 415, 416, 417, 418, 

419 
Communism (Kom -mu-nism), . . 327 

Communist (Kom'-mu-nist), 372, 373, 415, 418, 

419, 420 
Communists, 373,414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420 
Como (Ko'-mo), .... 392 

Comonfort (Kom-on-fort), . . 447, 448 

Compeigne ( Kom-peen'-ye), . . . 153 

Concord (Kong'-kord) . . . 460, 528 

Concordat (Kon-kor'-dah), . . 162,334 

Conde' (Kon'-da) . 218, 219, 250, 251, 314 
Condorcet (Kong-dor-sa') , . . 317 

Confucius (Kon-fu'-shus), , . 22, 2- 

Connecticut (Kon-net'-e-kut, 258, 262, 26S, 460, 
464, 465, 469, 470, 474, 489, 490 
Conner (Kon'-ner), .... 499 
Conon (Ko'-non), ... 52 

Conrad I. (Kon'-rad), . . 159, 160 

Conrad II., .... 160, 161 

Conrad III., . . 137, 148, 162, 163 

Conrad IV 165 

C6nradine(Kon-ra-dine'), . . . 165 

Constance (Kon'-stans), . . 147, 63, .65 

Constans, (Kon'-stans) . . . 108 

Constantine the Great (Kon'-stan-line), 106, '07, 

108 



250, 


253 




38 




518 


523, 


524 


218, 


219 




97 


." 68, 69 




265 




469 




336 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



58s 



Constantine Paleologus (Pa-le-ol'-o-gus, . 191 
Constantinople (Kon-stan'-te-no'-pel) . 107 

Constantius (Kon-stan'-shus), . ^, 108 

Constantius Chlorus (Klo'-rus), . 106 

Constellation, ..... 480 
Constitution, .... 485, 490 

Contreras{Kon-tra'-ras), 422, 424, 425, 42S, 447, 

500 
Conway (Kon'-way), . . . 468 

Coomassie (Koo-mas'-see), . . . 432 

Cooper, Ashley (Ash'-le Koop'-er), . 264,265 
Coote, Sir Eyre (Aire Koot), . . 299 

Cope, Sir John (Kope), . . . 285 

Copenhagen (Ko-pcn-ha'-gen), 274, 333; 33S 

Copps' Hill (Kops Hill) . . .461 

Copts (KoptS),. . . . 106, £22 

Corasmin (_Ko-ras'-min) . . . 190 

Corasmins, ..... 139 
Corbett, Boston (Bos'-ton Kor'-bet), , 522 

Corbulo (Kor-boo'-lo), . . .96 

Corcyra (Kor-si'-ra), . • . 49 

Corday, Charlotte (Shar'-lot'Kor'-da) . 321 

Cordova, (Kor'-do-vaJ, . . 124,125,214 

Cordova, Gonsalvo de (Gon-sal'-vo da) . 157 
Corea (Ko'-re-a), .... 524 
Corean, . . . . . 524 

Coreans, ..... 524 
Corinth (Kor'-inth), 37, 38, 44, 48, 49, 54, 62, 
63, 82, 510, 512 
Corinthian (Kor-inth'-e-an), . 46, 49, 52 

Corinthians, . . . . 49 

Coriolanus (,Ko-re-o-la'-nus), . •71 

Cornelia (Kor-neel'-ya), ... 84 

Cornelian Law, . . . -87 

Cornelins De Witt (Kor-neel'-yus De Wit), 251 
Cornelius Scipio (Sip'-e-o), . 80, Si, 82 

Cornelius Sylla (Sil'-la), . . 85, 86, 87 

Cornwall (Korn'-wall), . . 27, 120, 237 

Conuvallis (Korn-wal'-lis)j . 299, 308, 464, 465, 
47I) 472, 473i 474> 475 
Coro (Ko''-ro), .... 437 

Coronaea (Kor-o-ne'-a), ... 52 

Corps Legislatif (Kore Lej-is-la'-tif), 386, 392, 

402, 405 
Corpus Christ! (Kor'-pus Kris'-te), . 497 
Corsica ^Kor'-se-ka), . . . 77, 297 

Corsican, .... 322, 325 

Corsicans, ..... 297 
Cortes (Kor'-tes), . 355, 356, 368, 400, 401, 421 
422, 423, 424. 425, 426, 427 
C'orte2, Fernando (Fer-nan'-do Kor'-tez), . 214 
oortina (Kor-tin'-a). . ; . 449 

Corunna (Ko-run'-na), . . . 340 

Corvinu<, Matthias (Ma-thi'-us Kor-vin'-us), 190 
Cosby (Kos'-by), .... 261 
Cosmo de Medici (Koz'-mo de Med'-e-che), 145 
Cossacks (Kos'-saks), . 275, 276, 345, 346 

Cossacks, Don. .... 294 
Coup d' Etat (Koo-der-tah'), . 384,385 

Coup de Main (Koo-der-mang'),, .' 366 

Courbevoie (Koor-be-voi'), . . .415 

Courland (Koor'-land), . . . 186 

Cour-pleniere (Koor-pla-ne-aire') . . 312 

Couthon (Koo-tong') . 317, 321, 323, 324 

Covenant, .... 235, 237 

Covenanters, ..... 210 
Cowpens I Kow'-pens), . . . 473 

Crarow ^Kra'-ko), . 187 190, 274, 294, 296 
Cianmcr, Thoinao (Toir»'-as Kran'-racr), 210, 

211, 212 
(jras-ius (Kras'-sus), • . 87, 88, 89 

Oaonne (Krah-yon'), . . . 349 

Craterus f Kra-te'-rus), ... 60 

Craven ''Kra'-ven), .... 266 
Crecy (Kres'-se), . 152, 156,178,184 

Creek (Kreek), . . 267,407,494 

Creeks, , . , ' . , 487 

Crcfeld (Kra'-feld), . . . . 2S9 

Cremieux (Kre-moo ;, , . . 406 

Creoles (Krt-oles), .... 434 



Crepy (Crep'-e), . . 205 

Crete (Kreet), . . , 40, 42, 43 

Cretan, (Kre -tan). ... 40 

Crimea (Kri-me'-a), . . 294, 295, 3S7,„388 

Crimean, .... 386, 387, 388 

Crispus (Kris'-pus) .... 107 

Crittenden, John J., (Krit'-ten-den), . 505 
Crittenden, George B., , . . 508 

Croatia (Kro-a'-she-a), . . . 381 

Croatian, .... 381, 382 

Croats (Kro'-ats), . . 283, 380, 3S2, 383 

Croesus (Kre'-sus), • • • 33 

Croghan (Kro'-han), .... 486 

Cromwell, Oliver (Ol'-iv-er Krom'-well), 235, 
237> 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 24"5 
Cromwell, Richard (Rich'-ard), . . 243 

Cromwell, Thomas (Tom'-as), . . 210 

Cronstadt (Kroan-stot), . . . 275 

Cross Keys, .... 510 

Crown Point, . . ego, 304, 305, 460 

Crozat, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Kro-zah'j, . 300 
Cruger (Kru'-ger), .... 471 

Crusade (Kru'-sade), 134, 13s, 136, 137, 138, 
139, 140, 141 
Crusader (Kru'-sa-der), . 135, 136, 137, 139 

Crusaders, . . 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 

Crusades, . . . 134, 140, 141 

Ctesiphon (Tes'-e-fon) . . 89, 99, loi 

Cuba (Ku'-ba), . . . 292, 400, 421 

Cuban, . . . . . .421 

Cucuta (Koo-koo'-tah), . . . 437 

Cuenca (Koo-ain'-kah), . . , 429 

Cuddalore (Kud-da-lore'), . . 299 

Ciudad Rodrigo (Kwe-oo-dad Ro-dre'-go), 342 
Cuirassiers (Kwir-as-seers'), . .351,404 

CuUoden Moor (Kul-lo'-den), . . 285 

Culm (Kulm), .... 347 

Culpeper (Kul'-pep-er), . . . 511 

Cumberland, Dukeof ^Kum'-ber-Iand), 285, 288 
Cundinamarca i_Koon-de-nah-mar'-kah), . 437 
Cunaxa (Ku-nax-ah'), ... 51 

Curatii (Ku-re-a'-shea-a) . . 67, 68 

Curius DentatusfKu'-re-us Den-ta'-tus), . 76 
Curtis, Samuel R. (Kur'-tis), . . 508 

Custine (Kus-teen'), . . . 319, 323 

Custozza (Koo-stot'-sa) . . . 379, 398 

Cyane (Si-an') .... 490 

Cynocephate (Sin-o-sef'-a-lee) . 62, 63, 81 

Cyphus (Si'-prus), . . 40. 47, 52. 56 

Cyrenaica (Si-re-na-i'-ca) . . 34 

Cyrene (Si-re'-ne), . . . .40 

Cyrus (Si'-rus), . . 25> 27, 33, 34, 51 

Cysicus (Sis'-e-kus), . . . .50 

Czar (Zar), 18S, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277,292, 357, 

364, 368, 382, 386, 3S7, 396 

Czartoriski (Zar-to-ris'-ke), . . 364, 365 

Czaslau(,'rsas'-lou) . . . 283 

D. 

Dacia (Da'-she-a), . . . -99 

Dacian, ..... 99 

Dacians, . . . . -99 

Dade, ..... 493 

Dakota (Da-ko'-ta) . . . 515. 53' 

Dalecarlia (Dal-e-kar'-le-a) . . 213 

Dalhousie (Dal-hou'-se), . . . 389 

Dallas (Dal'-las), . . .518 

Dallas, George Mifflin (Mir-flin), . . 497 

Dalmatia (Dal-ma'-she-a), . 106, 13S, 327 

Dalmatius (Dal-ma'-she-us), . . 108 

Dalrymple (Dal-rim'-ple), . . 34<^ 

Dalton (Dawl'-ton), . . . . 5'3 

Damascus (Da-mas'-kus), 31, 55, 122, 123, 191 
Damietta (Dam-e-et'-ta), . . 140, 150 

Dan, ..... 473 

Danaus (Da-na'-us), . . '37 

Dandola (Dan'-do-lo), . . .138 

Danes, . 130, 171, 172, 185, 333. 37S, 378,396 
I xnish (Dain-ish), 171, 17-', 186, 213, 227, 274, 
2781 333, 338, 378, 396 



586 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Danton (JJan'-ton), . 317, 318, 321, 323 

Dantonists, . . . . .323 

Dantzic (Dant'-sik), . . 296, 337, 338 

Danube (Dan'-ube), 94,99, 109, 129, 189,253, 
2S0, 295, 29S, 3S7 
D'Anville (Dan'-vil), • . . 3'^2 

Darboy (Dar'-boy), . . .419 

Dardanelles (Dar-da-nelz'), . jS, 40, 191,386 
Darien (Da'-re-en), . . . 194, 440 

Darius (Da-ri'-us), . ■, . -35 

Darius Codomannus (Kc-do-maa'-nus) 54, 55, 
56, 57, 122 
Darius Hystaspes (His-tas'-pees), 34, 35, 45, 46 
Darius Nothii? (No -thus), . . .51 

Darling, Fort (Dar'-ling), . . 518 

Darnley, Lord (Darn'-le) . . .222 

Daru (Dar-00'), • . • . 3S5 

Datis (Da'-tis), . • . .45 

Daun (Doun), . . 288, 289, 291, 292 

' Dauphin (Daw'fin), 152, 153, 155, 156,181, 212, 

222, 362 
Dauphiny (Daw'-fin-ne), . . 152, 156 

D'Aurelles de Paladines (Do-rels'-der Pa- 

lah'-dong), .... 408 

David (Da'-vid), . . .3°. 3' 

Davis, Jefferson, (Jer-fer-son Da'-vis), 504, 505, 

522 
Davison (Da'-ve-son), . . . 224 

Davoust (Dah-voo'), . • .337 

Dearborn, Henry ( Deer'-born), 484, 484, 4S6, 487 
Deatonsvillc (Dee'-tons-vih, . . 521 

Debonnaire, Louis the (Deb-on-yare') . 129 

Deborah (Deb'orrah) . . .29 

Debreczin (De-bret'-sin), . 381,382,383 

Decatur, Stephen (Ste'-fen De-ka'-terj, 481, 482, 
485, 490, 491 
Decazes (Da'-ka'-za), . . . 43^ 

Deccan (Dek'-kan). ... 23 

Decemvir (De-sem -ver), . . .7' 

Decemvirs, . . . .71,72 

Decius (De'-she-us), . .74,103,104 

Decoutrias (De-koo'-tre-ah), . , 371 

Deerfield (Deer'-field^ . . .301 

De Grasse (De Gras') . . . 309, 474 

De Heister (De Hise'-ter), . . .464 

Deitzman (Ditze'-man), . . . 166 

Dejoces (Dej'-o-cees), . . .33 

De Kalb (Da- Kalb'), . . .465.471 

Delaunay (De-lo'-na) . . . 314 

Delaware (Del'-a-wer), 264, 266, 267, 465, 466, 

468 
Delescluse (De-les'-klu-sa), . . 420 

Delft, . . . . . .217 

Delhi (Del'-le) . 215, 281, 300, 3S9, 390, 391 
Delphi (Del'-fe), . . 36, 39, 53, 61 

De Mavigny (Da Ma-reen'-ye), . 151 

Dembinski (T)em-bins'-ke) 365, 381, 382, 383 
Demetrius Bulgaris (De-me'-tre-us Bool- 
gar'-is), . . . . .39s 

Demetrius Phalereus (Fa-le'-re-us), 60 

Demetrius Poliorcetes (Po-le or-se'-tees), . 60 
Demosthenes (De-mos'-the-nees), . 59 

De Monts (Da-i\lawng'), . . . 300 

Denain (Da-nang') • . , 272 

D'Enghein (Dan-ge-aing'), . . .335 

Denis. St. (Saint Den'-isj, 219, 221, 373, 410 
Di;nmark (Den'-mark), . . . 206 

Dennewitz (Den'-ne-witz), . . .76 

Derby (Der'-be),. - . .367,399 

DeRetz. Cardinal, (DerRets), . . 250 

Derinot Macmorrough (Der'-mot Mac-mur'- 
ro), ..... 174 

De Russey, Fort (De Rus'-se), . .517 

De Ruyter (De-Ri'-ter), . . 241 

Dervventwatev,Earl ol"(Der'-went-waw-ter), 278 
Desaix ( De'-za), . . . 330, 332 

Deseze (De-saze'), .... 320 

Desiderius (Dcs-e-de'-re-us), . . 127 

Desmoulins, Camille (Ka-med' Da-mo- 
long'), . . • 313, 317. 318, 323 



32s, 327) 



. . 4'i 

. 106 

105, io<5 

. 302 

331, 481 

. 336 



. 399. 432 
293. 294 

, 416, 417, 418 
267 

, 276, 294, 345 
109 
143 
309 
434 
420 



296, 
194, 

I33i 



De Soto, Ferdinand (Fer'-de-nand De So'- 

to), ..... i5» 

Dessa.u (Des'-sou), . . 228, 2S2, 28 

D'Estaing (Des-tang'), . . 468, 470 

De Thou (Der-Too'J, . . . 249 

Detroit (De-troit'), . 300, 306, 484, 485 

Dettingen (Det'-ling-en), . . 583, 284 

De Witt, Cornelius (Kor-neel'-yus De Witl), 251 
Ley (Da), . . .355,361,480, 491 

Diana (Di-a'-na), ... 36 

Diaz, Bartholomew (Bar-thol'-o-mu Di'-as " 103 
Diaz, Porfirio (Por-fir'-e-o), . , 43c 

Didius, Julianus (Did'-e-us Ju-le-an'-us), . loi 
Dido (Di'-do), . . . . 2< 

D'lberville, Lemoine (Lem-won' Deb-are- 

veel'), ..... 300 
Diebitsch (De'-bitsh), . 346, 360, 364, 365 

Dieskau (De-es'-ko), . . . 304 

Dijon (De-zhong'), , 

Dioclea (Di-o-kle' a), 
Diocletian (Di-o-kie'-she-an), 
Dinwiddle (Din-wid'-de), 
Directory (De-rek'-to-ry), 
Dirnstein (Dirn'-stine), 
Dismal Swamp, . . 

Disraeli (Dis-ra'-le), 
Dissidents (Dis'-se-dents), 
D'Issy (Dis'-se), 407, 409, 41 
Dixon (Di.v'-on), . 

Dnieper (Neep'-er), . 109, i 
Dniester (Nees'-ter), . 
Doge (Doje), . . , 

Dogger Bank (Dog'-ger), 
Dolores (Do-lor'-es), 
Dombrowski (Dom-brous'-ke), 
Domingo, St. (Saint Do-min'-go), 
Dominican (Do-min'-e-kan), 
Dominicans, . . , 

Dominicus (Do-min'-e-kus), 
Domitia (Do-mish'-e-a), 
Domitian (Do-mish'-e-an), 
Dom Remy (Dome Rem'-e), 
Don Augustin Iturbide (Au-gus'- 

be-da), 
Don Carlos (Don Kar'-los), 215, 28 

421, 422, 427 
Don Cossacks (Don Kos'-sacks), 
Donelson (Don'-el-sonj, . 
Dongola (Don-go'-la), 
Doniphan (Don'-e-fan), . . 

Don Juan (Don Ju'-an), 
Don Miguel (Don Me'-gel), 
Don Pedro (Don Ped'-ro), 
Donna M.iria de Gloria (Don'-na Ma-ri'-a 

Da Glo're-a), . . . 356 

Donop (Don'-op), . . . 466 

Doppel (Dop'-pel), .... 396 
Dorchester (Dor-ches'-ter), . 258, 463 

Doria Andrea (Au'-dre-a Do'-re-a), 144, 204 
Dorians (Do'-re-ans), . 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 

Doris (Do'-ris),"» ... 35, 38 

Dorr, Thomas W. (Dore), , . 496 

Dort, Synod of, . . . 216, 218 

Dorylajum (Dor-e-le'-um), . . 136 

Dost Mohammed (Dost Mo-ham'-med), . 369 
Douglas (Dug'-las), . , . iSo 

Douglas, Stephen A., . . 502, 504 

Dover (Do'-ver), .... 261, 301 
Dowlah, Surajah (Sur-aj'-ah Dow-lah'), . 29^ 
Downie (Dow'-ne), . . . 489 

Draco (Dra'-ko), . , . 42 

Dragaschan ( Drah-ga-shan'), . . 358 

Dragonnade (Drag-on-nade'), . 253, 254 

Dresden (Dres'-den), 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 

^ ^ 343, 347, 377 

Dreux (Dru\ .... 219 

Drouet (Dru-a'), .... 316 
Drummond (Drum'-raond), . , 488 

Drummond, William, . . . 264 

Dry Tortugas (Tor-tu'-gas), . . 504 



»33 
134 
133 
9) 
8,99 
__, 181 
E-toor'- 

435 
o, 367, 368, 
430 
294 
50S 
368 

499 

217 

356 

356, 440 



215, 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



587 



Dubienka (Du-be-en-ka). . 

Dublin (Dub'-lin) '. 

Diicrot (Du-kro'), . . . . 

Dudley (Dud'-le) 

Du Guesclin (Du Gwek'-lin), . 

Dumblain (Dum'-blain), 

Dumourier (Du-moo'-re-a), 317, 319, 320, 

Duna (Du'-na), , . . . 

Dunbar (Dun'-bar), , 176, 177, 240, 

Dundalk (Dun'-dawk), . 

Dundee (Dun-dee'), . 

Dunk-rk (Dun'-kirk), 242, 244, 250, 323, 

Dunmore, Lord (Dun'-niore), 

Dupbot (Du-fo'), 

Dupont (Du-pontl, . . 339, 508, 

Dupont de 1' Eure (Du-poang' Del-ure'), . 

Du Quesne (Du Kane'), 2S6, 289, 302, 302, 

Durango (Du-ran'-go), . . 

Durazzo (Du-rat'-so), . . . 

Durham (Dur'-ham), 
Durlach, Baden (Bad'-en Dur'-lok), . 
Duroc (Du-rok'), . . . . 

Dusseldorf )Dus'-sel-dorf), . 226, 

Dutch, 218,225, 241, 244, 247, 251, 259, 260, 
262, 264, 272, 285, 308, 309, 323, 363, 



409 
212 
154 
17S 
321 
274 

243 
177 
242 
410 
462 
327 
515 
371 



E. 

Early, Jubal (Ju'-bal Er'-le), . 519, 520 

East Haven (Ha'-ven), . . . 417 

East Indies (In'-dees ), . , 2S7, 308, 309 

Eastport (East'-port), . . . 489 

Eaton, Theophilus (The-of-e-lus E'-ton), 263 
Ebro (Eb'-ro), . . .78, 127, 340 

Ecbatana (Ek-bat'-a-na), , 33, 35, 57, 59 

Ecija (A-the'-hah), . . , 426 

Eckmuhl (Ek'-mool,) , . . . 340 

Ecuador ( Ek'-wa-dor), . 436,438,440,441 

Eden, Garden of (E'-den), . , .21 

Edenton (E'-den-ton), . , . 264 

Edge Hill, . _ . . . .237 

Edinburgh (Ed'-in-bor-o), . 222, 235, 297 

Edmund Ironside (Ed'-mund I'-ron-side) 172 
Edward (Ed'-ward), , . . 140 

Edward the Confessor, . . .172 

Edward I., . . . . 176, 177 

Edward II., .... 177 

Edward III.,. . 152, 152, 177, 17S, 179 

Edward IV., . . . 156, 183, 184 

Edward V., .... 184 

Edward VI., . 

Edward, the Black Prince, 152, 153, 145, 178, 179 
Effingham ^Ef'-ring-ham) . . . 224 

Egalite, Philip (A-gal-e-ta'), . . 320, 362 

Egbert (Eg'-bert), . . . .171 

Eger (Eg'-er,) . . . .283,292 

Egeria )E-je'-re-a), . . . .67 

Egmont (Eg'moni), . • . 216 

Egypt (E'-jipt),25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 46, 56, 60, 64, 
90, 92,93, 106, 122, i?3, 137, 139, 140, 150, ig;^. 



333, 359. 368 

, 28, 34, 37, 368 

25, 26, 34, 56 

. 29 

. 199,207 



. , , 328, 329, 3 
Egyptian (E-jip'-she-an), 25, 2 
Egyptians, . 

Ehud (Ude) . 
Eisleben 1 Ise-lee'-ben), . 
Elatea (El-a-te'-a) 

Elba ( El'-ba), . . . .^40,350 

Eibe(Elb), , . 199,287,348 

Elberfeld (El'-ber-feld), . . 377 

Elbing (El'-bing\ .... 141 
Eleancr (El-a-nor') . . .140,148 

Eli (E'-li), , . . , .30 

Elijah (E-U'-)ah) ... 32 

Elio (El-e-o';, ..... 430 
Elis (El'-is), . . . 35,37,39 

Elisha (E-li'-sha), . . . .32 

Elizabeth (E-liz'-a-beth) . . 1S5 

Elizabeth of England, 213, 222, 223, 224, 225, 
232, 255, 257 



Elizabeth of Russia, . . 278,287,292 

Elizabethtown, .... 266 

Elliot (El'-e-ot), . . . .309 

Elster (El'-ster, . . . 161, 348 

Emanuel Arago (E-raan'-u-el Ar'-a-go) 371, 372, 

406 
Emessa (E-mes'-sa), . . . 122 

Emile Oillvier (A-meel' Ol-Ie'-ve-a) . 401 

Emilio Castelar (A-meel'-e-o Kas-te-lar') 421, 
423, 425, 426, 427 
Emmanuel the Great, (Em-man'-u-elj, 193 

Emmanuel, Victor (Vic'-tor), 357, 379, 392, 393, 
394, 400. 413 
Emmerick Tokeli (Em'-er-ik To-ke'-li), 252, 253 
" ■ " . .298 

401 402 
407, 418 



335 
7i 140, 



Emmett, Robert (Era'-met) 
Ems ..... 

Enciente (Ong'-se-an'-ta), . 
Endicott, John (En'-de-cot), 
Enfield (En'-field), . 
Enghein, Duke d' (Dong-ge-aiaig'), 
England (Ing'-gland), 120, 130, i_ 

147, 148, 149, 152, i53i '54, 155, 163, 165, 171, 
172, I7J. 174> 175 
English (Ing'-glish), 138, 146, 149, 152, 153. I54, 
155, '56, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174 
Enterprise, . 
Enzio (Ain'-ze-o), 
Epaminondas (E-pam-e-non'-das), 
Epcrvier (E-per'-ve-a), . 
Ephesus (Ef'-e-sus), . 
Ephori (Ef'-o'-ri), 
Ephraim (E'-fra-im), 
Epidaurus (Ep-e-daw'-rus), 
Epirus (E-pi'-rus\ . 36.60,6 

Episcopacy (E-pis'-ko-pa-sy) 
Episcopal ( E-pis'-ko-pal), . 
Erasmus (E-raz'-mus), . 
Eresburg (E'-res-burg), 
Eretria (E-re'-tre-a), 
Eric the Pious (Er'-ik), 
Eric XIV., 
Erie(E'-re), . 
Erie Canal, . 

Erie, Fort, 

Erie, Lake, . . 

Ernest (Er'-nest), 
Ernest Picard (Pe-kar'), 
Ernest von Mansfeld) (Mahns'-feld), 
Erskine (Ers'-kin), 
Esau (E'-saw), 
Escoses (Es-ko'-sees), . 
Eslingen (Es'-ling-en), 
Espartero (Es-par-ta'-ro), 
Esse.x (Es'-sex), . 120, 179, 224, 225 
Estaing, Count d', (Des-tang'), 
Estanislao Figueras (Es-tan-is-la -o 

a'-ras), . 
Estella (Es-tel'-la), . 
Esthonia (Es-tho'-ne-a), . 
Eszeck (Es'-zek), 
Ethelred (Eth-el-red'), . 
Ethiopia (E-the-o'-pe-a), 
Etna (Et'-na), 
Etruria (Et-ru'-re-a) 
Etruscan (Et-rus'-kan), 
Etruscans, . . 

Eubosa (U'-be-a) ... 35 

Eudoxia (U-dox'-e-a), . • ''2 

Eugene (U-jeen'), 253,268,270,271, 273, 279, 

Eugene Beauharnais (Bo-har'-na), . 335. 348 
Eugene Pelletan(Pel-le-tong'). . 406 

Eugenie de Montijo (U-je'-ne da IMon'-te- 

yo) . . . • 386, 389. 4c6 

Eugenius (U-je'-ne-us), . • no,- 170 

Eunus (U'-nus), . • * « ' «a 

Eupatoria (U-pa-to'-re-a), . 3»7. jOO 

Euphrates (U-fra'-teez), 21, 24, 27, 33. 56, 5», 

59, 9 1 
Eure, Dupont de'l (Du-poang Del-ure'), . 37' 





. 40(j 
. 165 




52, 53 




49'^ 




36, 55, 81 




41 




• 3' 




358 


61, 


75, 76, 93 




232 




232, 235 




209 




. 127 




45 




. 186 




213 




302, 486 




493 




. 488 




485, 486 




. 160 




406 


1), 


227, 228 




483 




. 28 




441, 442 




. 340 




368 


225 


, 237, 238 




46S, 470 


)*F 


g-oo- 


42 


, 422, 423 




. 429 


186 


, 274, 278 




.381 




172 


, 


25, 34 




. 36 




65, 78, 88 




68, 69, 72 


65, 


6S, 69, 75 



S88 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Europe (U'-rope), 22, 34, 100, 119, 124, 
133, 134, 137, 199, 269, 280, 293 
Europea'n (U-ro-pe'-an), 
Eurybiades (U-re-bi'-a-deez), . 
Eurymedon (U-re-me'-don), 
Eustace St. Pierre (Yoos'-tase Sang Pe-; 



130, 131, 

323, 353 

130, 192 

46 

• 47 

aire'), 
152,178 
. 474 
34 



176 
521 



355 
337 
390 
299 

33 



Eutaw Springs (U'-taw), , 

Euxine Sea (Yoog-zeen'), 

Evans (E'-vans), 

Eve, . . , 

Evesham (Eves'-ham), 

EwelliU'-el), 

Exarch (Ex'-ark), 

Exchequer (Ex-chek'-er), 

Exeter (Ex'-e-ter), 

Exmouth, Lord (Ex'-mulh), 

Eylau (I'-lou), 

Eyre (Aire), 

Eyre Coote (Koot), . 

Ezra (Ez'-raJ, 

F. 



Faoius Maximus (Fa'-be-us Max'-e-mus), 79, 80 
Fabricius (Fa-bre'-she-us), 
Faidherbe (Faid-her'-be), 
Failly (Fail'-ye), 
Fair Oaks, . . 

Fairfax, Lord (Fair'-fax), 
Fairfax Court House, 
Fairfield (Fair'-field), . 
F;uiueil Hall (Fan'-il), 
Farias, Gomez (Go'-meth Fa'-re-as), 
Farnese Alexander (Far-neez'), 
Faron (Fa-roang'l, . , 

Farragut, David G. (Far'-ra-gut), 509, 510, 519, 

520 
Faubourg du Temple (Fo'-boorg du Tem'- 

ple . . . . . 373 

Faubourg St. Antoine (Fo-boorg Sang Ang- 

• 373 

192 

. 107 

16S 

406, 411, 412 

233 



• 75, 76 


. 410 


402 


. 510 


238 


• . 506 


470 


457 458 


1 • 443, 445 


, 217 


414 



512 

195, 264, 473 



twa'-na), 
Faust (Foust), 
Fausta (Faus'-ta), 
Faust-recht (Foust'-rekt), 
Favre, Jules (Jule Fav-ra'), 
Fawkes, Guy (GyFawks), 
Fayette'(Fa-et'), 
Fayetteville, 
Fear, Cape, 

Federalist (Fed'-er-al-ist), 443,478,481,485, 492 
Federalists, . . 445, 479, 4B0, 485, 490 

Fehrbellin (Fair-be-!een'), . . 251, 252 

Feodor (Fe"'-o-dor), . . .188 

Ferdinand the Catholic (Fer'-de-nand), 157, 158 

159, 202 
Ferdinand De Soto (Da So'-to), . . 190 

P'erdinand L of Germany, . 206, 225 

Ferdinand H., . 226, 227, 22S, 229, 230 

Ferdinand HL, .... 230 

Ferdinand VI of Spain, . " . . 291 

Ferdinand of Austria, . . -374,376 

Ferguson, Patrick (Pat-rick Fer'-gu-son), 471, 

472 
Fermor (Fer -mor) 

Ferhando Cortes (Fer-nan'-do Cor'-tes). 
Ferozeshah (Fe-roze'-shah) 
Ferrez 1 Fer'-reth), 
Ferrieres (Fer-re-a'), 
Ferrol I Fer'-role), 
Ftrry, Harper's (Har'-per's), 
Ferry, Jules (Jule Fer'-re), . 
Ferry, Stono I Sto'-no) . 
Feuda'ism (Fu'-dal-ism\ 
FeuSal System (Fu'-dal), 
Feversham ( Fe'-ver-sham), . 
Field, Cyrus W., 
Fieschi (Fe-es'-ke"), 
Figueras, Estanislao, (Es-tan 

oo-a'-ras), 



. 


289 


Cor'-tes). 


214 




369 


. 


42S 




407 




421 


• 503, 505 


,511 




406 




469 




185 


130, 171 


173 




247 


. 


523 




370 


-is-la'-o Fig- 




. 421, 422 


423 



Fillmore, Millard (Mil'-lard Fill'-more), 500, 

501, 502 
Finland, (Fin'-land), . . . 338, 341 

^'inlanders. ..... 126 

Finns, ..... 266 

Fisher, Fort (Fish'-er), . . . 521 

Fisher's Hill, . . . 52c 

Fishing Creek, .... 471 

Flamborough Head (Flam-bur'-o) . 470 

Flaminius, Quintus (Quin'-tus Fla-min'-e- 
usj, . . . . . 63, 81 

Flanders (Flan'-ders), 136, 138, 139, 146, 147, 

149, 150, 157, 252 

Flavio Gioja (Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-ah) . 193 

Flavius Claudius (Fla'-ve-us Klaw'-dt-us), 104, 

105 
Fleetwood (Fleet'-wocd), . . . 243 

Flemings (Flem'-ings), . . 150, 151, 154 

Flemish (Flem'-ish), . . . 154, 185 

Fletcher (Fletch'-er), . . . 263 

Fleurus (Flu'-rus), .... 324 

Fleury (Flu'-re), .... 280 

Flocon (Flo-koang'), . . . 372 

Flodden Fjeld (Flod'-den) . . 209 

Florence (Flor'-ence), 110, iii, 143, 144, 143,414 
Florentine (Flor'-en-tine) . . 194, 195 

Florian (Flo'-re-an), . , . 105 

Florida (Flor'-e-da), 194, 264, 265, 266, 292, 489, 

^, . , 491, 494. 495, 497, 504, 5^7 

Floridas, .... 306, 492 

Florus (Flo'-rus), ... 97 

Flourens, Gusta.ve (Gus'-tav Floo-raign'), . 415 



Floyd, John B., 

Fontainbleau (Fon-tain-blo'), 

Fontenaille (Fon-te-nel'), 

Fontenoy (Fon-te-noy'), . 

Foote, Andrew H. (Foot), . 

Forbach (For'-bok), 

Forbes, John (Forbs), 

Forey, General (Fo'-re), . . ; 

Fornova (For-no'-va), 

Forest, Napoleon Bonaparte (For'-rest), 

Forth, 



505, 507. 5°^ 

349 

. 129 

285 

50S, 509 

403 



,449 
157 
517 
loi 



504, 510, 518, 522 
. S15 



479 
278 

514 
.352 

291 
324, 

420 

160 



Fortress Monroe (Mon-ro') 

Fort Smith, . 

Fort Wayne (Wain) 

Foster (Fos'-ter), . . . . 

Foster, John G., . . . . 

Fouche (Foo-sha'), . . 323, 331 

Fouquet ( Foo-ka'), 

Fouquier TinviUe (Foo-ke-a' Tang-veel'), 



Fowler (Fow'-Ier), 

Fox, . - . . . . 29S 

France (Frans), 124, 129, 146, 147, 148 149, 150, 
151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, '158, 178, 181 
Franche Comte (Fransh Kong-ta'), . 217, 252 
Francia, Dr. (Fran'.se-ah), . . 440, 441 

Francis L, of France (Fran'-sis), 158, 195, 202, 
203, 204, 205, 206 
Francis L, of Germany, . . 284, 298 

Francis n., of France, . . 212,219,222 

Francis IL, of Germany, . . 298, 337 

Francis, of Austria, . . 337, 341, 353 

Francis Joseph, . . 376, 381, 382 

Francis of Assisi (As-se'-si), . . 133 

Francis of Guise (Geez). . ' 206, 212, 219 
Franciscan (Fran-sis'-kan) . . 133, 134 

Franciscans, ..... 133 
Francisco Pizarro (Fran-sis'-ko Piz-ar'-ro), 214 
Francisco Sforza (Sfor-tsa'), , . 143 

Francisco, San, .... 500 

Franconberg (Fran'-kon-berg), . . 243 

Franconia (_Fran-ko'-ne-a) . , 159, loc 

Frank, . . 125. 126, 127, 12S, 129 

Frankfort (Frank'-fort), . 283, 290, 375, 376 



Prankish (Frank'-ishj, 
Franklin (Frank'-lin), 
Franklin, Benjamin, 
Franks, . 



126, 127, ij3 



303, 464 

124, 125, 12' 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



589 



Frederic I., of Prussia, 
Frederic II., of Germany, 
Frederic III., of Denmark, 
Frederic III., of Germany, . 
Frederic IV., of Denmark, 
Frederic Charles, 396, 398, 402, 403 



. 282 
139, 164, 165 

. 213 
171 
274 
407. 
410 



• I7°5 

273i 
404, 
408, 



Frederic the Great, 281, 282, 283, 2! 

287, 2S8, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 
Frederic William I., . 
Frederic William II., . . 297, 

Frederic William III., . . 337 

Frederic William IV., . . 375 

Frederic William, the Great Elector, 251, 

Frederic Barbarossa (Bar-bar-os'-sa), 137, 

162 
Frederick, , . . . . 

Fredericksburg (Fred'-er-iks-burg), 
Frederickshall (Fred'-er-ik-shavvl),', . 

Fredericksham ( Fred'-er-ik-sham), 
Fredericktown (Fred'-er-ik-town), . 
Frejus (Fra'-zhus), . • . 331, 

Fremont, John Charles (Fre-mont'), 499, 

510. 
French, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 

i54f i55i 156, 157. 158, 1781 
French Mills, .... 

Frenchtown, . ... 485, 

Freron (Fr.^-roang'), . , . 322, 

Friedland (Freed'-land), . 228, 229, 

Friedlingen (Freed-ling'-en), 
Frolic, .... 
Fronde (Frond), 

Frontenac (Fron'-te-nak), . 

Froschvvilkr (Frosh'-wil-ler), 
Frossard (Fros-sard'), , 
Fructidor (Fruc-te-dor'), 
Fulda (Ful'-da), . 
Fulton, Robert (Ful'-ton), . 
Fundy (Fun'-de). 
Fulvia (Ful'-ve-a), . . 



297 
282 
298 
,353 
> 377 
252, 
281 
149, 
,163 

S19 

S12 

278 

341 

488 

, 350 

502, 

I 511 

1531 

, 181 

487 

486 

324 

338 

269 

485 

250 

I 305 

403 

. 403 

327 

128 

482 

3°3 
92 



G. 



27. 37 

457, 459> 460, 461 
495 



425 

106, 107 

277 



294 



Gades (Ga'-dees), 
Gage, Thomas (Gaje), . 
Gaines, General (Gaines), 
Gaines' Mill, . 
Galatia (Ga-la'-she-a), . 
Galba (Gal'-ba), 
Galerus (Ga-la'-rus), . 
Galerius (Ga-le'-re-us), 
Oalesbrusch (Gales'-brush), 
Galicia (Ga-lish'-e-a), 

Galician, , . . '. . 3B2 

Gallia Cispadana (Gal'-le-a Sis-pad'-a-na), . 65 
Gallia Traspadana (Trans-pad'-a-na), . 65 

Gallic (Gal'-lik), . . .61, 73, 78 

Gallienus (Gal-le-e'-nus), . . 104 

Gallus (Gal'-lus), . . . .104 

Galvez (Gal'-veth), . . . 428 

Gal way (Gal'-way), . . . .270 

Gama, Vasco de (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), 193 

Gambetta, Leon (Le-oang'Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 430 
Gambler, Admiral Lord (Gam-beer'), . 338 

Ganges (Gan'-jees), . . .58, 390 

Garde ISIobile (Gard Mo-beel'), . . 402 

Garde Nationale (Gard Na-shun-ale'), . 402 
Gardner (Gard'-ner), . . . 515 

Gaiibaldi (Gar-e-bawl'-dah), 379, 380, 393, 394, 
39S, 412, 413 
Gamier Pages (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371, 372, 406 
Gascoigne (Gas-koin'), . . . 181 

Gascony (Gas'-ko-ne), . . . 146 

Gaspe (Gas-pa'), .... 458 
Gaspereau (Gas-pe-ro'), . . . 303 

Gath, . . . , -30 

Gaugamela (Gaw-ga-me'-la), . . 56, 57 

Gaul (Gawl), 72, 78, 89, loi, 108, no, 112, 125 
Gauley (Gaw'-le), .... 507 



72, 73, 78 

. 177 

• 56, 139 

. 124 

58 

. 578 

189 

. 118 

21 

- 5241 52? 
< 41, 



Gauls, . . , . .61 

Gaveston (Gaves'-ton), 
Gaza (Ga'-za), . 

Gebel-al Tarik (Gea-el-ail Tah'-rik), 
Gedrosia (Ge-dro'-she-a), 
Gefion (Gef'-e-on),. 
Geisa ((5i'-sa), 

Gelimer (Jel'-e-mer), . , 

Genesis (Jen'-e-sis), 
Genet (Zhe-na'), ... 

Geneva ( Je-ne'-va), 
Gennevilliers (Zhen-ne-veel'-le-a), . 
Genoa (Jen'-o-a), 141, 143, 1J4, 202, 204, 2^2, 
297, 327, 332, 302 
Genoese (Jen'-o-ese), . 144, J93, 204, 2^.7 

Genseric (Jen'-ser-ik), . . .112 

Geoffrey Plantagenet (Jef'-fre Plan-taj'-e- 

net)i 173 

George I. of England (Jorj'), . . 249, 278 

George I. of Greece, .... 395 
George II. of England, . 249,1278, 284, 296, 302 
Georgo III., . . . 292, 296, 355', 366 

George IV., .... 366 

George Cadoudal (Ka-doo'-dal), . . 335 

Georgetown, .... 488 

Georgia (Jor'-je-a), 267, 268, 306, 459, 469, 471, 
472, 493, 494, 504, S09, 518, 519, 522 
Georgians, .... 267 

Gepidse (Jep-e-dee'), .... 119 
Gerard (Zher-ard'), . . . 364 

Gerhard of Franch-Comte (Zha-rar' of 

Fransh-Kong'-ta), . . . 217 

Germain, St. (Sang Zher-mang'), . 219, 247 
German (Jer'-raan), 94, 112, 113, 115, 120, 129, 
141, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 
Germanic (Jer-man'-ik), . . .83 

Germanicus (Jer-man'-e-kus), . '94,95 

Germans, .... 94, 108 

Germantown, .... 466 

Germany (Jer'-man-ne), 89, "126, 120, 137, 139, 

142, 143, 159, i6q, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 
167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 199, 206, 226, 251 
Gerry, Elbridge (Ger'-re), . . . 485 

Geryon (Ger'-yon), • • • 37 

Gesler (Ges'-ler), .... 167 
Geta (Ge'-ta), .... loi 

Gettysburg (Get'-tis-burg), , , . 514 

Ghent (Gent), . . . 156, 217, 490 

Ghibelline (Gib'-el-line), . . 162, 167 

Ghibellines,^ . 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165 
Gibraltar (Jib-rawl'-ter), 124, 269, 270, 308, 309, 

470 
Gideon (Gid'-e-on), ... 29 

Gilboa (Gil-bo'-a), . . . .30 

Gillmore, (Juincy Adams (Gill'-more), 509, 515 
Gioja, Flavio (Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-a), . . 193 

Gironde (Zhe-roand'), . . , 317 

Girondist (Zhe-roand'-ist), . 317,318,322 

Girondists, . 316, 317, 320, 321, 324 

Gladiator (Glad-e-a'-tor), . . .87 

Gladiators, . . .87, loi, 103 

Gladstone, William E. (Glad'-stone), 399, 432 
Glais Bizoin (Zhla Be-zwawn'), . . 406 

Glencoe (Glen'-ko), . . . 248 

Glendower, Owen (O'-wen Glen'-dow-er), 180 
Gliessaw (Glees'-SDu), . . , 274 

Gloucester (Glos'-ter), . . 180, 183 

Glucksburg (Glooks'-burg), . 
Glycerius (Glis-e'-re-us), . 112, 

(Joa (Go'-a), ..... 
Godfrey of Bouillon (God'-fre of Bool-yoang'), 

135, 136, I4J 
Godoy (Go-doyO, . . ." 338,33s 

Goldsborough (Goulds-bur'-o), . . 521 

Goliad (Go-le-ad'), . . ■ 443 

Goliath (Go-li'-ath), ... 30 

Gomez Farias (Go'-meth Far'-e-as), 443, 445 
Gonsalvo de Cordova (Gon-sal'-vo da Kor'- 

do-va), . . . , .157 

Gonzales (Gon-thah'-leth), . 422, 443 



396 
"3 
193 



590 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Good Hope, Cape of, . . 193, 334 

Goojerat (Gooj-er-at'), ... 369 

Gorgey ^Gor'-je), , . . 382, 383 

Goricz (Go-rilz'), . . . 362 

Gormarists (Gor'-mar-ists), . . . 21S 

Gorm the Old, . . . . 1S3 

Gortschakoff (Gort'-sha-kof), . . 387 

Gortz, Baron von, . . 277, 279 

Goshen (Go'-shen), . . . .28 

Gosnold, Bartholomew (Bar-thol-o-mu Gos'- 

nold), ..... 257 

Goth, .... .110,111 

Gotha, Saxe Cobourg (Sax Ko-burg Go'- 

tha), ..... 367 

Gothic (Goth'-ik), . . . 103,111 

Goths, . 103, 104, i°55 ^°9i i'°i '^'f) '^^ 
Gracchi (Grak'-i), ... 84 

Gracchus, Ca'-us Grak'-us), . . .84 

Gracchus, Tiberias (Ti-be'-re-us Grak'-us), 84 
Graham of Claverhouse (Gra'-ham of Klav'- 

er-house), .... 248 

Gramont, Duke de (Gra-raont'), . . 401 

Granada (Gra-nah'-da), . . . i2s, 159 

Granada, New, . . 435i 43^1 437) 44° 

Grand Tremblay (Grang Traing-bla), . 407 
Granger, Gordon (Gor'-don Grain'-jer), 520 
Granicus (Gran'-e-kus), . . 54, 55 

Granson (Gran'-son), . . . 157 

Grant, Ulysses Simpson ( U-lis'-sees Sim'- 

son Grant), 508, 509, 514, 516, 517, 518, 519, 
521. 523, 524, 525 
Granvella (Gran-vel'-ya), . . 216 

Grasse, Count de (der eras'), . 309, 474 

Gratian (Gra'-she-an), . . . no 

Gravelotte (Grav'-lot), . . 403, 404 

Gravina (Gra-ve'-na), . . . 336 

Great Britain (Brit'-en), 278, 292, 302, 306, 307, 
308, 309, 348, 460, 463, 475, 484 
Great Horse Shoe, .... 487 
Great St. Bernard (Saint Ber'-nard), . 332 

Greble, John T. (Greb'-el), . . .506 

Grecia, Magna (Mag'-na Gree'-she-a), 40, 65 
Grecian (Gre'-she-an), 38, 39, 45, 46, 46, 48, 
51, 52, 53, 54, 62, 81 
Grecians, .... 39, 47 

Greece (Grees), 34, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 45i 46, 47, 

48, so, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82, 357, 

360, 394, 395 

Greek, . 33, 34, 38, 40, 43, 47, 55, 357, 358, 359, 

360, 394 
Greeks, 38, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 357, 358, 359, 360 
Greeley, Horace (Hor'-as Gree'-le), . 525 

Greene, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Green), 472, 

473, 474 
Greenland (Green'-land), . . . 130 

Greenville (Green'-viU), . . . 479 

Greenwich (Green'-wich), . . . 469 

Gregory VH, (Greg'-o-ry), . . 132, 161 

Gregory IX., . . , 164, 165 

Gregory Xni., .... 220 

Grenadiers (Gren'-a-deers), . 326, 331 

Grenoble (Gren-o'-bel), . . . 370 

Grenville, George (Gren-vill), . . 297 

Grey (Gray), .... 466 

Grey, Lord, ..... 184 
Grey, Lady Elizabeth, . . . 183 

Grey, Lady Jane, .... 212 
Gridley, Richard (Grid'-le), . . 461 

Grisons (Gre-zoang'), . . . 329 

Griswold, Fort (Gris'-wold), . , 474 

Gros Beeren (Groce Beer'-en), . . 347 

Grotius, Hugo (Hu'-go Gro'-she-us), . 218 

Groveton (Grove'-ton), . , .511 

Guadaloupe Hidalgo (Gaw-dah-lupe He- 

dal'-go;, . . _ . . 447, soo 

Guadaloupe Victoria CVik-to'-re-a), 435, 441 
Guadalquiver (Gaw-dal-kee'-ver), . . 124 

Guanahani (Gaw-na-haw'-na), . . 194 

Guelph (Gelf), . . . .162 

Guelphic (Gelf-ik), , . 165, 167 



Guelphs, 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165, 167 
Guerra (Ger-ra'), .... 451 
Guerrero (Ger-ra'-ro), ... 442 

Guerriere (Ger-e-aire'), . . , 485 

Guiana (Ge-an'-a). . , 

Guienne (Ge-en'), . • , 153, 179 

Guilford (Gil'-ford), . . , 475 

Guillotine (Gil'-lo-tin), . . , 321 

Guinea (Gin'-ne), . . , 432 

Guiscard, Robert (Rob'-ert Gees'-kar), 145, 161 
Guise, Duke of (Geez), 206, 212, 218, 219, 220, 

72J 

Guises, . ■ . . 219, 220, 221 

Guizot (Ge-zo'), . . . 370, 371 

Gustave Flourens (Gus-tav Floo'-raing), , 413 
Gustavus Adolphus (Gus-ta'-vus A-dol'-fus), 213, 
229, 230, 232 
Gustavus HL, .... 295 
Gustavus IV., . . . 338, 341 

Gustavus Vasa (Gus-ta'-vus Vas'-a), 186, 213 
Guthrum (Guth'-rum), . . . 171 

Guttenberg, John (Gut'-ten-berg,), . 192 

Guy Fawkes (Gi Fawks), . . , 233 

Gwalior (Gwal'-e-or;, . . 369, 391 

H. 

Habeas Corpus (Ha'-be-as Cor'-pus), 246, 354 
Hagar (Ha'-gar). . . . .28 

Halicarnassus (Hal-e-car-nas'-sus), . 55 

Halidon Hill (Hal'-e-don Hill), . 177,178 
Halifax (Hal'-e-fax), . . . 463 

Halleck, Henry W. (Hal'-lek), . 510, 511 
Ham, .... 22, 24, 25 

Hamburg (Ham'-burg), . . . 165 

Hamilcar Barcas (Ha-mil'-kar Bar'-kas), 77 
Hamilton, Alexander (Ham'-il-ton), 478, 479, 

482 
Hamilton, Andrew, . . . 261 

Hamlin, Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal Ham'-lin), 504 
Hampden, John (Ham'-den), . 235, 236, 237 
Hampshire, New (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 

460, 501 
Hampton (Ham'-ton), . . 462, 488 

Hampton, Wade, . . 484, 485, 487 

Hanau (Ha'-now), .... 348 
Hancock, John (Han'-kok), . 457, 460, 461 
Hanging Rock, .... 471 

Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal), 78, 79,80,81,82 

Hannibalianus (Han-ne-bal-e-an'-us), . 108 

Hanno (Han'-no), ... 77 

Hanover (_Han'-o-ver), 248, 273, 290, 334, 335, 
337, 365, 366, 367, 374, 397 
Hanover Court House, . . . 510 

Hanoverian (yan-o'-ver-e-an), 288, 289, 290, 

397, 398 
Hanoverians, ..... 323 
Hanseatic League (Hahn-se-at'-ik), . 165 

Hans Holbein (Hahns Hol'-bine), . . 210 

Hans MuUer (Hahns Mill'-er), . . 200 

Hapsburg (Haps'-burg), 166, 170, 206, 229, 272 
Hardee (Har-dee'), . . . 520 

Hardicanute (Har-de-ca-nute'), . .173 

Hardy (Har'-de), . . .489 

Harfleur(Har'-floor), . . 154, iSi 

Harlem Heights (Har'-lem), . . 464 

Harlem Plains, .... 464 

Harmer (Har'-mer), . . . 479 

Harmodius (Har-*no'-de-us), . . 44 

Harold (Har'-old), . . . 17*. 173 

Harold Bluetooth, . . . ,186 

Harold Fairhair, , . . 185 

Harold Harefoot, . . . .172 

Haroun-al Raschid (Ha-roon'-al-Rash'-id), 125 
Harper's Ferry (Har'-per's), . 503, 505, 511 
Harrison (Har'-re-son), . . . 241 

Harrison, William Henry, . 485, 486, 496 
Hartford (Hart'-ford), . 262,263,490 

Hasdrubal (Has'-dru-bal), . . 80, 83 

Hase (Hah-za'), . . . .128 

Haslerig, Sir Arthur (Has'-ler-ig), . as^s, 236 



ALPHA BE TIC A L INDEX. 



591 



172, 



Hassan (Has'-san), . 

Hastenbach ( Has'-ten-bok), 

Hastings, Battle of (Haist'-ings), 

Hastings, Lord, . 

Hastings, Warren, 

Hatcher's Run (Hatch'-er's), . 

Hatchie (Hatth'-eo), 

Hatfield (.Hat'-field;, 

Hatteras, Fort (Hat'-ter-as), 

Hatteras Inlet, . . . 

Havana (Ha-van'-a), . 

Havelock (Hav'-lock), . 

Haven, East (Ha'-ven), . 

Haven, New 

Haverstraw (Hav'-er-straw), 

Havre de Grace (Hav'-er-de-grass 

Hawley (Haw'-le), . 

Hayne, Robert Y. (Hain), 

Hayraddin Barbarossa (Ha-rad'-( 

ba-ros'-sa), . . . 

Hayti (Ha'-te), 
Heart's Content, . 
Hebert (Ha'-baire), . 
Hebrew (He'-broo), . . 

Hebrews (He'-broos), . 

Hebron (Heb'-ron), , 

Hecker (Heck'-er), . 
Hector (Hec'-tor), 
Hegyes (Heg'-yes), . 
Heidelberg ( Hi'-del-burg), . 

Heilborii (Hile'-born), . 

Hegira ( He-ji'-ra), 
Helen (Hel'en), 
Helena (He-le'-na), 
Helena, St. (Saint He-le'-na), 
Heliogabalus (He-le-o-gab'-a-lus), 
Heliopolis (He-le-op'-o-lis), . 
Hellas (Hel'-las), 
Helle (Hel'-Ie), 

Hellenes (Hel-lee'-neez), . 

Hellenic (Hel-len'-ik), 
Hellespont (Hel'-les-pont), . 3 
Helos (Hel'-os), 
Helots (Hel'-ots), 
Helsingfors (Hel'-sing-fors), 
Helvetia (Hel-ve'-she-a), 
Helvetic (Hel-vet'-ikj, 
Hengist (Hen'-gist), 
Henlopen, Cape ( Hen-lo'-pen), 
Henrietta INIaria ( Hen-re -et'-ta Ma- 
Henriot (Hang'-re-o), 
Henri Rochefort (Heu'-re Roash'-fo 
Henry I. of England (Hen'-re), 
Henry I. of France, ,. 
Henry I. of Germany, . 

Henry 11. of England, . 
Henry II. of France, . 

Henry II. of Germany, . 
Henry 111. of England, 
Henry III. of France, . 
Henry III. of Germany, 
Henry IV. of England, . 
Henry IV. of France, . 

Henry IV. of Germany, 
Henry V. of England, 
Henry V. of Germany, . 
Henry VI. of England, 
Henry VI. of Germany, 
Henry VII. of England, 
Henry VII. of Gerrrjany, 

Henry VIII. of England, 185,199, 202, 205,209, 

210, 211, 212, 222 

Henry, Patrick (Pat'-rik Hen'-re), 455, 456, 

461, 477 
Henry Raspe' (Ras-pa'), . • 165 

Hephaestion (He-fes'-te-on), . . 59 

Heptanomis ' Hep-tan'-o-mis), , .25 

Heraclida; ( Her'-a-kli'-da), . . 38, 40 

Heraclius (He-rak'-le-uz), . . 119 



521 

. 512 

259 

• 507 
507 

194. 492 

39°> 391 

. 470 

262, 263 

• 472 



494 
Bar- 

204 

. 194 

523 

321, 323 

28, 29, 30 

27, 28, 29 

30 

. 375 

. 38, 56 

. 383 

227, 254 

. 230 

, 121 

37,38 

515 

• 352 



35 

• 38 
37 

39, 61 
40, 54, 191 

• 41 
. 41. 48 

. 338 

166 

328, 329, 334 

120 

259 

ri'-a), 233 

321, 324, 4.'0 

ar), 406, 420 

• 173 
147 

. 160 

148, 174 

206, 218 

. . 160 

150, 175, 176 

. . 220, 221 

. i6i 

. 180, 181 

221, 222,249 

. 161, 162 

154, 181, 1S3 

162 

155, 181, 182, 183 

, . 163, 164 

, 1S5, 209 

167 



Herbois, Collot d' (Ko-lo' Der-bwaw'), 321. 

323, 324 
Herculaneum (Her-cu-la'-ne-um), . 98 

Hercules (Hcr'-ku-leez), . . 27, 37, 38 

Heristal, Pepin d' (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal), , 126 
Herkimer (Her'-ke-mer), . . /o? 

Hermanstadt (Her'-man-staht), . . 381 

Hernani ( Her-nan'-ej, . . . 429 

Herrera (Her-ri'-ra). . 446,447 

Hcrron (Her'-roni, . . . 512 

Heruli (Her-u-li'), . . . 113,117 

Hesse fHes), . 126, 128, 200, 201, 206, 207, 208 
Hesse-Cassel (Kas'-sel), 348, 365, 366, 374, 397 
Hesse-Darmstadt (Darm'-staht), . . 399 

Hessian (Hesh'-an), . . 464, 465 

Hessians, . . 307, 323, 463, 465, 466, 467 

Hezekiati (Hez-e-ki'-ah), . . .35! 

Hidalgo (He-dal'-go), . . . 434 

Hidalgo, Guadaloiipei(Gawd'-a-lupe He-dal'- 
go), . . . , . 447, 500 
Hielsberg (Heels' berg"), . . 338 
Hiempsal (Hi-emp'-sal), . , -85 
Hiero (Hi'-e-ro), ... 76 
Highlands (Hi'-lands), . . 463,467 
Higlilanders Hi'-land-ers), . . 248 
Hildebrand (Hil'-de-brand), . 132, 161 

Hill 514 

HiUer (Hil'-ler), . . . .348 

Hillsborough (Hils'-bur-o), . . 473 

Hindman (Hinde'-man), . , . 512 

Hindoo (Hin'-doo), . . 23, 389, 390 

Hindoos, ... . 23, 27, 389 

Hindoostan (Hin-doos-tan'), 23, 190, 215, 298, 

299, 390 
Hipparchus (Hip-par'-kus), . . 44 

Hippias (Hip'-pe-as), . . . 44, 45 

Hiram (Hi'-ram), . . . -31 

Hobkirk's Hill (Hob-kirk's), . . 473 

Hoboken (Ho-bo'-ken), . . . 260 

Hochkirchen (Ho'-kirk-en), . . . 289 

Hochstett (Hoak'-stet), . . 269,270 

Hofer, Andreas (Ahn'-dre-as Hof'-ier), . 341 
Hogoumont (Ho'-goo-mont), . . 351 

Hogue, La (La Hoge'), . . 254, 255 

Hohenfriedberg (Ho-en-freed'-berg), . 284 

Hohenlinden (Ho-en-lin'-den), . . 332 

Hohenlohe ( rio-en-lo'-he), . . . 337 

Hohenstauffen (Ho-en-stouf-fen), 162, 163, 164, 

i6s 
HohenstaufTens, .... 162 

Hohenzollern (Ho-en-tsol'-lern), 282, 408 

HohenzoUern Sigmaringen (Sig-ma-ring'- 

en), .... 401, 402 

Holbein, Hans (Hahns Hol'-bine), . 210 
Holland (Hol-land), 165, 216, 217, 218, 231, 241, 
244, 245, 247, 251, 252, 254, 255, 260,268, 269, 
2S2, 285, 298, 308, 309, 321, 325, 334,336, 341, 
348, 363, 364 
Hollanders, .... 363 

Hollis (Hol'-lis), . . . .236 

Holmes (Homes), . . . 263 

Holstein (Hol'-stine), 120, 186, 274, 375, 377, 
378, 39<'. 397 
Holyrood (Ho'-ly-rood), . . . 362 

Homer (Ho'-mer), ... 38 

Homildon Hill (Hom'-il-don), . . i8c 

Hong Kong, .... 369 

Honorius (Ho-no'-re-us), . . no, iit 

Hood, John B., . . 518, 519, 520 

Hoogly (Hoog'-Ie), . ... 299 

Hooker, Joseph (Hook'-er), . 514. 51S 

Hooker, Thomas, . . 262 

Hooper (Hoop'-er), . . 212 

Horatia I Ho-ra'-she-a), . 63 

Horatii (Ho-ra'-she-i), ... 67 

Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-ns), . , 67, 68 

Horatius Codes (Ko'-kleez), . . 69 

Horn, Cape, . . . . • 498 

Hornet, . . . . • 487 

Horsa (Hor'-sa), . • . . 120 



592 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Hortense Beauharnais (Or-tangs' Bo-har'- 

na), . . . . . . 3S6 

Hosea (Ho-se'-a), ... 32 

Hoshea (Ho-she'-a), . . . -32 

Hospitallers, .... 136 

Hotel des Invalides(Ho-tel' de In'-va-!eeds), 

25O) 352, 370 
Hotel de ViUe (Ho-tel' der Vil'), 324, 362, 371, 
3735 4051 406, 414, 419, 420 
Hottentots ("Hot'-ten-tots), . . . 193 

Houchard (Hoo-shard'), . .321,323 

Houston, Samuel (Hews'-ton), , . 444 

Howe, Lord (How), . . . 305 

Howe, Admiral, . . . 464, 468 

Howe, Robert, .... 469 

Howe, William, 461, 463, 464, 463, 466, 468 

Howard, John Eager (E'-ger How'-ard), . 473 
Hubbardton (Hub'-bard-ton), . . 467 

Hubertsburg (Hoo' berts-burg), , 292, 293 
Hudson, Henry (Hud'-son), . . 259 

Hudson, Lowe (Lo'), .... 352 

Hudson River, . 463, 464, 467, 468, 469, 472 
Huger (Hu'-ger), . , . .471 

Hugh (Hu), . . . .146 

Hugh Capet (Kah-paO, . . . 146 

Hugh Spenser (Spen'-ser), . . 177 

Huguenots (Hu-ge'-nots), 218, 219, 220, 221, 
249i 253, 254, 265 
Hull, Isaac, ..... 485 

Hull. William, . . . 484, 485 

Humayan (Hoo-ma'-yan), . . . 215 

Hungarian (Hung-ga'-re-^n), 189, 190, 252, 269, 
282, 380, 381, 3S2, 383, 384 
Hungarians, . 129, 159, 160, 189, 252, 283, 380 
Hungary (Hung'-ga-re), 129, 139, 189, 190, 192, 
204, 252, 253, 269, 282, 298, 376, 380, 381,382, 

383, 384 
Hunnic (Hun'-nik), 
Hunniyades (Hun-ni'-a-deez), 
Huns, 

Huntsville (Hunts'-vil), , . 

Hurlbut (Hurl '-but), 
Huron (Hu-ron'), . . 

Huss, John, . . , 

Hussite (Huss'-ite), . 

Hussites, . , . 

Hutin (Hu-tang'), . . 

Hutchinson (Hutch'-in-son), 
Hutchinson, Ann, . . 

Hydaspes (Hi-das'-peez), , 
Hyderabad (Hi-der-ah-badO, . 
Hyder Ali (Hi'-der Al'-e), . 
Hyphasis (Hif'-a-sis), . . 

Hyrcanus, John (Hir-ka'-nus), 
Hystaspes, Darius (Da-ri'-us His-tas'-peez), 

34, 35, 45, 46 
I. 
Iberian (I-be'-re-an), . . . 158 

Iberville (Ib'-er-vil), .... 306 
-Iberville, Lemoine de (Lem-won' Der-bare- 
veel), ..... 300 

Ibrahim Pacha (Ib'-rah-im Pa-shaw'), 359, 368 
Iceland (Ice'-land), .... 130 
Iceni (I-sen-i'), .... 96 

Iconium (I-ko'-ne-um), . . . 137 

Iglestrom (Ig'-el-strom), . . 296 

Ignatius Loyola (Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-la), .213, 

214 
Iguala (Ig-whah'-Ia), .... 435 
Iliad (ir-e-ad), .... 38 

Ilium (Il'-e-um), . . . .38 

Illinois (Il-le-nois'), 300, 306, 492, 494, 504, 523 
lUo (Il'-lo), .... 230 

Illyria (Il-lir'-e-a), . . . .94 

lUyrian, ..... 78 

lUyrians, . . . . 54, 78 

Imperator (Im-per-a'-tor), . . 93 

Inachus (In'-a-kus), . , . "37 

Inca (In'-kah), .... 214 



. 112 

190, 192 
109, 112 

509 

. 512 

300 



151 

458 
258 

58 
369 
299 

58 



Incas, ..... 214, 439 

Incitatus (In-se-ta'-tus), . . 95 

Independents, . . 236, 237, 239 

India (In'-de-a), . 23, 24, 34, 58, 123, 193, 215, 
281, 369, 389, 390, 391 
Indian, .... 256, 259 

Indiana (In-de-an'-a), . 484, 491, 515, 523 

Indians, 23, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 265, 300, 
301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 469, 470, 479, 
485, 487, 489, 491, 493, 494, 491,, 513 525 
Indies, East (In'-deezJ, . 287, 292, 308. 309 

Indies, West, . . 287, 292, 308, 307 

Indus- (In'-dus), . . . 5!', 59 

Ingolstadt (Ing'-gol-staht), . 200, 230 

Ingour (In-goor'), .... 388 
Ingria (In'-gre-a), . . . 27S 

Inkermann (In'-ker-man), . . . 387 

Innocent III., . . ' . 175 

Innocent IV., . . . . 165 

Innspruck (Ins'-prook), . . 208, 375 

Inquisition (In-que-sish'-on), 159, 215, 216 

Inquisitor (In-quis'-e-tor), . . 216 

Insurgente, L' iLang-soor-zhong'-ta), . 480 

Intransigentes (In-tran'-se-jents), 425, 426, 428 
Inverness (In-ver-riess'), . . . 285 

Ionian (I-o'-ne-an), ... 40 



lonians, 
Iowa (I'-o-wah), 
Ipsara (Ip-sa'-ra), 
Ipsus (Ip-sus), 
Irish (Ire'-ish), . 



37 
497 
359 

6c 



174. i77» 22s, 236, 237, 240, 

248, 298, 309, 400 

Ireland (Ire'-Iand), 174, 177, 225, 236, 240, 242, 

248, 254, 298, 399, 400 

Ireton (Ire'-ton), .... 238 

Ironside, Edmund (Ed'-mund I'-ron-side), 172 



Ironsides 
Irun (I'-run), 
Irwinsville (Ir-wins-vil), 
Isaac (I'-zak), 
Is.aac Angelus (An'-je-lus), 
Isabella (Is-a-bel'-la), 
Isabella II., . 
Isabel, Point (Is'-a-bel), 
Ishbosheth (Ish'-bo-sheth), 
Ishmael (Ish'-ma-el), 
Islam (Is'-lam), 
Island No. 10, 
Ismael (Is'-ma-el), 
Ismail (Is-ma-eel'), 
Ispahan (Is'-pa-hahn'), 
Israel (Is'-ra-el), . 
Israelites (Is'-ra-el-ites), 
Issus (Is'-sus), . _ . 
Issy, Fort d' (Dis'-se),* 
Isthmian (Ist'-me-an), 
Italian (It-al'-yan), 
Italians, 



237, 2b3 

429 

. 52a 

28 

. 138 

159, i93i 194, 2ot 

367, 368, 40Q 

497 

• 30 

. . 2$, 120 

. , 121, 122 

509 

. 215 

295 

. 215 

28, 20, 30, 31, 32 

. 24, 27, 28, 30 

• S5, loi 

407, 409, 414, 416, 417 

63, 81 

65, 142, 143, 378, 391, 412 

65, 393, 398 



Italica (I-tal'-e-ka), 
Italy (It'-a-le), . 61, 65, 87, 117, 204, 326, 378 
Ithaca (Ith'-a-ka), ... 38 

Ithome (I-tho'-me), . . . .48 

Iturbide, Don Augustin (Don Au-g\is-teen 

E-toor'-be-da), . . . .465 

luka(I-yu'-ka), . . . .512 

Ivan the Great (I'-van), . . . 188 

Ivan the Terrible, . . . 188 

Izard (I'-zard). . . , . 488 

J. 

Jabin (Ja'-bin), . . . -29 

Jacinto, San (San Ja-sin'-to), . . 444 

Jack Cade (Jak Kade), . . .182 

Jackson (Jak'-son), . . . 5^4 

Jackson, Andrew, . 487, 489, 490,491,493, 494, 

495 
Jackson, Claybome F., . . . 507 
Jackson, Thomas Jefferson, 507, 510,511, 514 
Jacksonville, . . . . • 5'? 
Jacob (Ja'-kob) 8 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



5')3 



29 
• 330 

187 
. 1S7 

242 
233, 234 

180, iSi 

254, 269 

. 209 

211 

255, 473> 510, 518 

232, 255. 256, 257 



246, 247, 2, 



46 
. 215 

376, 381," 382, 383 

319 

• 337 

30 

31, 32 



lai'obin (Jak'-o-bin), . . 315, 317, 322, 324 

Jacobins, . ' 316, 320, 321, 323, 324, 325 

Jaobites (Jak'-o-bites), . . . 27S 

JaC4uerie(Jak-ka'-ree), . . . 153 

Jacques Bonhomme (Jak-a' Bo-nom'), 

J.iel (Jale), 

Jaffa, (Jaf'-fa), 

J igcllo (Ya-gol'-Io), 

Jagellos, .... 

Jamaica (Ja-ma'-ka), 

James I. of England, . 232 

J.inies I. of Scotland, 

James II. of England, 

James IV. of Scotland, 

James V. of Scotland, 

James River, . 

Jamest[iwn, 

Janiculum, Mt. (Ja-nik'-u-lum), 

Janissaries (Zhah-nees-sah'-reez), . 19 r 

Janus (Ja'-nus), . . . .67 

Japan (Japan'), .... 501,502 
aplieth (Jal'-eth), . . . .22 

Jaquelein, Laroche (La-roash' Zhah-lang'), 322 

J assy (Yati'-sej, .... 295 

ava (Jav'-ah), . , . 21S, 485 

Jay, John (Ja), . . 478, 479, 480 

Jebus (Jeb'-us), .... 31 

Jebusites (Jeb'-us-ites), . . .31 

{echoniah(Je-ko'-ne-ah), . . 32 

efferson, Tliomas (Jef'-fer-son), 464, 47S, 479, 
480, 481, 482, 49^ 
effries CJef -frees), 
ehanghir (Jef-hang-yer), 
ehoaliez (Je-lio'-a-hez), 
ellachich(Yel'-la-kik), 
emappes (Slimap), 
ena(Jen'-a), 
ephtiiah (Jef'-thah), 
Jeroboam (Jer-o-bo'-am), 

Jerome Bonaparte (Jer-ome' Bo'-na-part), 338 
Jerome of Prague (Praig), , . 169 

fersey, New i Jcr'-se), 260, 464, 465, 466, 468, 472 

Jersey City, .... 470 

erusalem ( Jer-ru'-sa-lem), 24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 56, 
64, 88, 97, 98, 122, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 
147, i64 
Jessup (Jes'-sup), .... 495 
Jesuit (Jes'-u-it), . . . 214, 300 

Jesuits, .... 213, 214 

Jews, . . 24,33,34,64,97,98,176 

Jimena (He-ma'-na), . . . 426 

Joab, ..... 3t 

Joacnim Murat (Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 331, 339, 

3-)Si 351 
Joan of Arc (Jo'-an of Ark), 
John of Boliemia, 
John of England, 

John the Good of Franfc, . 153, 154, 17S, 179 
John Frederic of Saxony, . .207,208 

John XXII., . . . . .167 

John XXIII., .... 160 

John de JMedici (Jon de Med'-e-che), . 199 

John, St., . . . . . 462 

Johnson (Jon'-son), .... 470 
Johnson, Albert Sydney (Al'-bert Sid'-ne), 509 
John.son, Andrew, . . 520, 522, 523 

Johnson, John, .... 467, 469 
Johnson, (Rev'-er-de), . . 524 

Johnson, Richard M., . . . 495 

Johnson, William, . . . 304, 305 

Johnston, Joseph E., 503, 506,507, 518, 521,522 
Joliet, Louis (Loo'-e Zha-le-a'), . . 300 

Jonah (Jo'-nah), . . . .32 

Jonathan (Jon'-a-than), . . -3° 

Jones, John Paul, . . . 470 

Joppa (Jop'-pa), . . 137, 330 

Jordan (Jor'-dan), . , . 29,330 

Joseph (Jo'-sef ), , , . .28 

Josephine (Jo'-sef-in), . 525, 341 

Joshua (Josh'-u-a), . . . -29 

38 



152, 178 
149, 175 



• 449 
■ 31, 33 

. 120 
33, 64, 88 

. 85 

fi- ^^ 

400, 411, 41a 

406 

. 406 

93 

108, 109 

lOI 



Joubert (Zhoo-bare'), . . . 329 

Jourdain (Zhoor-dang'), , 324, 326, 346 

Jovian fJo'-ve-anV, . . . log 

Juan, Don (Don Ju'-an\ . . 215, 217 

Juarez, Benito (_Iien'e-to Whav/-ar'-eth), 448, 

449. 450, 451 
Juarists fWhaw-ar'-ists\ 
Judah (Ju'-dah\_. 
Judaism (Ju'-da-ism), 
Judoa(Ju-de'-a), . 
Jugurtha (Ju-gur'-tha), . 

Jugurthinc: (Ju-gur'-thin), 
Jules Favre i Jule Fav'-er), . 
Jules Ferry (Jule Fer'-re), 
Jules Simon (Jule Si'-mon), . 
Julia (Ju'-le-a), 

Julian the Apostate (Ju'-le-an), 
J\ilianus, Didius (Did'-e-us Ju-le-an'-us), 
Julius Agricola (Ju'-le-us Ag-re-ko'-lah), 98 

Julius Cresar (Se'-ser), . 87, S8, 89, 90, 91 

Julius Vinde.x- (Vin'-de.x), ' . . loi 

JumonviUe (Zhu-moang-veel'), . . 303 

Junin (\Vhoon'-in), . . . 440 

Junius Brutus (Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), 68,69 

Juno (Ju'-no), . . . 36, 37, 73 

Junot (Zhu-no'), . . 330, 339, 340 

Junta (Jun'-la), . . 340, 435, 436, 449 

Juntas, .... 339, 435 

Jupiter (Ju'-pe-ter), . . . 36, 95 

Jupiter, .Amnion (Am'-mon), . 34, 56 

Justinian ( Jus-tin'-e-an), . 117, 118, 119 

Jutland 'Jut'-landi, .... 228 
Ju.xou (Ju.v'-oul, . . . 240 

K. 

Kalb, De (De Kalb), . . 465,471 

Kaled ! Js.ah'-led), . . .121,122 

Kalkreath (Kahl'-kroit), . . . 338 

Kalmuck Tartars (Kal'-muk Tar'-tars), 294 

Kansas ^Kan'-zes), 

Kappel (Kap'-pel), 
•Kapolna (Ka-pol'-na), . 

Kapstchak (Kahpt'-shok), . 

Kara Mustapha (Ka-rah' Mus-taf'-a), 

Karlowitz (Kar'-lo-witz), . 

Kars, .... 

I Kasan (Ka'-zan), 

Kaskaskia •■ Kas-kas'-ke-a), 

Katzbach (Kahtz-bok), 

Kearney (Ker'-nej, 

Kearney Stephen W., ' . 

Kearsarge (Ke-ar'-sarj), 

Kellerman (Kel'-ler-man), . 

Kelly, Benjamin F. (Kel'-Ie), 

Kelly's Ford, 

Kenesaw Mountain (Ken'-e-saw), 

Kennebec (Ken'-ne-bek), 

Kent, • . . . 120, 18 

Kentuckians (Ken-tuk'-e-ans), . 486, 490 

Kentucky (Ken-tuk'-e), 47J, 478, 481, 495, 502, 
504. 503) 5o3, 512, 517 
Kesselsdorf (Kes'-sels-dorf), . . 284, 285 

Kettle Creek, ..... 469 
Kettle Run, .... 511 

KevenhuHer (Kev'-en-hul-Ier), . . 283 

Khan, .... iSS, 433 

Khiva (Kee'-vah), . • . • 433 

Khivan, ..... 433 

Khivans, ..... 433 

Khokand (Ko'-kand), . . . 433 

Khosrou the Great (ICos'-roo), . . 118 

Khosrou II., .... 115 

Kieft, Sir William (Keeft), . . .260 

Kiel (Keel), .... 348 

Kiev (Kecv1, .... 188, 190 
Killicrankie (Kil-le-krank'-ee), . . 248 

Kilpatrick, Judson (Jud'-son Kil'-pat'-rik), 517 
Kinbnrn 1 Kin'-burn), . . . 388 

Kinmuir (Kin'-moor), . . . 278 

King, Samuel W., . . . 496 



502, 503 
. 201 



253, 



188 
254 
380 



300, 470, 530 

291, 347 

5" 

. 498, 499 

519 
332 
506 
516 
5i8 
462 
367 



3191 



594 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



. 


501 


471 


472 




305 




230 




3°4 




383 


330 


333 




132 


136 


,140 


136 


140 




464 




478 




222 




S16 


464 


471 




2S8 


383 


384 




398 


281, 


337 


. 


283 



King, William Rufus, 

King's Mountain, . 

Kingston (Kings'-ton), . 

Kinsky (Kins'-ke), . 

Kittanning (Kit-tan'-ning), . 

Klapka(Klap'-ka), 

Kleijer (Kia-baire'), . 

Knights Errant (Nites Er'-ant), 

Kniglits of St. John, 

Knights Templars, . 

KriDwlton (Nole'-ton), . . 

t'/jox. Henry (Nox), 

Knox, John, 

K noxville (N ti -vil), 

Knyphausen !'Kne-fou'-sen) 

Kolin{Ko'-lin), . 

IComcvn (Ko'-raorn), . . 

Koniggratz (Ken'-ig-grets). 

Konigsburg (Ken'-igs-burg), 141 

Konigseg (Ken'-ig-seg), 

Kootub ( Koo'-toob), . . . 3»9 

Koran (Ko'-ranI, . . 121, 122, 123, 191 

Kordofan(Kor-dof-an), . . . 368 

Koreish ( Ko'-reesh), . . • . 121 

Koreishites (Ko-ree-shi'-tees), . . i2r 

Kosciuszko, Thaddeus (Thad'-de-us Kos-se- 

uz'-ko) , . . . 293, 296, 465 

Kossuth, Lcuis (Loo'-e Kos-shoot'), 380, 381, 

382, 383 
Kouli Khan, (Koo'-le Khan) . . 281 

Krasnoi (Kras-noi'), . . . 345 

KremHn (Krem'-lin), . . 188, 344, 345 

Kremsier (Krem'-seer), . . . 378 

Kronstadt ( Krone'-staht), . . 3S1 

Krukowiscki ( Kru-kow-eek'-e), . . 305 

Kudschuck Kainardche (Kood'-chook Ka- 

nards'-ko), .... 295 

Kullman (Kool'-man), . , . 434 

Kunersdorf (Koo'-ners-dorf), . . 290 

Kutais fKu-tais'), . . .382 

Kutusoff(Ku'-tu-soflf), . 336, 344, 340 



Labedoyere (La-be-dwah-yer'), . 350, 352 
La Boeuf (La Buf), . . . 302 

Labrador (Lab'-ra-dore), . . . 195 

Labyrinth (Lab-e-rinth), ■. . 25 

Lacedaemon (Las-e-de'-mon), 35, 37, 41, 44, 48, 
52, 53, 59, 6= 
Lacedaemonian (Las-e-de-mo'-ne-an), 41, 49, 

50,59 
Lacedsemonians, . 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53 
Leclerc (Le-klare'), .... 334 
Laconia (La-ko'-ne-a), . . 35, 37, 41, 42 

La Corona (La Ko-ro'-na) . . . 379 

L'Admirault (Lad-me-ro') . , 41Q 

Laevinus (Le-vi'-nus), , . • 75 

Lafavorita (LaFa-vor-it'-a), . , 326 

Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), 307, 314, S'S, 318 
465, 466, 473, 474, 492 
Laflfeld (Laf-feld), . . . .285 

La Givonne (La Ge-vone'), . • 404 

La Haye Sainte ( La Ha Sante'), . . 35' 

La Hogue (La Hoag'), . . .254,255 

Lainez (Li'-nets), .... 214 
Laird, ..... 519 
Lamachus (Lam-ak'-us), . . 49, 50 

i^amartine (Lam'-ar-tin), . 371, 372, 374 

Lamballe (Lam'-bal), . . . 319 

Lamberg (Lam'-berg), . . . 376 

Lambert (Lam'-bert), . . . 243 

l,ambert Simnel (Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), 185 

L?mia (Lam' -i-^ J, . . . .59 

T..iimian, ..... 59 

l.amoriciere(La-mo-re'-se-a), . 371,373,466 
Lancaster ( Lank'-as-ter), . 177, 180, 182, 184, 

185, 466 
Lancastrian (Lan-kas'-tre-an), . 183 

Lancastrians, .... 183 

Land-fnede (Lahnd-free'-da), , . 171 



Landshut (Land'-shoot), . . . 291 

Langdale, Sir Maimaduke (Mar'-ma-duke 

Lang'-dale), .... 23^ 

Langside (Lang'-side), ... 223 

Languedoc (Lang'-ge-dok), . . . 250 

Lannes (Lanz), . . . 332, 341, (02 

Laon (La-oang'), , . . 349, 4(5 

La Paz (La Paz), ■ . . 439 440 

La Plata (La Plat'-a'i, . 195, 438 t4" 

La Piierta (La Pwair -ta), . . J37 

Larnche-Jaquelein (La-roash Zhak-Iang'), 32? 
La Rothiere (La Ro-te-aire'), . 348 140 

La Salle, Robert de (Rob'-ert de La Sal'), Jo- 
Latimer (Lat'-e-mer), . . 211 22 

Latin fLat'-in), .... 7-, 

Latins, , . .65, 66, 68, 74, Sf 

Latinus (Lat'-e-nusi, . . . 6.i 

Latium (Lat'-e-um), . . . -65 

Latour (La-toor'), . . . 376 

Laud (Laud), . . 234,235,236 

Lauderdale (Law'-der-dale), . . 245 

Laudon (Lou'-don), . 290, 291, 292, 295 

Lauenburg (L»u'-en-burg), . . . 1S6 

Laval (Lah-vahl'), . . . 410 

La Vendee (La Von'-dee), , . . 322 

Lavinium (La-vin'-e-um), . . 65 

Law, John, .... 279, 301 
Lawrence (Law'-rence), . . 487, 4S8 

Lawrence, St. (Saint Law'-rence), 195, 300, 302 

462. 487 
Laybach (Li'-bok), . . . 357 

Lazzaruni (Laz-za-ro'-ne), . 328, 329, 378 

Lear (Leer), .... 482 

Leavenworth (Lev'-en-worth), . . 498 

Lebanon (Leb'-a-non), ... 26 

Lebon (Le-boang'), .... 324 
Lebrun (Le-brung'), . . . 331 

Lech (Lek), ..... 230 
Lechfeld(Lek'-feld), . . .160 

Lecompte (Le-kong'-ta), • . . 414 

Lecompton ( Le-com'-ton). . . 503 

Leczinski, Stanislaus (Stan-is-la'-us Lek- 

zins'-ke), . . . 275, 276, 280 

Ledochowski (Le-do-chows'-ke), . . 431 

Ledru RoUin (Le'-dru Rol'-liu), 371, 372, 374 
Ledyard (Led'-yard), . . . 474 

Lee, Charles, . . , 463, 468 

Lee, Henry, .... 470, 474 
Lee, Richard Henry, . . . 463 

Lee, Robert Edmund, 503, 507, 511, 512, 514, 
516, 51S, 521 
Lefebvre (Le-fe'-ber\ . . . 338 

Legendre (Le-jen'-der), . . 317,323 

Leger, St. (Saint Led'-jer), . . 467 

Legitimists (Le-git'-e-mists), 370, 384, 411, 421 

420 
Lehwald (La'-wald), . . .288 

Leicester (Les'-ter), . 176, 217, 224 

Leipsic (Lipe'-sik), 200, 207, 229, 231, 289, 347, 

348 
Leisler, Jacob (Lees'-ler), . 260, 261 

Lelex (Le'-Iex), . . . -37 

Le Mans (Le Mong), . . .410 

Lemoine d' Iberville (Lem-won' Deb-are-veel ) 

3(..-. 
Lepidus (Lep'-e-dus), . . • 0^ 

Leo (Le'-o), . . . 199,202,209 

Leoben (La-o'-ben), . . 326,327 

Leon (Le-on'), .... 12;; 

Leon G.imbetta (Le-oang' Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 4 ;c 
Leonidas (Le-on'-e-das), . , 46, ui 

Leopold L, of Belgium (Le'-o-pold), . 363, 3(5.) 
Leopold L, of Germany, 251, 252, 253, 26S, 27c 
Leopold H., . . . .21,3 

Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, 401 402 
Lcosthenes (Le-os'-the-nees), . . 49 

Lepanto (Le-pan'-to), . . 102, J15, 217 

Lerdo de Tejada (Lair'-dode Te-zha'-da), 451 
Lerna, Hydra of (Ler'-na), . . 37 

Le Tellier vLe Tel'-le-a), . . .255 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



595 



Letters of M 11 que (Let'-ters of Mark), 505 

Lettres de C.ichet (Let'-ter de Ka-sha'), 310 
Leuctra (Luc'-tra), 
Leutbeu (Loi'-len I, . . 

Levant (Le-vant')i 
Levi (L>i'-vi), 
Levites (Le'-vites), . 
Lewent awpt (Lu'-en-houpt), 
Lewes (Luse), 
Lewistown (Lu'-is-town, 
Lexington (Lrx'-ing-ton), 
Leyden (Li'-dcn), 
Leyva, Antonio de (An-to-ne-o' de 
Lichowsk: (Lik-nows'-ke), . 
Licinian Law (Li-sin'-e-an Law), 
Licinius (Li-sin'-e-us), 
Licinius Stolo (Li-sin'-e-us Sto'-lo), 
Liege (Leej), . 
Liegnitz (Leeg'-nits), 
Lignano(Leen-yan'-o) . 

Ligny (Leen'-ye), 
Liguria (Li-ju'-re-a), 
Ligurian Republic, 
Lille (Leel), . . _ . 

Lincoln, Abraham, (Lin'-kon), 504, 505, 520, 

521, 522 
Lincoln, Benjamin, . 467, 469, 470, 471 

L'Insurgente (Lang'-zur-zhong'j, . . 480 

Lintz (Lints), . ■ . . 252, 283 

Lisbon (Lis'-bon), 193, 339, 342, 356, 422 



• 52 
2S8, 289 

• 490 
306 

• 29 
276 

. 176 

488 

107, 460, 507 

. 217 

Le'-va), 203 

• 376 
74, 84 

. IQ7 

74, 84 

156, 162 

190, 291 

. 163 

351 

64, 79 

327,329 

271 



Lissa (Lis'-sa), 




• 398 


Leitch (Litch), . 




464 


Lithuania (Lith-u-an'-e*a), 


. 


. 187 


Little Belt, 




484 


Little Crow, . 


, 


• 513 


Little Rock, 




515. 527 


Livius (Liv'-e-us), 




. 80 


Livingston (Liv'-ings-ton), 




464 


Livonia (Liv-o'-ne-a), 


186, 273, 


274, 278 


Livonian (Liv-o'-ne-an), 




27s 


Llewellyn (Lu-el'-lin), . 




. 176 


Lobos (Lo'-bo), 




. 426 


Lochleven (Lok-le'-ven), 




223 


Lock, John (Lok), 


. 


. 264 


Locrians (Lo'-kre-ans), . 




53 


Locris (Lo'-kris), 


, 


35,62 


Lodi (Lo'-de), 




163, 326 


Loire (Lwar), 


126, 407, 


408, 410 


Lollards (Lol'-lards), 




iSi 


Loma (Lo'-ma), 




. 428 



Lombard (Lom'-bard), 119, 127, 142, 163, 165, 

326 
Lombards, . . 119, 127, 163, 164, 165 

Lombardy (Lom'-bar-de), 119, 142, 143, 160, 163 

378,379,380.392,393 
London (Lon'-don), 96, 153, 172, 173, 177, 179, 
182, 183, 210, 234, 236, 239, 243, 244, 297 
London, New, .... 474 

Londonderry (Lon-don-der'-rel, . 248 

Longimanus, Artaxerxes (Ar-ta-zerk'-sees 

Lon-jim-an'-us), . . . .34 

IjOng Island (Long I'-land), . . 464 

Long Island Sound, .... 259 
Longobards (Long'-go-bards), . . 119 

Longstreet, James (Long'-street), . . 514 

I-Ongwy (Long'-we), . . . 411 

Lookout Mountain, .... 516 
Lopez, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Lo-pa'), 441 
Lorenzo de Medici (Lo-ren'-zo di Med'-e- 

che), ..... 145 

1/ Orient (Lo-re-ong'), . . . 32S 

I^orraine (Lor-rain'), 135,155,159, 181, 205, 206, 

212, 218, 252,253, 280, 282, 284, 318, 406, 408, 

412 
Lot. . , . , . .21 

Lothaire (Lo-taire') . . . 304 

Loudon (Lou'-don\ .... 304 
Louis Adolphe Thiers (Loo'-e A'-dolf Tee'- 

a), . . 370, 385, 41T, 415, 420 

Louis Blanc (Loo'e Blong), . , 372, 374 



Louis Bonaparte (Loo'-e Bo'-na-pr rl), 3^6,341 
Louis Kossuth, (Loo'-e Kos-shoot), 380, 381, 

382, 383 
Louis Moro (Loo'-e Mo-ro') . . .143 

Louis Napoleon (Loo'r: Na-pole'-yon) 370, 373, 
, . , ^ 374, 384, '385, 386 

Louis of Zuniga (Loo'-e of Zu-ne'-ga), . 217 
Louis Philippe (Loo'-e Fil'-leep), 362. 363, 364, 

^ . , „ 37°, 371, 372 

Louis the Bavarian, . . . 167, 168 

Louis the Debonnaire (Deb-on-yair<;'), . 129 
Louis the German, . . . 129 

Louis IV., ..... 159 
Louis v., ..... lit 

Louis VI., , ' , . , , 1^3 

Louis VII., . . . 137,148,149 

Louis VIII., .... ,41,150 
Louis IX., or St. Louis, . 139,140,150 

Louis X., ..... 151 
Louis XL, . . , 156, 157, 184 

Louis XII., . . . 158, 203 

Louis XIII., .... 249 

Louis XIV., 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 351, 252, 
253, 254, 255, 268, 269, 271, 273, 300 
Louis XV., . 273, 280, 284, 286, 309, 310 

Louis XVI., . . 310, 313, 316, 317, 320 

Louis XVIII., ^. 310,349,350,352,353,354 
Louis St. (Saint Loo'-e), . . . 506 

Louisa (Loo-e'-sa), . . . 203 

Louisa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Loo-e'-sa), 341, 349 
Louisburg (Loo'-is-burg), . 285, 286, 302, 305 
Louisiana (Loo-is-e-an'-a), 300, 301, 481, 4S9, 

490, 491, 503, 504, ii3, 514, 515, 516,517, 
525, 527 
Louisville (Loo'-e-vil), . . . 512 

Louverture, Toussaint (Too-sang' Loo- 

ver-ture'), ..... 334 
Louvois (Loo-ywaw'), . . . 250 

Louvre (Loo'-ver), . 149, 250, 362, 419, 420 
Lovelace, Francis, (Fran-cis Love'-lase), . 260 
Lovell, Mansfield (Mans'-field Lov'-ell), , 509 
Lowe, Sir Hudson (Hud'-son Lo), . 352 

Lowositz (Lou'-o-sits), . . . 287 

Loyola, Ignatius (Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-Ia), 

213, 214 
Lubec (Lu'-bek), . . 163, 165,228 

Lucan (Lu'-kan), ... 96 

Lucania (Lu-kan'-e-a), . . .65 

Lucerne (Lu-sern'), . . . 167 

Lucien Bonaparte (Lu'-she-en Bo'-na-part), 331 
Lucius Sextius Lateranus (Lu'-she-us Sek'- 

she-us Lat-er-an'-us), . . -74 

Lucius Junius Brutus (Lu'-she-us Ju'-ne-us 

Bni'-tus), . . . . .68 

Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus (Quin'-tus Sin- 

sin-at'-us), . , . . • 7' 

Lucius Verus (Lu'-she-us Ve'-rus), . 100 
Lucknow (Luk'-no), . , 390, 391 

Lucretia (Lu-kre'-she-a), . ' . 63 

LucuUus (Lu-kul'-lus), . . .88 

Lundy's Lane (Lun'-dy's Lane), . 488 

LuneviUe (Lune'-vil), . . . 333 

Lupercalia, Feast of (Lu-per-kal'-e-a), . 91 
Lusatia (Lu-sa'-she-a), . . 231, 288 

Lusitanians (Lu-se-tan'-e-ans), . . 83 

Luther, Martin (Mar'-tin Looth'-er), 199, 200, 

201, 207 
Lutheran (Looth'-er-an), . , .213 

Lutheranism (Looth'-er-an-ism), . 213 

Lutter ( Lut'-ter), .... 228 
Lutzen (Lutz'-en), . . 233, 347 

Luxembourg (Lux'-em-boorg), 250^ 254, 324, 

419, 420 
Luxemburg (Lux'-em-burg), . 167, 106 

Luzara (Lu-za'-ra), . . . 269 

Lycurgus (Li-kur'-gus), . 40, 41, 42, 62 

Lydi.a (Lid'-e-a), .... 33, 45 
Lynchburg (Linch-burg\ . . . 517 

Lynn (Lin), .... 25 

Lyon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ly'-on), 506, 50 



59^' 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Lyons (Ly'-ons), .... loi 
Lysander (Li-san'-der), . . • 5°) 51 

Lysimachus (Li-se-mak'-us), . . 60 

M. 

Maccabeus, Jonathan (Jon'-a-than Mak-ka- 

be'-us), . . . . .64 

Maccabeus, Judas (Ju'-das), . , 64 

Maccabeus, Simon (Si'-mon), . , 64 

Maccabees (Mak'-ka-bees), . . 64 

Macdonald (Mak-don'-ald), . 329, 332, 346, 350 
Macdonough (Mak-don'-o), . . 489 

Macedon i,Mai'-c-don), 34, 33, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 
60, 61, 62, 63, 81 
Macedonia (Mas-e-do'-ne-a), 61, 82, 92, no, 112 

358 
Macedonian (Mas-e-do'-ne-an), . 53, 54, 55, 56, 
57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 81, 82 
Macedonians, . . 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 

Machias (Ma-ki'-as), . . 261, 489 

Mack, .... 327. 336 

Mackenzie, William Lyon (Mak-ken'-zee), 495 
Mackinaw (Mak'-e-naw), . . . 484 

Macmorrogh, Dermot (Der-mot Mac- 

mor'-o), ..... 174 
Macomb (Ma-kome'), . . . 489 

Macon (Ma'-kon), .... 509 
Macrinus (Mak-re'-nusl, . . 102 

Macziewice(Mak'-ze-wis), . . . 296 

Madeira Ma-de'-ra), . . . 193 

Madeleine (Mad'-e-lin), . . 370, 371 

Madison, James (Mad'-e-son), 483, 485, 491 
Madras (Mad'-ras), . . . 298 

Madrid (Ma-drid'), 203, 270, 339, 340, 342, 368, 
400, 401, 422, 423, 424, 430 
Magaw (Ma-gaw'), . . . 465 

Magdeburg ( Mag'-de-burg), 208, 229, 319 

Magellan, Ferdinand (Fer'-de-nand Ma-jel'- 

lan), ..... 195 

Magenta (Ma-jen'-ta), . . . 394 

Magi (Ma'-ji), .... 35 

Magna Charta (Mag'-na Kar'-ta), . • i75 

Magna Grecia (Mag'-na Gre'-she-a), 40, 65 

Magnesia (Mag-ne'-she-a), . . 63,81 

Magyar (I\Lid'-yar), . . 381, 382, 383 

Magyars, . 129, 159, 160, 189, 381, 382, 383 
Maharajpore (Mah-a-raj'-porc), . 369 

Mahomet (Ma-hom'-et), . . .121 

Mahratta (Mah-rat'-ta), . . 281, 300 

Mahrattas, . . . 281, 299, 300, 398 

Main, .... 290, 375, 376 
Maine (Main), 149, 221,261,470,489,492,496, 

Maintenon (Main-te-nong'), . , 253 

Maitland (Mait'-land), , . .352 

Majorca (Ma-jor'-ca). . . . 158 

Malacca (Mal-lac'-ca), . . . 193 

Malaga (i\Ial'-a-ga), . 424, 425,426 

Malakoff (Mal'-a-koff), . . .388 

Malcolm (Mal'-korn), . . , 173 

Maiden (Mawl'-den), . . .486 

Malesherbes (Mal-zerb'), . . 320, 323 

Malmo (Mar-mo\ .... 375 
Malo Yaraslavetz (Ma'-lo Ya-ras-la'-vets), 345 
Malplaqnet (Mal-pla-ka'j, . . , 271 

Malta (Mawl'-ta), . . 140, 328, 334 

Malvern Hill (Mal'-vern Hill), . 510,511 

Mameljn (Mam'-e-lon), . , . 3S8 

Mameluke (Mam'-e-luke), . . . 328 

Mamelukes, . . 140, 192, 32S, 368 

Mamertines (Mam'-er-tines), . . 76 

Manassas Junction (Ma-nas'-sas Junk'- 

shun), .... 506, 516 

Manchester (Man^-ches-ter), . . 355 

Manfred (IMan'-fred), . . . 145, 165 

Manhattan (Man-hai'-tan), . 259,260 

Manheiiii ( Mau'-hime), , 227,251,254 

Manini (Ma-ni'-ni), . . . 380 

Minlius (Man'-le-us), . . .74 



Manlius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Man'-!e-us), 73 

Manlius, Titus (Ti'-tus Man'-le-us), . 74 

Mansfeld, Ernest von (Er'-nest von JIans'-' 

feld), .... 227, 228 

Mansfield (Mans'-field), . . . 51a 

Manteuffel (Mahn-toi'-fel), . . 410,411 

Mantinea (Man-te-ne'-a), . . 52,53 

Mantua (Man'-tu-a), . . . 326, 379 

Mar, Earl of, . ' . . . 278 

Maracaybo (Mar-a-ki'-bo), . . . 438 

Marat (Mah-rah'), . 315, 317, 318, yii 

Marathon ( Mar'-a-thon), . . 45 

Marburg (Mar'-burg), . . ;di 

Marcel (Mar-sel'), . . 15; 

Marcellus (Mar-sel'-Ius), . . ?«, 8c 

Marchfeld (March '-feld 1, . . 166 

Marco Botzaris (Mar'-ko Bot-zar'-is), . 358 

Marcomanni (Mar-ko-man'-ni), . 100 

Marcus Aurelius (Mar'-kus Au-re'-le-us), . 100 
Marcus Crassus (Kras'-sus), . 87,88,89 

Marcus Junius Brutus (Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), 91, 

92 
Marcus Manlius (Man'-le-us), . . 73 

Marcus TuUius Cicero (Tul'-le-us Sis'-e-ro), 88, 

92 
Mardonius (Mar-do'-ne-us), . . 45, 47 

Marengo (Ma-reng'-go), . . . 332 

Margall, Pi y fPe' e Mar'-gawl), 423, 424, 425 
Margaret of An-jou( Mar '-ga-retcfAn-joo'), 182- 

183 
Margareta of Denmark (Mar-ga-ret'-a), . i86 
Margarita (Mar-gah-re'-tah), . . 437 

Maria Christina (Ma-ri'-a Kris'-te-na), . 368 
Maria da Gloria, Donna (Don'-na Ma-ri'-a 

da Glo'-re-a), .... 356 

Maria Louisa (Lou-e'-sa), . 341, 349 

Maria Theresa (Te-re'-sa), 280, 282, 283, 284, 
285, 286, 297, 298, 311 
Marie (Mar'-re), . . . 372, 373 

Marie Antoinette (Mar'-re Ang-twaw-net'), 310, 

319, 321 
Marignano (Ma-rig-nan'-o), . 143, 202 

Marion, Francis (Fran-sis Mar'-e-on), 471, 474 
Marius (Ma'-re-us), . . .85,86 

Mark Antony (Mark An'-to-ne), 89, 91, 92, 93 
Mark, St. (Saint Mark), . . 143, 380 

Marlborough (Marl-bur'-o), 269, 270, 271, 272 
Marmonl (Mar'-mont), . 342, 350, 361, 362 

Marmora (Mar-mo'-ra), . . . 323 

Marquette, James (Mar-ket'), . . 300 

Marquez (Mar-kaze'), . . . 448 

Marrast (Mah rah'), . . . 374 

Mars(Marz), . . 36,66,67,91 

Marseilles (Mar-sails'), . 90, 203, 322, 354 

Marsellaise (Mar-sail-aiseO, . . 405 

Marshall, John (Mar'-shal), . .480 

Marsians ( Mar'-se-ans), . . 86 

Marsin (Mar-sang'), . . . .27 

Marston Moor (Mars'-ton), . . 237 

Martel, Charles (Mar-tel'), . . 124,126 

Martha's Vineyard (Mar'-tha's Vin'-yard), 257 
Martin (Mar'-tin), _ . . . .169 

Martinitz (Mar-tin'-its), . . . 226 

Martos (ISIar toce'), .... 422 
INIary of Burgundy (Bur'-gun-de), . 157, 202 
Mary of England, . . 212,213,222 

Mary of Scotland, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224 232 
Maryland (Ma'-re-land), 261, 262,473, 475, 48a, 
510, 511, 512, 514, 519 520 
Mary's, St, . . • . . 261 

Massachusetts (Mas-sa-chu'-sets), 257, 258, 2=9, 

261, 262, 263, 307, 455, 457, 458, 459, 4601462, 
478, 484, 4S5, 490, 491, 503, 50s 
Massasoit (Mas-sa-soit'), . . 257, 258 

Massena (Mas-sen'-na), . 329,332,342 

Massinissa (Mas-se-nis'-sa), . . 80, 85 

Mastai (Mas-ta-i'), . . . .379 

Matamoras (Mat-a-mo'-ras), . 446, 449, 451 
Matilda (Ma-til'-da), . . . .473 

Matthews (Math'-use), . . . 47» 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX, 



597 



Mathias (Ma-thi'-as), . . . 226 

Mathias Corvinus (Kor-vi'-nus), . 190 

Maubert, Fhice (Plas Mo-baire'), . . 373 

Maumee City (Maw'-mee), . . 479 

Maurice of Orange (Ivlaw'-ris), . 217,218 
Maurice of Saxony, . . .207,208 

Mauritania (Maw-re-tan'-e-a), . . 85 

Mavrocordato (Mav-ro-kor-da'-to), . 358 

Mawhood (Maw'-hood), . . . 465 

Maxen (Rlax'-en), . . . 290 

Maxentius (Max-en'-she-us'), . . 107 

Maximilian I. (Max-e-mil'-yan), 144, 157, 158 
171, 20Q, 202 
iVIaxiniilian II., .... 225 

Maximilian Joseph, . . . 297 

Maxniiiian of Austria, . . 449,450 

Maxmilian of Bavaria, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 

231 
Maxmilian, King of Bavaria, . . 374 

Maximian (MUx-im'-e-an), . . io5, 107 

Maxiniin (Max'-e-min), . . 102, 103 

Maximinus (Max-e-min'-us), . . no 

Maximus (Max'-e-musl, . .112 

Mayence (IMents), 166, J70, 192, 254, 319, 323, 

4U2 

Maypu (Ma'-poo), .... 439 
Mazarin (Maz-a-veen'), . . 242,249,250 

Mazeppa (Ma-zep'-pa), . . 275, 276 

Mazzini (Maz-ze'-ne), . . ' 379, 3S0 

McClellan, George B. (Mak-Klel'-lan), 507, 508, 
510, 511, 512 
McClernand fM.ak-Kler'-nand), . 512, 513 

McClure (Mak-Klure') . . .487 

McCook ^Mak-Kook') . . . 5:2 

McCuUough, Ben (Mak-Kul'-Io), 507, 50S, 509 
McDowell (Mak-Dou'-el), . . 472 

McDowell, Irwin ( Ir'-win), . . . 506 

McGregor (Mak-Gre'-gor), . . 437 

McHenry, Fort (Mak-Hen'-re), . . 489 

MacMahon (,Mak-Mahn'), 393, 402, 403. 404, 

4^5 
McPherson, James B. (Mak-Fer'-son) 518 

Meade, George Gordon (Gor'-don Meed), 514, 

517, 518 
Mecca (Mek'-a), .... 121 
Mechanicsville t Me-kan' iks-vil), . 511 

Mecklenberg, (Mek'-len-burg), 1S6, 408,461, 462 
Mecklenburg Schwerin (Schwair'-in), . 407 

Modes, f Meeds) .... 24,35 
Media (Me'-de-a), . . . .33 

Medici (Med'-e-che), . . 145,199,280 

Medici, Cosmo de (Kos'-mo de), . 145 

Medici, Lorenzo de (Lo-ren'-zo), . . 145 

Medicis, Catharine de (Kaih'-a-rine de 

Med'-e-she), . . . 210, 219 

Medicis, Mary de, .... 249 
Medina (Me-de'-na), . . . 121 

Medina Sidonia (Me-de'-na Si-do'-ne-a), . 224 
Mediterranean (Med-it-er-ra'-ne-an), 26, 27, 37, 
87, 144, 158, 349, 480, 481, 491 
Meeriit (Mee'-rut), . . . 390 

Megalopolis (I\Ieg-a-lop'-o-lis), . . 60 

Mehemet All (Me-hem'-et Al'-e), . 359, 360 

.Meigs, Fort (Meegsj, . . .486 

Meissen (Mi'-sen), . . . 290 

Mejia (Ma-he'-a), .... 450 
Me'ampus (Me-lam'-pus), . . 483 

Melnnchthon, Philip (Fil'-ip Me-Iank'-thon),2oi, 

207 
Melas fMa'-las), . . . .332 

Melcampo (Mel-kam'-po), . . 422 

Melegnano (Me-leg-nan'-o), . . . 393 

Melc-k- Kamel CMel'-ek Kam'-el), . 139 

Memn <n the Rhodian (Mam'-non the Ro'- 

de-ari), ..... 54, 55 
Memphis (Mem'-fis), . . 25, 56, 122, ;io 

Menehould, St. (Sang Ma-noo'), . 316 

Menelaus (Men-e-la'-ns), . . • '^ 

Menenius Agrippa (.Me-nen'-e-us A-grip'- 

pa), • .... 70 



Menes (Me'-neez), . . . .25 

Menilmontant (Men-il-man-tong'), . 420 

Menno (Men'-no), .... 207 
Mennonites (Men'-no-nites), 207 

IMenzikoff , Mentz'-ze-koff). . . . 276 

Mercer, Hugh (Hu Mer'-ser), . , 465 

Mercia (Mer'-she-a), . ijz> 

Mercury (Mer'-ku-re). . . -,6 

Merida (Mer'-e-dah), . . . J24 

Meroveus (Me-ro'-ve-us), . . 126 

Merovingian (Me-ro-viu'-je-an), . . 126. 

Merovingians, .... 125, ir6 
Merriinac ( Mer'-re-m.ik), . . . y:^ 

Merscberg (Mer'-se-burg), . , 160 

Merscl-Kcbir (Mers'-el-Ke'-ber), . . 428 

Messilla Valley 1 Mes-sil'-la), . . 501 

Mesopotamia, (,Mes-o-po-ta-me-a), 21, 29, 103, 

105 
Messalina fMes-sa-li'-na), . . .95 

Messana (Mes-san'-a), , . 40, 42, 76 

Messene (Mes-se'-ne;, , . 63 

Messenia (Mes-se'-ne-a), . . .35 

Messenian, . . . . .42 

Messenians, .... 42, 48 

Messina (Mes-se'-na), . . . 378 

Metacomet (Met-a-kom'-et), . . 258 

Metaurus (Me-taw'-rus), . . . 80 

Metellus (Me-tel'-lus), . . -85 

MeUernich (Met'-ter-nik), . -3571374 

Metz (Mets), 170, 206, 309, 402, 403, 404, 405, 

407, 408 
Metzler, George TMets'-ler), . . . 200 

Meung fMc-oongO, . . .408 

MeuseiMuze), . ' . . 404 

Mexia (Ma-he'-a), . . . 444 

i\Iexican (Mex'-e-kan), 434, 435, 44T, 442, 443, 

444> 445, 446, 447, 44S, 449, 45°- 45' 
Mexicans, . . 435, 444, 446, 447, 449 

Mexico (Mex'-e-ko), 214, 434, 435, 441, 442, 444, 

445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451 
Mexico, New, ... 447 

Michael de la Pole (Mi'-kel de la Pole), . 180 
Michael Paleulogus ( Pa-le-ol'-o-gus), . 139 

Michael, Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . . 273 

Michigan (,Mish'-e-gan), 300, 484, 405, 4S6, 495, 

503, £22 
Micislaus (Mis-is-la'-us), . . 160, 1S6 

Micipsa (JMi-kip'-sa), . . .85 

Middlebrook (Mid'-del-brock), . . 46S 

Middese.x (Mid'-del-sex), ... 297 
Midianites (Mid'-e-an-ites), . . 29 

Mierolawski (Me-ro-lous'-ke), . . 377 

Mifflin (Mif-flin\ . . .466 

Miguel, Don (Don Me'-gel), . . 356 

Milan (,Mil-an'), 109, no, 142, 143, 158, 160, 163 
202. 203, 204, 205, 272, 335, 378, 379, 393 
Milanese (Mil-an-eez'), . . . 143, 163 

Milbournc (Mil'-born\ . . 260, 261 

Milessimo (Mil-la'-se-mo), . . 326 

Miletus (Me-le'-tus), ' . . 44,55 

Milledgeville (Mil'-lej-vil), . 520 

Mill Spring, . . . 508 

Miltiades (Mil-ti'-a-decz), . . 45, 46 

Milvian Bridge (Mil'-ve-an), . . 107 

Mimms, Fort, . . , 487 

Minden (Min-'den), . . . 290 

Minerva (Min-ner'-va), . 37 

Minnesota (Min-ne-so'-ta\ . 303, 513, 531 

Minorca fMin-or'-ka), . . 158, 287, 309 

Minos (Mi'-nos), . . ■ .40 

Minsk, ..... 365 

Minuit, Peter (Pe'-ter I\Iin'-u-it), 259, 260, 264 
Mirabeau (Me-ra-bo'), . 312, 313, 316 

Miramon (Mir'-a-mon), . . 448, 450 

Misiaim (Mis'-ram), . . . .25 

Mi.'sionary Ridge, . . . S'6 

Mississippi (Mis-sis-sip'-pe), 195, 279,300, 475, 
4S1, 492, 493, 494, 504, 508, 509, 5>o, 512, Si3» 
514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 530 
Missolonghi (Mis-so-long'-ge), . . 358, 359 



598 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Missouri (Mi. -soo'-re), 492, 499, 506,507,508, 
5231 525) 530 
Missunde CMis'-soond), . . . 396 

Mitchell, Ormsby McKnight (Orms'-be Mak- 

nile' (Mit'-chel), .... 509 
Mithridates (Mith-re-da'-teez), . 86, 87, 88 

Mithridatic (Mith-re-da'-tik), . 86,87 

Mitylene (Mit-e-le'-ne), ... 44 

Mnenion, Artaxerxes (Ar-ta-zerk'-seez Ne'- 

mon), . . . • 5I1 52 

Moab (Mo'-ab), . _ . . . 29 

Moawiyah (Mo-a-wi'-ah), . . . 123 

Mobile (Mo-beel'), . 300, 4S9, 519, 520, 530 
Modena (Mo-de'-na), . . . 366 

Mceris (Me'-ris), . • . .26 

Moesia (Me'-she-a), . . . 103 

INIogul (Mo'-gul), . . 190, 191, 215, 2S1 

Moguls, ..... 190 

Mohacz (Mo'-hak"), . . 192, 204, 253 

Mohammed (Mo-ham'-med), 120, 121, 123, 124 
Mohammed 11., .... 191 

Mohammedan, . . 122, 123, 125 

Mohammedanism, . . 253, 357 

Mohammedans, .... 121 

Mohammed, Dost, . . . 369 

Mohawk (Mo'-hawk), . . 467, 469 

Mohawks, .... 262 

Mohegan (Mo-he'-gan), . . . 262 

Moldavia (Mol-da'-ve-a), . 294, 357, 386 

Mole (Mo-la'), . . . .37' 

Molino del Rey (Mol-lee'-no del Ra') 447, 500 
Moloch (J\Io'-lok\ . . . .26 

Moltke (Mult'-ke), . . . 402, 406 

Molucca (i\Io-luk'-ka), . . . 193 

Molvitz (Mol'-vits), . . .282 

Momoro (Mo-mo-ro'), . . . 323 

Monachism (Mon'-a-kism), . . 133, 134 

Monasticism (Mo-nas'-ti-sism), . . 133 

Moncey (Moang-se'), . . . 339 

Monckton (Monk'-ton), . . . 303 

Monitor, ..... 509 

Monk, . . . 341, 243, 244 

Monk's Corner, .... 471 

Monmouth, Duke of (Mon'-muth), . . 246 

Monmouth Court House, . . 46S 

Monocacy (Mo-nok'-a-se), . . " 519 

Monongahela ^Mo-non'-ga-he'-la), • 303 

Monro i,Mon-ro'), .... 304 
Monroe, James (RIon-ro'), . . 49', 492 

Monseigneur (Mong-seen'-yure), . 373, 419 
Montana (Mon-tan'-a), . . 532, 534 

Montcalm (Mont'-kam), 287, 289, 290, 304, 306 
Montebello (Mon-te-bel'-lo), . . 332,392 

Monticello,(Mon-te-ser-lo), . . . 493 

Montccuculi (Mon-ta-koo'-koo-le), . 251 

Montenotte (Mont-not'), . . . 326 

Montereau (Mon-te-ro'j, . . 349 

Monte Video (Mon-te Vid'-e o), . . 438 

Montezuma (Mon-te-zu'-ma), . . 214 

Montfort, Simon de(Si'-monde Mont'-fort), 175, 

176 
Montgomery, Fort (Mont-gom'-e-re), . 467 

Montgomery, Richard, . . . 462 

Montijo, Eugenie de (Eu-je'-ne da Mon'-te- 

ho), . . . 386, 389, 406 

Mciitijoi (Mon-te-yoy'), . . . 427 

IViontmartre (Mont-mar'-ter), 349, 414, 416, 419 
Montmedy (Mont-me'-de), . . 404, 409 

Montmirail (Mongme-raii'), . . 349 

Montmorenci (Munt-mo-ren'-se), 205, 219, ^49, 

306 
Montreal (Mont-re-awl') 195, 301, 306, 307, 462, 

4S7 
Montrouge (Mon-troozh'), 407, 410, 416, 418 
Moodkee (Mood'-kee), . . . 369 

Moore, Sir John (More), . . 340 

Moorish, (Moor'-ish), , . . 124, 159 

Moors, . . 106, 140,158,204, 215, 216 

Morales (Mo-rales') . . . 437, 43S 



Moravia (Mo-ra'-ve-a), 166, 277, 282, 289, 336 

376, 398 
Moravian, ..... 170 
Moraviantown, 



Morea (Mo-re'-a), 
Moreau (Mo-ro'), 



33, 192, 2 



Morelos (Mo-ra'-los), 
Morgan, Daniel, (Mor'-gan), 
Morgan, John, 
Morgarten (Mor-gar'-ten), 
Morillo (Mo-ril'-lo), . 
Moriones (Mo-re-on'-es), 
Mormons (Mor'-mons), 
Morocco (Mo-rok'-o), 
Moro, Louis (Loo'-e Mo-ro'), 
Morris, Lewis (Lu'-is Mor'-ns), 
Morristown, . . 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (Fi 

Mors),. 
Mortier (Mor'-te-a), 
Mortimer, Edmund ( Ed'-mund M 
Mortimer, Roger (Roj'-er), 
Moscow (Mos'-ko), 188, igo, 2; 

Moselle (Mo-zel'), 
Moses (Mo'-ses\ 
Moskwa (Moask'-va), . 
Moslem (Mos'-lem), . 
Moslems. . 

Moultrie, Foit (Moal'-tre), . 
Moultrie, William, 
Mount Algidus (Al'-je-dus), . 
Mount Ararat (Ar'-a-rat), 
Mount Casino ( Kas'-se-no), . 
Mount Nebo (Ne'-bol, . 
Mount Olympus (O-lim'-pus), 
Mount Sinai (Si'-na), 
Mount Tabor (Ta'-bor), 
Mount Vernon (Ver'-non), 
Mount Zion (Zi'-on), 
jMourad Bey ( Moo'-rad Bay), 
Mowbray, Thomas (Mow'-bray 
iMoyer (Moy'-er), 
Muhlberg (Mool'-berg), 
Muhldorf (Mooi-dorf), . 
Muller, Hans ( Hahns Mil'-lerj, 
JMuUigan (Mul'-le-gani, . 
Mummius (Mum'-rae-us), . 
Munda (Mun'-da), 
Mungarwar (Mung-ar-war'), 
Munich (Mu'-nik), 
Munster iMuns'-ter), ~ . 
Munzer, Thomas (Moontz'-er), 
Mura(Moo'-rah), 
]\Iurat, Joachim (Jo'-a-kim i\Iu 



325, 326, 329, 332, 335, 347 



Murcia (Mur'-she-a), 
Murfreesborough ( Mur'-fr:es-bur' 
Murray, Earl of (Mur'-re), 
Murray, General, 
Murten (Mur'-ten), 
Muscovite (Mus'-co-vite), 
Mussa Pacha (Moos'-sah Pa-sh; 
Mussulman (Mus'-sul-man), 
Mustapha, Kara (Ka-rah' Mus- 
Mutins Sca^vola (Mu'-she-us Se 
Mycale (Mi-ka-le'), 
Mysore (Mi-sore'), 
Mystic (Mis'-tik), 

N. 

Nadir Shah (Na'-der Shah), 
Nagy Sarlo (Na'-ge Sar'-lo), 
Namur (Na'-mur), . 
Nancy (Nan'-sel, 
Nankin I Nan'-kin), . 
Nantes (Nanls), 
Nantucket (Nan-tuk'-et), 
Napier, Sir Charles (Na'-pe-er) 



3. 294. 357, 359 



. 434 

473 
515 
107 

4:;7 

427 

503 

as. 400, 491 

. 143 

2u£ 

463. '-• 

n'-le Drees 

• 497 
345 

or'-te-mer), i8c 

177, 173 

294, 343. 344, 

345 

402. 403 

S, 29, 33 

344 

. 122 

124 

463, 495 

463 

• 71 
21 

• 133 
29 

. 36 
28 

• 330 
473i 481 



323 

. iSo 

242 

. 207 

167 

. 200 

507 

63,82 

90 

. 391 

63, 168, 283 

207, 2jl 

200 

• 429 

rah'), 331, 339. 
345. 351 
, 424, 425 

> 5>3 
223 

291, 306 
157 



■0), 



taf'-ah1, 
■-o-la). 



188 

387 
124 
252 
69 

47 
299 
263 



281 

382 

. 254 

157, 403, 412 

363, 369 

221 254 

257 

369, 387, 388 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



599 



Napinr, Robert, .... 399 

Naples (Na'-pds), 94, 100, 145, 146, 157, 158, 

165, 202, 272, 280, 285, 327, 328, 329, 336, 356, 

357. 378, 394 

Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on),322,325, 326, 327, 328, 

329. 330. 33'i 333, 334, 335, 336, 337 

Napoli de Romania (N ah '-po-le de Ro-inan'- 

353 

. 263 

259 

. 118 

274 

. 368 



Narraganset Bay (Nar-ra-gan'-set) 

Narragansets, . . . 

Karses (Nar'-seez), . 

Narva (Nar'-vah), . . 

Narvaez (Nar-vah'-eth), 

Nasebf (Naze'-be), 

Nash\ille (Nash'-vil), 

Nassau (Nas'-sou), 

Natchez (Natch'-ez), 

Naupactus (Nau-pak'-tus), 

Navajo (Nav'-a-ho), . . . . 

Navaretta (Nav-a-ret'-tah), 

Navarino (Nav-a-re'-no), 

Navarre (Na-var'J, 159, 202,219, 220, 221, 

Naxus (Nax'-us), . . . , 

Nazareth (Naz'-a-reth), 

Neapolitan (Ne-a-pol'-e-tan), 336, 351, 356, 



. 520 

166, 266, 363 

300, 301, 510.530 



499 
154 
359 
42 7i 
430 
63 
330 
357 
394 
373 



Neapolitans, , 
Nearchus (Ne-ar'-kus), . 

Nebo, Mount (Ne'-bo), . . .20 

Nebraska (Ne-bras'-ka), . 502, 523, 531 

Nebuchadnezzar (Neb-u-kad-nez'-ar), 24, 27, 32 
Necessity, Fort, .... 303 

Necho, Pharaoh (Fa'-ro Nek'-o), . 26, 27 

Necker (Nek'-er), . 311, 312, 313, 314 

Neerwinden (Neer-win'-den), . 254, 320 

Nehemiah (Ne-he-mi'-ah), . . 33 

Nelson, Admiral Lord (Nel'-son), 328, 333, 336 
Nena Sahib (Na'-na Sah'-ib), . . 390 

Nepos (Ne'-pos), . . . 113 

Neptune (Nep'-tune), . . .36 

Nero (Ne'-ro), ... 80, 95, 96 

Nerva (Ner'-va), . . . .99 

Netherlands (Neth'-er-lands), 202, 216,217,251, 
254, 269, 270, 271, 272, 285, 298 
Netherland, New, . 244, 259, 260, 264 

Netherlanders, . . . 216,217 

Neuberg i Noi'-berg), 
Neuilly (Nu-eel'-ye), 
Neustria (Nuse'-tre-a), . 
Nevil (Nev'-ilj, 
Nevil's Cross, 
Neva (Ne'-va), 
Nevada (Nev-ah'-dah), , 

New Amsterdam (Nu Am'-ster-dam), 259, 260 
Newark (Nu'-ark), .... 4S7 
Newbern (Nu'-bern), . . . 509 

New Brunswick (Nu Bruns'-wik), . 300 

Newbury (Nu-ber'-re), . . . 237 

Newcastle (Nu-kas'-sel), . . . 237 

New England (Nu Ing'-gland), 257, 25S, 259, 459, 
460, 461, 489, 490 
New Englanders, . , . 258, 302 

Newfoundland (Nu'-fund-land), . 195, 523 
New France (Nu Frans), . . 195 

Newgate (Nu'-gatej, .... 297 
New Granada (Nu Gra-nah'-dah), 435,436, 437, 

440 
New Hampsh're (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 460, 

529 
Ni.w Haven (Nu Ha'-ven), , 258, 262, 263 
r>few Jersey (Nu Jer'-seJ, 266,464,465,466,468, 
470, 472, 474, 529 
N ;w London (Nu Lon'-don), . . 474 

New Mexico (Nu Mex'-e-ko), . 447, 500, 532 
New Netherlands (Nu Neth'-er-landsj, 244, 259, 

260, 264 

New Orleans (Nu Or'-le-ans), 301, 489,490,509, 

514, 517. 525, 527, 528 

Newport (Nu'-port), . . . 263, 468 



371. 416, 417 



275 
520, 531 



New Scotland (Nu Skot -land), . 301 

New Spain, .... 214, 434 

New Ulm, ..... 513 

New York, 244, 260, 261, 263, 266, 301, 303. 

456, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 469, 470, 471, 472 

474. 475, 478, 482, 487, 488, 491. 495, 49^, 503 

5 16, 529 

Ney (Na), . 334. 343, 346, 35o, 35' ■ 35' 

Niagara (Ni-ag'-a-ra), 290, 303, 304, 305, 306, 

485, 487, 488 

Nicsea (Ni'-se-a), . . . .58 

Nice (Nees), . . . 107, 205, 326 

Nicholas (Nik'-o-las), . 364,382,386,38; 

Nicias (Nish'-e-as), ... 47 

Nicolaieff (Ne-ko-li-ef) . . . 38a 

NicoUs, Richard (Nik'-ols), . . 260 

Nicomedia (Nik-o-me'-de-a), . . 107 

Nicopolis (Nik-op'-o-lis), . . 191' 

Niel (Neel) 393 

Niemen (Nee'-men), . ,'4^, 338, 343, 356 
Nile, . . 23, 2'6, 90, 94, 32S, 329 

Niger, Pescennius (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jerj, loi 
Nimeguen (Nim'-e-gen), . . . 2511 

Nimrod (Nim'-rod), ... 24 

Ninety Six, Fort, .... 473 
Nineveh (Nin'-e-va), ... 24 

Ningpo ( Ning'-po) .... 369 
Ninus (Ni'-nus), ... 24 

Nismes (Nepm), . . . 249,354 

Nithsdale, Lord (Niths'-dale), . . 278 

Niville (Nee'-veelj, .... 346 
Noah (No'-ah), . . . .21,22 

Noailles (No-al'-ye), . . . 284, 323 

Nogai Tartars (No'-ga-i Tar'-tars), . 295 
Noisy (Nwaw'-se), . . . 407, 409 

Nordlingen (Nord-ling'-en), . . 231 

Norfolk (Nor'-folk), 180, 211, 223, 462, 469, 48S, 

506, 510 
Noricum (Nor'-e-kum), . . .85 

Norman (Nor'-man', . 136,145,173,188 

Normandy (Nor'-raan-de), 130, 13s, 136, 146, 
147,148, 149, 172, 173, 175 
Normans, . . 130, 145, 146, 159, 185 

North, Lord, .... 458, 475 
North America ("A-mer'-e-ka) 195, 232, 300, 306 
Northampton, (North-am'-ton) . . 182 

Northamptonshire 1 North-am'-ton-shire), 238 
North Carolina (North Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265, 
266, 458, 461, 471, 473 478, 506, 507, 508, 509, 
513, 514, 521, 522 
Northmen CNorth'-men), . . . 130 

North Point, .... 489 

North Sea, .... 130, 309 
Northumberland (North-um'-ber-land), 120, 180, 

212 

Norwalk(Nor'-wawk), . . . 470 

Norway (Nor'-wayj, 176, 185, 186, 213, ,277, 

278, 348 
Nothus, Darius (Da-ri'-us No'-thus) . 51 

Notre Dame, Church of (Not'-er Dahm), 335, 
362, 385, 386 
Nottingham (Not'-ting-ham), . . 236, 367 

Nouvillas, (Nu-veel'-yah), . . 422, 437 

Novara (No-vah'-rah), . . 357, 379, 393 

Nova Scotia (No'-vah Sko'-she-ah), 272, 1:86, 
300, 301, 30 J, 463 
Novgorod (Nov'-go-rod), . . . 188 

Novi (No'-vi) .... 329 

Noyons (Noy'-oang), . .140 

Nubia (Nu'-be-a), . * . 26,368 

Nujuffghur (Nu-juf'-gur), . . . 390 

Numancia (Nu-man'-she-a), . . 428 

Numantia ( Nu-man'-she-a j, . . -83 

Numanlians, .... 83 

Numa Pompilius (Nu'-ma Pom-pil'-e us), . 67 
Nuraean Lion (Nu-me'-anl, . . 37 

Numerian ( Nu-meer'-e-an), . . . 105 

Numidia (Nu-mid'-e-a), . . 80, 85 

Numidian, . . • . .84 

Numitor (Nu'-me-tor;, ... 66 



6oo 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Nuremberg (Nu'-rem-burg), . , 206, 230 

Nursia (Nur'-she-a), , . . 133 

Nystadt (Ne'-staht) . . . 278 

0. 

Oak Grove, . . , , 511 

Gates, Titus, (Ti'-tus Oats) , . 246 

Oaxaca (Wah-hah'-kah), . . 451 

Octavia (Oc-ta'-ve-a), . . . 93^ 96 

llctavius (Ok-ta'-ve-us) . 84, 92, 93, 94 

Oczakovv (Otch-a-koo') . . . 295 

Odenatus (Od-e-na'-tus), . . . 104 

Oder (O'-der), . , 186, 289, 290, 337 

Odessa (O-des'-sah), . . . 3S7 

Odillon Barrot (O-deel'-yoang Bar'-ro), . 371 
Odin (O'-din), . . . . t86 

Odoacer (Od'-o-a'-ser) . . 113, 117 

fEnotrians (En'-o-tre-ans), . . 65 

Ogdensburg (Og'-dens-burg) . . 487 

Oglethorpe, James Edward (O'-gel-thorpe), 267, 

268 
O'Higgins (O'Hig'-gins), . . 439 

Ohio (O-hi'-o), 286, 302, 303, 303, 471, 4S1, 484, 

496, 503. 5151 529 
Okechobee (O-kee-cho'-bee), . . 495 

Olaf Skoikoiiung(0'-laf Skot'-ko-nung), . 186 
Olaf the Saint. .... 186 

Oldenburg, (Ol'-den-burg), . . 186, 348 

Oliver Clissons (Ol'-e-ver Klees'-soang), . 154 
Oliver Cromwell (Krom'-well), 235, 237, 238, 
239, 240, 241, 242, 243 
Ollivier, Emile (A-meel' Ol-le-ve'-a), . 401 

Olio (Ol'-yo), . . . .427 

t)lmutz(Ol'-muts), . . 319 376, 398 

Olozaga ( Ol-o-za'-gah), . . , 401 

Olustee lO-lus'-tee), .... 517 
Olybrius (O-lib'-re-us), . . J12, 113 

Olympia (O-lim'-pe-a), . . -39 

Olympiad (Olim'-pi-ad), . . 39 

Olympias (O-hm'-pe-as), , . .60 

Olympic Festival (O-lim'-pik), . , 39, 40 

Olympic Games, . . . 40, 96 

Olympius (O-lim'-pe-us), . . 11 1 

Olympus (O-lim'-pus), . . • 36 

Olynthian (O-lin'-the-an), . . 52 

Olynthus (O-Iin'-thus), . . .52 

Omaha (O'-ma-haw), . .. . 524, 532 

Omar (O'-marl, . . . 122,123 

Omar Pacha ( Pa-shaw'), . . 387, 388 

Ojnmiyades(Om-mi'-a-deez), , 123,124 

Ontario (On-ta'-re-o), . 2S7, 209, 304, 4S6, 4S8 
Opechancanough (Op-e-kan'-ka-no), . 256 

Ophir (O'-fir), .... 31 

Opimius (O-pim'-e-us), . . .84 

Oporto (O-por'-to), . . 340, 356 

Oran (O'-ran), . . . .428 

Orange (Or'-anj), . 216, 217, 218, 247, 251, 254, 
259, 260, 363 
Orchard Knob, .... 516 

Ord, .... 512, 521 

Oregon (Or'-e-gon), 497, 303, 508, 525, 526, 531 
Orense (O-ren'-sa), , . . 423 

Orient L' (Lo-re-ong'), . . , 328 

Orinoco (O-re-no'-ko), . . . 194 

Oriskany (O-ris'-ka-ne), . . . 467 

Orizaba (Or-e-sah'-bah), . 44S, 449 

(Vleanist (Or'-le-an-istsj, . . 384, 410 

(.rleans(Or'-le-anz), 155, 156, 158, 181, 182,219, 
240, 273, 313, 317, 320, 321, 362, 407, 408 
Orleans, New, 301, 489, 490, 509, 514, 517, 525. 

527, 528 
Jtraond (Or'-mond), . . 240, 272 

Ormuz (Or-muz), , . . 193, 215 

Ormuzd (Or'-muzd), . . 35 

Orsini (^Or-se'-ne), . . . 142, 392 

Ortega (Or-ta'-gah), , . . 449 

Osceola (Os-e-o'-lah), , . . 495 

Osnaburg (Os'-na-burg), . . 231 

Ostia(Os'-che-a), . . . .63 

Ostrogoth (Os'-tro-goth), , . 117 



Ostrogothic, .... 117, 118 
Ostrogoths, . . . 109, 112, 118 

Ostrolenka (Os-tro-Ienk'-ka), . . 365 

Oswego (Os-we'-go), . 287, 304, 48S 

Othman (Oth'-man), . , 123, 191 

Othniel (Oth'-ne-el), . . . .29 

Otho the Great of Germany (O'-tho), . 160 

Otho II., . . . . .160 

Otho III., .... 160 

Otho IV., 164 

Otho of Greece, . . . 360, 394,335 

Otho of Rome, . . . 96,9; 

Otis, James (^O'-tis), . . . 455 

Ottocar (Ot'-to-kar) . . , . i6t 

Ottoman (Ot'-to-man), 190, 191, iQi, 253, 294, 
295, 32S, 359, 360, 368, 330, 387 389 
Ottowa (Ot'-to-waw), . . . 306 

Oude (Ood), . . . 389, 390 

Oudenarde (Ood'-nard), . . . 273 

Oudinot (Oo-de-no'i, . . 347, 380, 384 

Owen Glendower (O'-wen Glen'-dow-er), . 180 
Oxenstiern, Axel (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 
Oxford (Ox'-ford), . 171,209,238,272 

P. 

Pacha (Pa-shaw'), . . 330, 356, 368 

Pachomius (Pa-ko'-me-us), . . 133 

Pacific Ocean (Pa-sif'-ik), 194, 195, 280, 497, 
„ , , , , 4981 502, 524, 526, S31 

Paderborn (Pad -er-born), . . . 127 

Paducah (Pa-du'-kah), . . . 517 

Padus (Pa'-dus), . , . 65,85 

Pages, Garnier (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371, 372, 

406 
Pakenham (Pak'-en-ham), . . . 490 

Paladines, D'Aurelles (Do-rels' Der Pa-lah- 

dang') ..... 40& 

Palaeologus (Pa-le-ol'-o-gus), . . 130 

Palafox (Pal'-a-fox), . . . 339, 340 

Palais Royal (Pah-la' Rwaw'-yawl), 313, 371, 

419, 420 
Palais de Justice (Pah-la'-der Jus'-tis), 414 

Palais de la Quai d'Orsay (Pah-la'-der la- 

Ka Dor'-sa), . . 419, 420 

Palais dl'lndustrie (Pah-Ia' der Leen-dus- 

tree'), ..... 419 

Palatinate (Pa-lat'-e-nate), 168, 226, 227, 251, 

254i 297 
Palatine HiU, (Pal'-a-tin), 66, 67, 73, 227, 237, 

251 
Palermo (Pa-lare'-mo), . . 77, 150, 378 

Palestine (Pal'-es teen) . . . 33, 34 

Palestro (Pal'-es-tro), . . . 393 

Pallas (Pal'-las), .... 36 

Palmyra (Pal-mi'-ra), . . 104, 105, 122 

Palo Alto (Pah-lo' Ahl'-to), . .446,498 

Palos (Pa'-los), .... 194 

Pampeluna f^Pam-pe-lu'-na). . . 127, 346 

Panama (Pan'-a-mah), . . 194. 440 

Pandects (Pan'-dects) . . . 119 

Pandours (Pan-dures'), . . . 283 

Panniput (Pan'-ne-put), . . 281 

Pannonia (Pan-no'-ne-a) . 94,105,119 

Pannonian, .... 109 

Panormus (Pa-nor'-mus), . . -77 

Pantheon (Pan-the'-on) . . . 373 

Pantin (Pan-tang') .... 419 
Paoli, Massacre of (Pa-o'-le J, . . 466 

Paoli, Paschal (Pas'-kal), . . . 297 

Papineau, Louis Joseph (Pa-pe-no'), . 495 

Papirius Carbo (Pa-pir'-e-us Kar'-bo), 85 

Papirius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Pa-pir -e-us), . 73 
Pappenheim (Pap'-pen-hime), . ■ 23c 

Paraguay (Par'-a-gwi), . . 440.443 

Paraguayan (Par-a-gwi'-an), . . 441 

Paraguayans, ..... 441 
Parades ^Pa-ra'-des), . . 44s, 446 

Paris, (Par'-is), 38, 125, 146, 14a, »Si,!)2o, 271, 

292, 306,309, 313, 317, 320, 323, 33i ,»8x, 370 
405, 407, 409, 414 419. 4it' 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



60 1 



Parisian (Par-ish'-e.an), . 153, 313, 319 

Parisians, . 362,385,405,406,407,415 

Park de Monceaux {Park der Mon-ko'j . 420 
Parker, Sir Peter (Pe'-ter Par'-ker), 308, 309, 

234, 235) 236, 237, 241, 242, 245, 455, 460, 461, 
462, 463, 464 
Parliament (Par'-Ie-ment), . , 175, 176 

Parliamentarian (Par-le-men-ta'-re-an), . 238 
Parliamentary (Par-le-men'-ta-reJ, . 238 

Parma (Par'-ma), . . . 366,378 

Parmenio (Par-men'-e-o), . . 54 

Paros (Pa'-ros), . . . .45 

Parr, Catharine (Kath'-a-rin Par\ 210, 211 

Parthjnop ian Republic (Par-the-no-pe'- 

fin)i . • . 327. 328, 329 

Parthia (I ar'-the-a), . . 89, 99 

Parthian, . , . 64, 89, 100, 103 

Parthians, . . .89, 99, loo, loi 

Paschal Paoli (Pas'-kal Pa-o'-le), . 297 

Paskiewitsch (Pas-ka'-vitsh), 359, 365, 382, 383, 

387 
Pasquasde Flores (Pas-koo'-ah daFlo'-res), 194 
Passau (Pas'-sou), . . 208, 225, 231 

Passarovitz (Pas-sa'-ro-vits), . 278, 279 

Patkul (Pat'-kul), . . .275 

Patriarchs (Pa'-tre-arks), . . -27 

Patuxent (Pa-tux'-ent), . . . 489 

Paul, . . . . 296, 330, 333 

Paulinus, Suetonius (Su-ton'-e-us Pau-li'- 

nus), ..... 96 

Paulus jEmilius (Pau]'-us E-mil'-e-us), 63, 82 
Paulus Hook, .... 470 
Pausanius ( Pau-sa'-ne-us), . . .47 

Pavia (Pa'-ve-a), . 119, 127, 203, 378, 426, 427 
Pawtucket ( Pavv-tuk'-et), . . . 263 

Peach Orchard Station, . . 511 

Peacock, ..... 490 

Pea Ridge, . . . 508, 509 

Peck, . . . . • .514 

Pedraza (Pa-drah'-zah), . . 442, 443 

Pedro, Don (Don Ped'-ro), . . 356, 440 

Pedro Abanto (Ped'-ro A-ban'-to), . 429 

Pegram I Pe'-gram), .... 506 
Pekin (Pe'-kin), . . . .389 

Pelasgians (Pe-las'-je-anz), . . 37, 65 

Pelican, ..... 488 

Pcliesier (Pel-is-se'-a), . . .388 

Pelletan, Eugene (U-jeen' Pel-le-tong'), 406 

Pelopidas (Pel-op'-e-das), . . 52 

Pelciponnesian ( Pel-op-on-ne'-she-an), 48, 49, 50 
Peloponnesus (Pel-op-on-ne'-sus), . 35,37,38, 
40, 49. 92, 192 
Pelops(Pel'-ops), . . . .37 

Pelusium (Pe-Iu'-2he um), . . 26, 34 

Pemberton (Pem'-ber-ton), . . . 514 

Pembroke (Pem'-broke), . . . 174 

Penguin, ..... 490 

Penn, Admiral, .... 242 

Penn, William, . . . 266, 267 

Pennsylvania (Pen-sil-va'-ne-a), 266, 267, 302, 

333i 3041 4641 465. 466, 469, 472, 479, 486, 497, 
502, 514, 515.519. 529 
Pennsylvanian, .... 482 

Pennsylvanians, .... 267 

Pensacola (Pen-sa-ko'-la) . 489, 492, 504 

Pepin d'Hcristal (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal) . 126 

Pepin the Little, .... 126 
Pepperell; William, (Pep'-per-ell), . 286, 302 
Pequod ( Pe'-quod), .... 262 
Pequods, . . . • . 262 

Percy ( Per'-se), . . . .180 

Perdiccas (Per-dik'-kas), . . 59, 60 

Pere Diu hesne ( Pa-ra' Du-shain'), . 315 
Pere la Chaise (Pa-ra' la Shaise') . ' 416, 420 
Pergamus ( Per'-ga-mus),. . . 84 

Fericles f Per'-e-kleezI, . . 48,49 

Kerkin Warbeck. (Per'-kin War'-bek), . 185 
Peronne I Per-on') . . . 156 

Perote i Pa-ro'-t.i), . . 442,499 

Perry, Matthew C. (Per'-re), . . 502 



Perry, Oliver Hazard, . . . 486 

Perryvilie, .... 512 

Persepolis (Per-sep'-o-lis), . . 57, 58 

Perseus ( Per'-se-us), . • . 63,82 

Persia (Per-she-a), 23, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46, 

47. 51, 52, 55i 57. 58, 104, 108, loy, 117, 122, 
19 •, igi, 215, 281 
Persian, 25, ?6, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52 
54, 55, 56, 57i 59, 103. i°4i 109, 118, 122, 215 
Persians, 25, 26, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46,47, 51, 54. 55, 
56, 57, 58, 103, 104, 108, 117, u8, 122, 136 
Perlinax (Per'-te-nax), . . . loi 

Peru (Pe-ru'), . 214, 400, 439, 44c-, 441 

Peruvians (Pe-ru'-ve-ans), . 21/, 43) 

Pescennius Niger (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jcr), 191 
Peschiera (Pesh-e-a'-ra), . . . 37a 

Pesih(Pest), . . 380,381,382,383 

Peter II. of Russia, .... 27S 
Peter III. of Aragon, . . .158 

Peter III. of Russia (Roosh'-yah), . . 292 

Peter the Cruel of Aragon, . . 150 

Peter the Great, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 
Peter the Hermit, . . . 135, 147 

Peterborough (Pe'-ter-bur-o), 270, 293, 333 

Petersburg (Pe'-ters-burg), . 473, 5x8, 519, 521 
Petersburg, St., .... 274, 275 
Peterwardein (Pe-ter-war'-deen), . . 279 

Petion (Pa-te-oang'), . , . 321 

Petrowski (Pe-trous'-ke), . . . 344 

Pfalzburg (Pfahls'-burg), . . 409 

Phalereus, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Fa- 

le'-re-us), .... 60 

Pharaoh 1 Fa'-ro), ... 25, 28 

Pharaoh Necho (Nek'-o), . . 27, 32 

Pharaohs, .... 25, 26 

Pharnaces (Far-na'-seez), . . go 

Pharsalia (Far-sa'-le-a), . . .90 

Philadelphia (Fil-a-del'-fe-a), 267, 459, 462, 463, 
466, 468, 473, 476, 478, 481 
Philadelphus, Ptolemy (Tol'-e-me Fil-a-del'- 

fus), . . . . . 64, 90 

Philip I. of France (Fil'-ip), . . 147,148 



Philip I. of Macedon, 
Philip II. of Macedon, 
Philip II. of Spain, 206, 



Philip III, ofSpain, 

Philip IV. of Spain, . 

Philip, Emperor of Rome, 

Philip of Valois, 

Philip the Fair, . . 

Philip the Hardy, 

Philip the Tall, . 

Philip Augustus (Au-gus'-tus), 137, 138, 149, 

150, 163. 174, 175 
Philip Egalite (A-gal-e-ta'), . . 320, 362 

Philippa(Fil-ip'-pa), . . . 152, 178 

Philippe, Louis (Loo'-e Fil-leep'), 362, 363, 364, 

370, 371 372. 384 



• 53, 54 

. 62, 63, 81 

212, 215, 216, 317, 

218, 220, 224 

. . 216 

. 250 

103 

152, 153, 178 

150, 151 

. 150 

151 



Philippi (Fil-ip-pi'), 


92, 506 


Philippine (Fil'-ip-peen), . 


. 292 


Philistines ! Fe-lis'-teenz), 


29. 30, 3' 


Phillips (Fil'-ipsl, 


• 473 


Philopoimen (Fil-o-pe -men), 


62, 63, 82 


Phipps, Sir William (Fips), 


• 259, 301 


Phocians (Fo'-she-ans), . 


53 


Phocion (Fo'-she-on), 


• 59 


Phocis (Fo'-sis), . 


• 35. 53 


Phoebe (Fe'-be), 


. 49c 


Phcenicia (Fo-nish'-e-a), 


• 26, 27, 34, 55 


Phoenician, 


. 26 27, 37 


Phoenicians, 


2f- -,:. -jt 


Phraortes (Fra-or'-teez), 


■ ' 33 


Phrygia (,Frij'-e-a), 


37 


Phryxus (Frix'-us), . 


. 38 


Piacenza (Pe-a-chent'-sa), 


1S5 


Piar (Pe-ar'), , 


• 437 


Piast ( Pe'-ast), . 


. 186, 187 


Piasts, 


. 186 


Piat (Pe-ah'), 


420 



6o2 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Picard Ernest (Er'-nest Pe-kar'), . . 406 

Picernum (Pik'-er-num), . . 65 

Pichegru (Peesh-gru'), . 324, 325, 335 

Pickens, Andrew (Pik'-ens), . 469,471,474 
Picton, Sir Thomas (Pik'-ton), . . 352 

Picts, .... log, izo 

Piedmont (Peed'-mont), . . 205,357 

Piedmontese(Peed-mont-eez'), . . 357 

Pierce, Franklin (Peerce), . . . 501 

Pierce, General, .... 506 

Pierpont, Frank (Peer'-pont), , . 507 

Pierre, St. (Sang Pe-aire'), . . 302 

Pigot(Pig'-ot), . . . .461 

Pike, Zebulon N. (Zeb'-u-lon N. Pike), 487 
Pilate, Pontius (Pon'-she-us Pi'-Iat), . 94 

Pillow, Fort (Pil'-lo), . . . 50S 

Pillow, General, .... 517 

Pinarus(Pin-a'-rus), ... 55 

Pinchincha (Pin-chin'-cha),. . . 438 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (Kotes'- 

worth Pink'-ne), . , . 480, 481 

Pindar (Pin'-der), ... 54 

Pinkie (Pink'-e), . . • .211 

Pirseus4 Pi-re'-us), ... 47 

Periandcr (Per-e-an'-der), . . .44 

Pirna (Pir'-na), .... 287 

Pisa (Pe'-sa), , . 141,144,145,167 

Pisistratus (Pi-sis'-tra-tus), . . 43, 44 

Pitcairn, iVIajor (Pit'-kairn), . . 460 

Pitt, William, the Elder, . 289, 304, 456 

Pitt, William, the Younger, . 320, 336 

Pittacus (Pit'-ta-kus), ... 44 

Pittsburg (Pitts'-burg), . . . 305 

Pittsburg Landing, . . . 509 

Pius VI. (Pi'-us), . . . 326, 329 

Pius VII., , . . 335,341,348 

Pius IX., .... 379,380 
Pi y Margall (Pe' e Mar'-gawl), 423, 424, 425 
Pizarro, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Piz-zar'-o), 214 
Place de Clichy (Plas de Klish'e), 414, 419 
Place de la Bastile (Plas de la Bas-teel'), 371, 373 
Place de la Concord (Plas de la Kong'- 

kord), .... 405, 419 

Place Maubert (Plas Mo-baire'), . " 373 

Placentia (Pla-sen'-she-a), . . .79 

Place Vendome (Plas Ven-dome'j, 414, 416, 

418, 419 
Plantagenet (Plan-taj'-e-net), . . 174 

Plantagenet, Geoffrey (Jef'-fre), . 173 

Plantagenet, Henry, . . 148, 174 

Plantagenets, .... 174 

Plassey (Plas'-se'l, .... 299 
Platffia (Pla-te'-a), . . . 47,49 

Platoff(Pla'-toff), . . . 345,346 

Plattsburg (Platts'-burg), . 488, 439 

Plautius, Aulus (Au'-lus Plau'-she-us), . 95 
Pleasant Hill, .... 517 

Plessis (Ples'-se), .... m? 
Pluto (Plu'-to), .... 36 

Plymouth (Plim'-uth), . 255, 257, 258, 259 

Po, 65,85 

Pocahontas (Po-ka-hon'-tas), . 255, 256 

Podolia (Po-do'-le-a"), . . . 253, 296 

Point Au Trembles (Point O Traing'-ble), 462 
Point Isabel (Is'-a-bel), . . . 407 

Point, Crown, . . . 290, 305, 460 

Point, Stony, .... 470 

Point, Verplanck's (Ver'-planks), , 470 

Point, West, . . . .472 

Poitiers (Pwa -te-a), 124, 153, 154, 156, 178, 179, 

184, 185 
Poland (Po'-land), 160, 186, 187, 213, 273, 274, 
275, 280, 287, 293, 294, 295, 296, 337, 343, 395 
Pole, ..... 381, 470 
Poles, . 186, 187, 295, 296, 364, 365, 395, 465 
Poiignac, Jules de (Jule der Po-leen-yak'), 360, 

361 
Poliorcetes, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Po- 

le-or-se'-teez), . . , 60 



Polish (Po-Iish), . 186, 187, 274, 280, 293, 294 

295,296,364,365,395 
Polk, James Knox, . . . 497 

Pollentia (Pol-len'-she-a), . . . no 

Pollock (Pol'-lok), '. . . 369 

Pollux (Pol'-lux), . . . .38 

Polydectes (Pol-e-dek'-teez), . . 40 

Polysperchon (Pol-e-sper'-kon), . . 60 

Pomerania (Pom-er-an'-e-a), 186, 228, 229, 231, 
277,287, 288 
Pompadour, IM.adame (Pom-pa-duie'J, 286, 310 
Pompeii (Pom-pe'-e-i), . . • 98 

Pompey, Cnseus (Ne'-us Pom'-pc), 37, 88, S5 pa 
Pompey, Cneius (Ne-us Pom'-pe), . y 

Pompey, Sextus (Sex'-tus), . . jO 92 

Pompton (Pom'-ton), . . 473 

Ponce de Leon (Pon'-tha da Le-on'), . 499 

Ponce de Leon, John, . . . 194 

Pondicherry (Pon-de-sher'-re), . 292, 308 
Pont du Jour (Pont du Zhoor'), 417, 418 

Pontiac (Pon'-te-ak), . . ■ . 306 

Pontic (Pon'-tik), . . . ,88 

Pontius (Pon'-she-us), . . •74, 7+ 

Pontius Pilate (Pon-she'-us Pi'-lat), . 94 

Pontus (Pon'-tus), ... 86, 88 

Ponyer Quertier (Poang'-yer Ker'-te-a), . 412 
Pope, John, .... 511 

Poppaea (Pop-pe'-a), . . . .96 

Popayan (Po-pi-ahn'), . . . 436 

Porsenna (Por-sen'-na), . . .69 

Porte Uauphine (Port Do-feen'), . 418 

Porte de la Meute (Port dela Mute'), . 418 

Porte Maillot (Mal'-yo), . . 416,418 

Porte St. Denis (Sang Der-ne'), . 373 

Porte St. Martin (Sang Mar'-tin), . . 373 

Porter, David (Por'-ter), . . 4S5, 490 

Porter, David D , . . 509, 513, 521 

Porter, Fitz John, . . • 510 

Port Gibson ^Gib'-son), . . . 514 

Port Hudson (Hud'-son), , . 515 

Port Republic, .... 510 

Port Royal, . . . 300, 301 508 

Porto Bello (Por'-to Bel'-lo), . . 280 

Porto Rico (Por'-to Re'-koJ, , . 422 

Portsmouth (Ports'-muth), , 261, 263, 264 

Portugal (Por'-tu-gal), . 125, 158, 193, 215, 244, 

270, 292, 338,-339, 340, 356, 440 
Portuguese (Por'-tu-geez), . 193, 216, 270, 292, 
334, 339, 342, 356, 440 
Porus (Po'-rus), .... 518 

Posen (Po'-zenj, . . . 275, 431 

Potemkin (Po-tem'-kin), . . . 295 

Potidaea (Po-tid-e'-a), ... 49 

Potomac (Po-to'-mak), 261, 475, 478, 507, 508, 

510, 511, 512, 514, 516, 517, 518 
Potosi (Po-to-se'), . . . 438, 439 

Potosi, San Luis (San Lu-is Po-to-se), . 498 
Potsdam (Pots'-dam), . . 297 

Powhatan (Pow-a-tan'), . . 255,257 

PrEEtor (Pre'-tor), . . .74, 87 

Praetorian Guards (_Pre-to'-re-an), . 94, 96, loi, 

102, 103 
Praga (Prah'-gah), . . . 296,365 

Pragmatic Sanction (Prag-mat'-ik), 280, 282 
Prague (Praig), 16S, 169, 170, 226, 227, 284, 287, 
288, 347, 376, 398 
Piairial ( Pra-re-yal'), . . . 324 

Prairie Grove (Pra'-re), . . . 512 

Preble (Preb'-el), . . . .481 

Premonstrants ( Pre-mon'-strants), . 133 

Prentiss (Pren'-tis), . . • 515 

Prenzlow (Prents'-lou), . . . 33; 

Presburg (Pres'-burgi, . . 336,582 

Presbyterian ( Pres be-te'-re-an), . 232 

Presbyterianism, .... 232 
Presbyterians, . . 21S. 236, 237, 239 

Prescott, William (Pres'-kot), . . 461 

President, .... 484, 490 

Presque Isle (Presk He'), . . . 30a 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



603 



Preston (Pres -ton) 
Pans, 



457 
469 



Preston 

Prevost (Pre'-vost), 
Prevost, Sir George, 

Priam (Pri'-am), .... 38 

Price, Stirling (Stir'-ling Price), 507, 508, 512 
Pride, Colonel, .... 239 

Prideaux (Pre-do'), . . . 305 

Prim, .... 400, 401, 448 

Primo de Rivera (Pre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 
Princeton (Prince'-ton), , . . 465 

Pring, Martin, .... 257 

Prltchard (Pritch'-ard), . • 522 

Piobus (Pro -bus), . . 105 

Ptocas (Pro'-kas), . . .66 

Proctor ( Prok'-ter), . . . 486 

Propontis (Pro-pon'-iis), . . .40 

Prospect Hill, .... 461 

J'rotestant (Prot'-est-ant), 206, 207, 208, 211, 

212, 216, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 
Protestanism, .... 227 

Protestants, 201, 206, 207,208, 214,216,218,225, 
226, 228, 231 
Provence (Prov-once',) . 147, 310, 349 

Providence (Prov'-e-dense), . 263, 264, 458 
Prussia (Proosh-yah), . 252, 272, 27S, 281, 285, 

286,292,294,337,346,374,396,397,401 
Prussian, 283, 285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 337, 346, 
396, 397, 4"o. 4^2, 405 
Prussians, 141, 277, 284, 285, 287, 288, 337, 346, 
3961 397i 400, 402, 405 
Pruth (Prooth), . . . . .277 

Prynne (Prin), .... 235 

Psammenitus (Sam-inen'-e-tus), . 26, 34 

Psammeticus (Sam-met'-e-kus), . 26 

Ptolemies (Tol'-e-meez), . . 63, 64 

Ptolemy, (Tol'-e-me), , . 54,61,64,90 

Ptolemy Ceraunus (Se-rau'-nus), . . 60 

Ptolemy Epiphanes (E-pif'-a-neez), . 64 

Ptolemy Philadelphus (Fil-a-Jel'-fus), 64, 90 
Ptolemy Soter (So'-ter), . . .64 

Puebla (Pweb'-lah), . . 44S, 449, 499 

Puerto Cabello (Pwair'-to Ka-bel'-yo), 436, 437, 

438 
Pugatscheff (Poo-gat'-shef), . . 294 

Puigcerda (Pvveeg-sair'-dah), . . 429 

Pulaski, Count (Pul-as'-ke), . 465, 470 



Pulaski, Fort, . 




. 509 


Pultowa (Pul-to'-wah), . 




276 


Piiltusk (Pool'-toosk), 




• 337 


Punic (Pu'-nik), 


761 77 


7S, 81,82, 83 


Punjab (Pun-jaub'), 




. 58,369 


Punnier (Pun-ne-ar'), 




• 369 


Pupienus ( Pu-pe'-nus), . 




103 


Puritan ( Pu'-re-tan), 


• 23s, 


257, 258, 263 


Puritanism, 




232, 234 


Puritans, 218, 234, 236, 


237, •■^45 


257, 25S,-..65 


Putnam, Israel (Put'-nam 


), • 


• 464, 469 


Pym, John, ( Pim), . 




235, 236 


Pyramids ( Pir'-a-mids), 




. 26, 32S 


Pyrenees (Pir-e-neez'), 


78, 80, 


124, 126, 127, 


159. 250, 


251, 268, 


323, 340, 346 


Pyrrhus (Pir-rus), 




61, 75. 76 


Q. 






Quaker (Qua'-ker), . 
Quaker Hill, 




265, 266, 267 


, 


468 


Quakers, 


. 258 


265, 266, 267 



Quatre Bras (Kah'-ter Brah), . -351 

•Vuartier Mouffiard (Kar-te-a' Moof-e-ar'), 419 
Qiicbec (Que-bek'), 290, 291, 300, 301, 302, 305, 
306, 307, 462 
r)ueenstown (Queens'-town), . . 485 

Q.ientin, St. (Sang Kain-tang'), 212, 218, 410 
Quertier, Ponyer (Poang-yare' Kair-te-a'), 412 
Quesne, Fort IDu (Du Kane), 286, 2S9, 302, 303, 

30s 
Quincy (Quin'-se), . • . . 493 

Quintilius (Quin-til'-e-us), . , , 105 



3/9. 

364. 
;37, 



.233, 



Quintus Cassius (Quin -tus Kash'-us), 89, 91, 92 
Quintus Flaminius (Fla-min'-e-us), . 81 

Quirinus (Que-ri'-nus), . . -67 

Quito (Kee'-to), . . . 43 j, 438 

R. 

Rabbah (Rab'-bah), . 

Rachael (Ra'-chel), 

Radagaisus (Ra-da-ga-i'-sus), 

Radetzky (Ra-dets'-ke), 

Radovi (Ra-do'-ve\ . 

Radzivil ( Rad'-ze-veel), . 

Raglan ( Rag'-Ian), . 

Ragotzky (Ra-gots'-ke), 

Ralil, .... 

Raisin, 

Raleigh (Raw'-!e), . 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 

Rambouillet (Ram-bool'-ya), 

Ramillies (Ram-il-cez'), .. 

Ramorino (Ram-o-re'-no), . 

Randolph, Peyton (Pa'ton Ran'-dolf), . 

Rapid Anna, .... 

Rappahannock (Rap-pa-han'-nok), 

Raritan (Rar'-e-tan), 

Raspail (Ras-pail'), 

Rastadt (Raw'-staht), 

Raucoux (Ro-koo'), 

Ravaillac fRa-val-yah'), 

Ravenna (Ra-ven'-na), . 89,117, iiS a 

Rawden (Raw'-den), . . • v7 

Raymond ot Toulouse (Ra'-mond of ' 00 

looz'), ... 131 14 

Rayon (Ra'-on), . 
Rebecca (Re-bek'-a), 
Redan (Re-dan'), 

Red River, . . . ,51, 

Red Sea, ..... 
Regensburg (Ra'-gens-burg), 
Regulators (Reg-u-la'-tors), 
Rugulus (Reg'-u-lus), 
Rehoboam (Re-ho-bo'-am), 
Reindeer, . . . 

Remus (Re'-mus), 
Reno (Re'-no), 
Resaca (Ra-sah'-kah), . 
Resaca de la Palma (Ra-sah'-kah da 

mah). 
Retaliation, 
Retz, Cardinal de. 
Revere, Paul ( Re-vere'), 
Reynolds, John F. (Ren'-olz), 
Reynosa (Ri-no'-sa), . 
Rhsetia (Re'-she-a), . 
Rheims (Reemz), . . 146, : 

Rhenish Bavaria (Ren-ish Ba-va'-re-a), 
Rhenish Prussia (Proosh'-yah), 
Rhine (Rine), . 89, 94, 125, 126, 165, 166, 

231, 251, 254, 269, 270, 280, 283, 284, 288, 
323, 326, 336, 348, 
Rhode Island (Rode I'-land), 258, 263. 264, 
468, 478, 
Rhodes (Rodes\ 
Rhodian (Ro'-de-an), 
Rhone (Rone), 
Riall (Ri'-al). 
Rialto (Re-awl'-to), . 
Rich. 
Richard the Lion-hearted, 



3« 

2? 
til 
380 
294 
36.' 

3Sf 
269 
465 
486 
521 
255 
262 
270 
366 
459 
518 
514 
468 
372 
272 
285 



149 
435 
28 



200, 2S2 



la Pah'. 
44ti, 



511 
518 



55, 



56, 123, 140 
. ■ 78. 



137, 138 



Richard II., .... 179 

Richard III., . . . . . 

Richardson ( Rich'-ard-son), 
Richelieu (Rish'-e-lu\ . 229, 231, 

Richmond (Rich'-mond), 184, 473, 506, 510, 
512, 518 
Rich Mountain, . . • . 

RicimerfRis'-e-mer), . . 

Ridley (Rid'-le), . . . . 



514 

340 

85 

i 349 
37/ 
377 

227, 

3191 

402 

458, 

■ 496 

, 192 

54 

205 

48S 

143 

243 

163, 

17! 



5'2 

249 

51^1 
521 
506 
iia 
ni3 



6o4 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Ridgefii-Id rRij'-field;, . . .463 

Ried (Reedj, . . . . .347 

Riga (,Re'-ga), . . . .274 

Rigault (Re'-go), .... 420 
Rio de la Hacha (Re'-o da la Hatch'-ah), 437 
Ri ) de la Plata (Re'-o da la Plat'-a) , . 195 
Ric Grande (Re'-o Gran'-da), . 444, 446, 497, 

498, 516 
R io Janiero (Re'-o Jan-e'-ro), . .339 

Ripley (Rip'-le), • • • . 48S 

Rivera Primo de (Pre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 
Ri'-ero (Re'-ver-o), 
Ri ers, Lord (Riv'-ers), 
Rivoli (Riv-o'-le), 
Riziio, David, (Reet'-se-o), 
Roanoke (Ro-a-noke'), . 
Robert of France (Rob'-ert), 
Robert of Normandy, 
Robert Guiscard (Gees'-kar), 
Ro&espierre (Ro-bes-pe-aire'), 



421, 450 



326, 379 
. 222 



• 147 

136, 147. 173 

145,161 

317, 31a, 321, 

323, 324 

Robinson Rev. John (Rob'-in-son), . 257 

Rocha(Ro'-cha), . . . 45°. 45i 

Rochambeau, Count de(Ro-shani-bo'), 472, 474 
Rochefort (Roash'-foar), . . .352 

Rochefort, Henri, . . 406, 420 

Rochelle, La (La Ro-shel') . . .249 

Rochester (Roch'-es-ter), . . 210 

Rockingham, Marquis of (Rok'-ing-ham), 475 
Rocky Mount, . . . .471 

Rocky Mountains, 195, 481, 492, 530, 531 

Roderick (Rod'-er-ik), . . .124 

Rodgers (Roj'-ers), . . 484,524 

Rodman (Rod'-man), . . • 5'2 

Rodijey, Admiral, (Rod'-ne), . 308,309 

Rodolph of Hapsburg, . . .166 

Rodolph IL, . . . 225,226 

Roger L (Roj'-er), . . . .145 

Roger IL. . ... 145 

Roland (Ro'-land), . . 127, 317, 318, 321 

Roland, ^L1dame, . . 3;7. 321 

Rolfe, John (Rolf), . - . .256 

Rollin, Ledru (Le'-dru Rol'-lin), . 371, 372 

RoUo (Rol'-lo), . . . 13J. 146 

Roman (Ro'-man), 65, 66, 69, 73, 77, 80, 86, 89, 
loi, 109, 113, 327, 379, 413 
Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . • 364, 373 

Romans, . 62, 63, 66, 67, 72, 77, 81, 87, 95, 100, 
no, 142, 204, 413 
RomanzofF (Ro-raan-zov), . . 294 

Rome, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 71, 76, 84, 85, 103, in, 
112, 128, 142, 204, 379, 380, 412, 413, 414 
Romish Church (Roam'-ish;, 200, 201, 207, 3S6 
Romney (Rom'-ne), . . . 506 

Romulus (Rom'-u-lus), . . 66, 67, 113 

Romulus Augustulus (Au-gus'-tu-Ius), 112, 113 
Roncesvalles (Ron-se-vals'j, . . 127 

Ronsin ('Roang-sang'), . . . 322 

Rooke, Sir George (Rook), . . 269 

Rosalie, Fort, (Ro-sa-le'j, . • 300 

Rosamunda(Ro-sa-mun'-dah), . . 119 

Rosas (Ro'-sas), .... 440 

Rosbach (Ros'-bok), . . .288 

Rosbecque(Ros'-bek), . . 154 



Rudiger (Ru'-de-jer.i, 

Rudiger von Stahremberg(Stah'-rem-berg), 

Rudjlph(Ru'-doIf), . . . . 

Rue Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'-na j, 416, 

Rue d' Amsterdam (d" Am'-ster-dam). 

Rue de Clery (der Kler'-e), 

Rue de la Pai.x (der la Pa'j, 

Rue de la Roquctte (der la Ro-ket'j, . 

Rue de Rosiere (der Ro-se-aire'), . 

Rue du Faubourg St. Denis (du Fo'-bo:r? 

Sang Der'-ne), 
Rue Lafayette ( Lah-fa-et'), . 
Rue Royale (Rwaw'-ale), . 414, 419, 

Rue St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), . 
Rue St. Honore (Sang Ho'-nore), , 
Rue Villeneuve Bourbon (Vil'-le-nuve Boor 

bon), . . . . . 

Ruffo (Ruf'-fo), .... 
Rugen (Ru'-jen), . . 231, 277, 

Runnymede (Run'-ne-meed), 
Rupert, Emperor of Germany (Ru'-pert), 



Rosecrans (Ros'-e-kranz), 



506, 507, 512, 513, 
515, 516 
• 407> 409 



Rosny (Ros'-ne), 

Ross, . . . . . 4»9 

R.ssi (Ros'-se), . . . .379 

Rossignol \ Ros-seen-yoal'), . . . 322 

Rostopschin (Ros-top-shin'), . . 344 

Rclhiere, La (La Ro-ie-aire'), . 348,349 

'ci tterdam (Rot'-ter-dam), . . 209 

R.uen (Roo'-eni, . . 348,156,182 

Round way Down (Round'-way Down), . 237 
Rouse (Rous), .... 242 

Rousseau (Roos'-so), . . 311,512 

Roxana (Rox-a'-na), . . . 57' So 

Roxbury (Rox-ber'-re), . . . 258 

Rubicon (Ru-be'-kon), ... 89 



38s 

252 
161 
418 
414 

373 
,18 

373 
♦ '4 

373 

42c 
420 
373 
418 

373 
329 
338 
175 
i68, 



399 
246 
280, 



Rupert of the Palatinate, . 237,238,244, 
Ruric (Ru'-rlk), .... 130, 
Russell, Lord John (Rus'-sel), 366, 367, 

Russell, Lord William, 
Russia (Roosh'-yah), 188,273,275, 277,278, 

286,292, 294, 295, 296, 329, 336, 342, 364, 386 
Russian, . i83, 273, 276, 278, 29^, 295. 296, 329, 

336, 345, 365, 386, 387, 383, 395, 396 
Russians, 130, 188, 274, 275, 280, 289,294, 295, 

296, '329, 3361 345. 365, 386, 387. 395 
Ryswick (Ris'-wik;, . . 248,255,301 

s. 

S.aabaism fSa'-ab-ism),' . 

Saalfeld (Sahl'-feld), 
Saarbrucken (Sahr'-brook-en), 
Sabine (Sa'-bine), 
Sabine Cross Roads (Sa-been'), 
Sabines, . . . . .66, 

Sac (Sak), . . . 

Sachem (Sa'-kem), . . 257, 

Sackett's Harbor (Sak'-et's), 
Sacramento (Sak-ra-men'-to), . 
Sacramento City, 
Sad )wa ( S:ih'-do-wa), . 
Saguntum (Sa-gun'-tiiml, 
Sahib, Nena(Na'-naSah'-ibl, . 
Saib Tippoo (Tip'-poo Sah'-ib), 
Saladin (Sal'-a-din), 
Salamanca (Sal-a-man'-ka), . 
Salamis (Sal'-a-mis), 
Salankemen (Sa-lan'-ke-men), 
Salem (Sa'-lem), . . 258, 259, 

Salic Law (Sa'-liki, . 151, 152, 178, 

Salien Franks (Sal'-yan), 
Salisbury (Sals'-ber-re), 
Salle, Robeit de La (der La Sahl') 
Salmei-on, Nicholas (Nik'-o-las Sal'-rae- 
ron), 424, 425, 426, 

Saltillo (Sahl-teel'-yo), 
Salzbach(Sahlts'-bok), . 
Samarcand iSam-ar-kand'), . 
Samaria (S.T-ma'-re-a), . . 31 

Samnite (Sam'-nitej, . . 74 

Samnites, ... 74 

Samnium fSam'-ne-um), . . 65 

Samson (Sum'-son), . . .29 

Samuel (Sam'-yel), . 
San Antonio (San An-to'-ne-o), . 427 (47, 50a 
San Antonio de Bexar (Ba-har'), . . 49? 

Sander's Creek (San'-deis;, . . 47) 

Sandusky (San'-dus-ke), . . . 486 

Sandwich (Sand'-witch) . . 245 

San Francisco (San Fran-sis'-ko), . . 500 

San Jacinto (San Ja-sin'-to), . . 444 

San Juan de UlloaiSan Wahn da C*o-loo'-a), 49'? 
San Julian (San Ju'-le-an), . . 4-'3 



337 
405 
,67 
517 
,67 
494 
526 
487 

499 
524 

398 
78 
390 
299 
138 
342 
46 
253 
266 
367 
151 
522 



427 

499 
252 
190 
, 32 
. 75 
75 
75 



A L PHABE TIC A L INDEX. 



C05 



San I.uis Potosi (San Lu'-is Po-to-se'), . 49S 
San Marino (San Ma-re'-no), . . 394 

San Martin (San Mar'-tin), . . . 373 

San Salvador (,San Sal'-va-dore), . 194 

Sanscrit (San'-slcrit), . . -23 

San Sebastian (San Se-bas'-che-an), . 346, 400 
Santa Anna (San'-ta An'-na), 442, 443, 444, 445, 
446, 447, 49S, 499, 500, 501 
Santa Cruz (^San'-ta Krooz), . . 441 

Sam a Fe (San'-ta Fa) . . 498,499 

Santa Guliana (San'-ta Gu-le-an'-a), . 429 

Sinta Martha (San'-ta Mar'-tha), . 436 

Santee (San'-tee) .... 474 

S:interre (San-taire'), . . .317,320 

Santiago (San-te-a'-go), . . . 439 

^apur i^Sa'-porj, .... 104 

Saracen (Sar'-a-sen), , 120, 122, 123, 124, 125 
Saracens , 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 134, 160 
Saragossa (Sar-a-gos'-sa), 127, 271, 339, 340, 4C0 
Sarah (Sa -rah), . . . .28 

Saratoga (Sar-a-to'-ga), . . . 467 

Sardanapalus (Sar-dan-a-pa'-Uis), . . 24 

Sardinia (^Sar-din'-e-a), 65, 77, 92, 158, 282, 2S5, 
326, 357, 379. 387, 388, 392) 393, 394 
Sardinian, .... 379 

Sardinians, . . 2S5, 323, 379, 388, 393 

Sardis (Sar'-dis), . . 33, 45, 52, 55, 60 

Sarmatians (Sar-ma'-she-ans), . . 105 

Sassacus (Sas'-sa-kus), . . . 262 

Sassanidae (Sas-san'-e-de), . . 103, 122 

Saturn (Sat'-urn), ... 36 

Saul, . . . . . .30 

Savage Station, . . . . 511 

Savannah (Sa-van'-nah), 267, 469, 470, 475, 503, 

509. 530 
Savona (Sa-vo'-nah), .... 203 
Savoy (Sa-voy') 203, 205, 253, 255, 268, 326 

Saxe (Sax), .... 285 

Saxe-Coburg (Sax-Ko'-burg), 363, 364, 367 

Saxon (Sax'-on), 120, 127, 128, 159, 160, 161, 162, 

171, 172 
Saxon-Heptarchy (Hep-tark'e), 120, 171, 285, 

287, 348 

Saxons, . log, 120, 127, 128, 189, 229, 275 

Saxony (Sax-on'-ne), 159, 160, 161, 200, 206, 207, 

2o8, 227, 229, 231,273, 275, 282,287, 337i 374i 

377, 379 
Say and Seale (Sa and Seel), . . 262 

Say brook (Sa'-brook), . . . 262, 263 

Sayle, William (Sale), . . . 265 

Scaevola, Mutius (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-la), 6g 

Scandinavia (Skan-de-na'-ve-a), . 146, 186 

Scandinavian, . 103, 130, 171, 185, iS5, 213 
Scandinavians, .... 184 

Scarron, Madame (Skar'-on), . . 253 

Schamyl (Sham'-mil), . . . 395 

Scharnhorst (Sharn'-horst), . . 347 

Scheldt (Shell), . . . .271 

Schenectady (Ske-nek'-ta-de), . 301 

Schleswig (,Shles'-wig), 120, 228, 273, 375, 377, 
378, 396, 397> 599 
Schlusselburg (Schlus'-sel-burg), . . 275 

Schmalkald (Shmahl'-kold), . 206, 207, 208 
Schoeffer I Shef -fer), . . .192 

Sch'jenbrun (Shain'-brun), . . 341 

Schofield (Sko'-feeld), . . 520, 521 

Schoharie Valley (Sko-ha'-re), . . 469 

Schuyler, Philip (Ski'-ler), . . 462, 467 

Schuyler, Fort, .... 467 

Schuylkill fSkool'-ki!l), . 266, 267, 466, 468 

Schwartz, P,erthold ( Bert'-old Shwarts) . 192 
SohwSrtzenberg (Shwarts'-en-berg), 347, 34S, 
Ijchweidnitz (Shwide'-nits), 
Schwerin (bhwair'-in), . il 



288, 29 
, 2S2, 287 
. 167 



Sclnvytz (Shwites), 

Scinde (Sind), . . . .3^9 

Scio (Si'-o), ..... 35S 
Sciots (Si'-ots), . . . .358 

Scipio (Sip'-e-o), . . . -79 

Scipio ^milianus (E-mil-e-an'-us), . 83 



Scipio Africanus (Af-re-kan'-us), . 80, 81, 82 
Scipio Nasica (Na'-se-ka), . . 84 

Scone (Skonel, .... 177 

Scots (Skots), . loi, log, 176, 17/", 211, 222 
Scotch (Skotsh), 176, 178,211, 222, 223, 235,28; 
Scotland (Skot'-land), 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 

178, 180, 209, 235, 278 
Scott, Dred, .... 502 

Scott, Winfield (Win'-feeld Skot), 485,488,494, 

496, 498, 499, 500, 508 
Scrope (Skrope), . . . . iSc- 

Scythia (Sith'-e-a), 
Scythian, 
Scythians, 
Sea Islands, . 
Seballs (Se-balls'). 

Sebastian Cabot (Se-bas'-che-an Ka'- 
Sebastian, St., . . . 

Seckenheim (Sek'-en-hime), 
Sedan (Se-dong'j, . . 404, 

Sedgwick (Sej'-wick), . ' . 

Sedition Law, . . 

Seine (Saine), ... 
Sejanus (Se-jan'-us), . 
Seleucia (Se-lu'-she-a), . . 

Seleucidse (Se-lu'-se-da), 
Seleucus, (Se-lu'- kus), . 
Selim I. of Turkey (Se'-lim), 
Selim n., .... 
Seljuk (Sel'-jook), 
Seminole (Sem'-e-nole), . 
Seminoles, 

Semiramis (Se-mir'-a-mis), 
Semmes, Raphael (Raf'-a-el Sems), 
Sempach, (Sem'-pok), 
Sempronius (Sem-pron'-e-us), 
Seneca (Sen'-e-ka, 
Sennacherib (Sen-na-ke'-nb), 
Sens, . . . 

Sepoy (Se-poy'), 
Sepoys, .... 
Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), 
Septimius Severus (Sev'-e-rus), 
Serapis (Se-rap'-is), . 
Sergius Catiline (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line),, 
Seringapatam (Se-ring-ga-pa-tam'), . 299 

Serrano (Ser-ran'-o), 400, 401, 422, 427, 428, 429 
Sertorius (Ser-to'-re-us), ... 87 

Servia (Ser'-ve-a), .... igi 
Servian, ..... 380, 381 
Servians, ..... 380 

Servius "Tullius (Ser'-ve-us Tul'-Ie-us), . 68 

Sesia (Sesia (^Se'-se-a), . . . 393 

Sesostris (Se-sos'-tris), ... 26 

Sevastopol (Sev-as-to -pol), . . 387,388 

Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . . . 102 

Severus, Alexander (Al-ex-an'-der), 102 

Severus, Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), . loi 

Sevier (Sev-eer'), .... 472 

Seville (Sev'-il), . 158, 340, 424, 425, 426 

Sevres iSev'-er), .... 4'^ 

Sextius Lateranus (Sek'-she-us La-ter-an'-us), 78 
Seymour (Se'-more), .... 212 
Seymour, General, . . . 5'" 

Seymour, Horatio, (Ho-ra'-she-o) . 523 

Seymour, Jane, . . . 210,211 

Sforza, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Sfor'-tsa), . 143 
Shackleford (Shak'-el-fordi, . . SU 

Shaftesbury, Earl of (Shafls'-ber-re), 245, 246, 

264 
Shah Abbas, Shah Ab'-bas), . 
Shah, Nadir (Na'-dir Shah), 
Shah Soojah (Shah Soo'-jah), 
Shalmanesar (Shal-man-e'-scr), 
Shannon (Shan'-non), 
Shawuoese (Shavif-no-ese'), . 
Sheba (She'-ba), . 
Shechem (She'-kem), 
Shelby (Shel'-be), 
Shem, . . • 





• Z^ 


mr. 


34, 


104, 


5c3 


422, 


427. 


43- 


t'-bot), . 


'95 




346, 


400 
170 


405, 


406, 


413 




516, 


518 
481 


125, 


373, 


406 
94 


■ 6^ 


, Sg, 


lOI 


. 60, 6j 


, 88 




60, 64 






192 






192 




• 


134 


491, 


494, 


495 
495 


• 


. 24, 


186 

519 
166 

79 




95, 9^ 






24 






T08 


35*9 


39^^ 


391 


389 


390 


391 
yo 

lOI 

470 


line) 


)• 


88 



215, 2a 



365 



. 4S< 

31 

. 31 

472 

32, 24 



6o6 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Shenandoah V lUey (Shen-an-do'-ah), 506, 510, 

5191 V^"^-, 521 
Sheridan (Sher'-e-dan), 
Sheridan, Philip H., . 
Sheriff JNIiiir (Sher'-if Moor), 
Sherman, Roger ;Roj'-er Sher'-man), . 464 

Sherman, William Tecumseh (Te-kum'-sa) 512, 
513, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 529 
Shields (Sheelds), .... 502 
Shiites (Shi'-ites), , . . 123 

Shiloh (Shi'-lo), .... 509 

Shinar, Land of (Shi'-nar), , . 21,22 

Shirley (Shir' le), . . 302,303,304 

Shishak (Shi'-shak), ... 32 

Shreveport (Shreve'-port), . . . 617 

Shrewsbury (Shruse-ber'-re), . . 180 

Siberia ( Si-be '-re-a), . 188, 276, 365, 395 

Sibley, Henry H. (Sib'-le), . . 513 

Sicilian (Sis-ii'-e-an), . . • .150 

Sicilians, ..... 378 
Sicilian Vespers, . . . 145, 150 

Sicily (Sis'-e-le), 40, 42, 49, 50, 65, 76, 77, 78, 80 



79. 378, 394 
• 65 
. 61,62 

271 55, 137 

27 

. 138 

• 312, 331 

507 

170 



d), 169, 



187 
401, 402 



369 



83, 145, 146, 165, 272, 
Siculi (Sik'-u-li), 
Sicyon (Sish'-e-on), 
Sidon (Si'-don), 
Sidonians (Si-do'-ne-ans), 
Sierra Morena (Se-a'-ra Mo-ra'-na) 
Sieyes (Se'-es), . . 

Sigel, F'ranz (Se'-gel), 
Sigismund, of Germany (Sid'-jis-mun 
Sigismund I. of Poland, 
Sigismund II. of Poland, 
Sigraaringen (Sig-ma-ring'-en), 
Sikh (Seek), 

Sikhs, .... 
Silesia (Se-lee'-she-a), . . 190, 28 

Silesian, . . . 282, 284, 285 

Silistria (Sil-is'-tre-a), . . . 359, 387 

Sillery (Sil'-ler-re), . . . 291, 306 

Silliman, (Sil'-le-man), . . . 465 

Simnel, Lambert (Lam'-bert Sira'-nel), . 185 
Simon de Montfort (Sl'-monde Mont'-fort), 175, 

176 
Simon, Jules (Jule Si'-mon), 
Simon, Maccabeus (Mak-ka'-be-us) 
Simpson (Sim'-son), . 
Sinai, Mount (Si'-na), 
Si nope (Sin'-o-pee), . 
Sioux (Soo), 
Sirmium i^Sir'-me-um), 
Siserai^Sis'-e-ra), . 
Siva (Si'-va), . . , 

Siwah (Se-wah'), 
Skippon (Skip'-pon), . , 

Skrzynecki (Skshe-nets'-ke), 
Slaves (Slaves), 
Slavic (bla'-vik), . . 

Slavonia (Sla-vo'-ne-a), 
Slavonians, . . 118, 129, 

Slavonic (Sla-von'-ik), 
Slemmer, Adam J. (Slem'-mer), 
Sloat (Sloat), . 
Sloughter, Henry (Slout'-er), 
Smart, .... 
Smith, Andrew J., 
Smith, E. Kirby (E. Kir'-be Smith), 
Smith, John, . 

Smith, Sydney (Sid'-ne Smith), 
Smolensko (Sino-lens'-ko), 
Sobieski, John (So-be-es'-ke), 
Sobraon i So-bra'-on), 

Sobrier (So-bre-a'), . . . 372 

Socialism, ..... 372 
Socrates (Sok'-ra-teez), ... 51 

Sogdiana (Sog-de-an'-a), . . .57 

Soissons (Swos-soang'), . , 125, 349 

Solferino (Sol-fer-e'-no), . . . 393 

Solomon (Sol'-o-mon), ... 31 

Solon (So'-lon), . . .42) 43, 44 



64 



365 

. 129 

376, 380 

. 381 

59, 160, 186 

. 186 

504 

499 

261 

242 

519 

512 

55) 256, 257 

■ 330 

344 

252, 253 

369 



SoltikofffSol'-te-kof), . . .29c 

Solway Frith (Sol'-way), . . .99 

Solway Moss, . . . .211 

Solyman (.Sol'-e-man), . . 192, 204 

Somerset . Som'-er-set), . . 211,212.508 

Somorrostro(So-mor-ros'-tro), . . 428 

Sonderburg Glucksburg, (Soon'-der-burg 

Glooks'-burg), .... 396 

Sophia St. (Saint So-fe'-a), . up, 191 

Sorel, (Sor'-el), . . . 462 

Sorr, ..... 2S4 

Sothel (Soth'-el), . . . iU 

Soubise fSoo-beez'), . . . ;SS 

Soult (Soolt), . . . 340, 31.', .^46, 44T 

South America (South .\-mer'-c ka), . 194 

South Carolina (South Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265. 
463. 47I) 473) 494, 504, 505, 50S, 515. 521 
South Mountain, .... 511 
Spain, 27, 37, 78, 80, 83, 87, 90,96, HI, 124, 127, 
146, 156, 194, 215, 242, 269, 335, 339, 355 
Spaniard (Span'-yard), . . . 194, 214 

Spaniards, . 143,145,242,265,268,340 

Spanish (Span'-ish), 194, 195, 213, 26S, 339, 342, 
367, 40Q, 421 
Sparta (Spar'-ta), 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 48, 51, 52, 

53.62 
Spartacus (Spar'-ta-kust, . . .87 

Spartan (Spar'-tan), 40, 41,, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 

52, 62 
Spartans, , .41, 42, 46, 49, 50, 52, 62 

Spenser, Hugh (Hu Spen'-ser}, . . 177 

Spicheren iSpik'-er-en), . . . 403 

Spice Islands, .... 193 

Spire, . . . 161, 166, 201, 354 

Splugen (Splu'-jeni, .... 332 
Spotsylvania Court House (Spot-sil-va'- 

ne-a), ..... 518 

Springfield (Spring'-feeld), . . 472, 507 

St. Albans (Saint Awl'-bans), , . 184 

St. Angelo (Saint An'-je-lo), . . 204 

St. Antoine (Saint An-twaw'-na), . 250,373 

St. Arnaud (Sang Ar'-no), . . , '387 

St. Aubin (Sang O'-been), . . 157 

St. Augustine (Saint Au'-gus-teen), . . 268 

St. Avoid (Saint .4v'-old), . . 403 

St. Bartholomew (St. Bar-thol'-o-mew), 219, 220 
St. Bernard (Saint Ber-nard'), . . 137 

St. Clair (Saint Klair), 466, 467, 479 

St. Cloud I Sang Cloo'), . . 331,393 

St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), 219, 221, 373, 410 
St. Domingo (Saint Do-ming'-o), . 1S4, 334 

St. Germain (Sang Zher'-men), . 219, 247 
St. Germain I'Auxerrois (Sang Zher'-men 

Lo-zher-waw') .... 219 

St. Helena (Saint He-le'-na), . . 352 

St. Honore (Sang Ho-nore'), " . 418 

St. John, .... 156, 140, 192 
St. Just (Saint Just), . . . 208 

St. Lawrence (Saint Law'-rence), 195,300 302, 
306, 462, 487 
St. Leger (Saint Le'-jer), . . . 467 

St. Louis (Sang Loo'-e), . 139, 140, 150 

St. Mark (Saint Mark), . . .143 

St. Mark's (Saint Mark's), . . , 492 

St. Mary's i^Saint Ma'-ry's), . , 261 

St. Menehould (SangMa'-noo), . . 316 

St. Paul (Saint Paul), . . .234 

St. Peter (Saint Pe'-ter), . 199, 200, 379 

St. Petersburg (Saint Pe'-ters-burg}, 274, 275, 

293, 333 
St. Philip, Fort (Saint Fil'-ip), . 5c 

St. Pierre (Sang Pe-aire'), . . 302 

St. Pierre, Eustace (Use'-las), . 157 178 
St, Quen (Sang Kain), . . . 415 

St. Quentin (Sang Kain-tang'l, 212, 218, 410 
St. Kuth, . . . ■ . .248 

St. Salvador (Sal'-va-dore), . ' . 194 

St. Sophia (So-fe'-a), . . . 119,191 

Stadtholder (Staht'-hold-er), 216, 217, 218, 247, 

251, 298 



A L PHAB E TIC A L INDEX. 



607 



(Ru'-de 



Stair, . . 

Stanhope (Stan'-hope\ 
Stanislaiis Leczinski (Stan- 

zins'-ke), 
Stanislaus Poniatowski (Po- 
Stanley (Stan'-le), 
Stanton, Edwin M. (Stan'-ton), 
Stahremberg, Rudiger von 

Stah'-rem-burg), 
Stark, John, . 
Staten Island (Sta'-ten), 
Statira (Sta-ti -ra), 
Steadman, Foit (Sted'-man) 
Steele, Frederic (Steel), 
Steinbeck (Stine'-bok), . 
Steininctz (Stine'-mets), 
Stephen of England (Ste'-ven), . 
Stephen of Hungary, 
Stephens, Alexander H. (Ste'-ve 
Stephenson, Fort (Ste'-ven-son), 
Steuben (Stu'-ben), 
Stevens (Ste'-vens), . 
Stewart (Stu'-art), . 

Stilicho (Stil'-e-ko), . 
Stirling (Stir'-ling), 
Stirling, Lord, , 

Stockach (Stok'-ak), 
Stockholm (Stok'-holm), 
Stockton. (Stok'-ton), . 
Stofflet (Stof-fla'), 
Stone, . , 

Stoneman (Stone'-man), 
Stone River, 
Stono Ferry (Sto'-no), 
Stony Point, . . 

Straftord (Straf-ford), 
Stralsund ( Strahl'-soond), 
Strasburg (Stras'-burg), i 



. . 271 

is-la'-us Lek- 

275, 276, 280 
ne-a-tous'-ke), 203 



Stratton Hill (Strat'-ton), 
Strelitzes (Strel'-its-es), . 
Strieker (Strick'-er), . 
Stringer (String'-er), 
Stringham (String'-am), 
Strode, . . , 

Strongbow (Strong'-bo), 
Struve (Stru'-va), 
Stuart (Stu'-art), . 1 

Sturgis (Stur'-jis), 
Stuttgart (Stut'-gart), 
Stuyvesant (Sti-ves'-sant), 
Styria (Stir'-e-a), 
Suchet (Su-sha'), 
Sucre (Su-kra'), . 

Suda (Su'-da), 

Sudermania (Su-der-ma'-ne-a 
Suetonius Paulinus (Su-ton'-e 
Sueve (Sweev), 
SueveSi . ... 

Suifee (Suf-fee') 
Suffeean ( Suf-fee'-an), 
Suffolk ( Suf'-folk), . 
Suliot(Su'-le-ot), . 
Sullivan, John (Sul'-le-van), 
Sullivan's Island, 
Sully (Sul'-le), . 
Sultan (Sul'-tan), 137, 138, i 
Sumter, Fort (Sum'-ter), 
Sumter, Thomas, . 
Sunbury (Sun'-ber-re), 
Sunnites (Sun'-nites), 
Surajah Dowlali (Su-ra'-jah 
Surrey, Earl of (Sur'-re), 
Susa (Su'-sa), . , 

Susiana (Su-se-an'-a), 
Sussex (Sus'-sex), 
Suwarrow (Su-wahr'-o), 
Swabia (Swaw'-be-a), 
Swabian League, 
Swanzy (S\van'-ze), . 



165, 22S 

252, 37°. 

406 



•us Pau 



523 

-jer von 

52, 271,272 

. 467 

464 

. 58 

521 

. 5'5 

277 

403, 404 

173. 174 

. 1S9 

524 

. 4S6 

465 

• 5" 
490 

no. III 
177 

• 464 
329 

186, 213 
499 

■ 322 
508 

. 522 
513 

• 469 
470 

234, 235 
277. 338 
402, 403, 
407, 412 
. 237 
1S8 

. 489 
242 

• 507 
236 

. 174 

375 

474, 512 

518 

• 377 
260 

. 166 

342 

. 440 

357 

213, 341 

nus), 96 

. 112 

HI 

. 215 

215 

513, 514 

353 

468, 470 

■ 463 
221 

359, 386 
505, 515 
472, 474 



464 



!, 204 
504- 
471 



Dow'-lah) 



295 
159 



123 

299 

209, 211 

35, 57, 59 

• 57 
120 

296, 329 
161, 162 

• 170 
. 258 



Sweaborg (Swe'-torg), . . 338, 388 

Swedes (Sweeds), . 229, 230, 252, 29s 

Sweden (Swe'-dcn), 185, 186, 213, 229, 273, 275, 

c J- , r. ^''7' ^^S. 2S1, 29s, 333, 338, 341, 342 

Swedish (Swced'-ish), . 213, 229, 251, 27.4, -^()s 
277,278,281, 336, 347 
Sweyn (bwainy . . , , 172 

Swiss, .• . 157, 166, 167, 168,171, 334 

Switzerland (Swits'-er-land), 167, 171, 201, 328, 

334, 411 
Syagrius (Se-a'-gre-us), . . ', ..2; 

Sydney, Algernon (Al'-ger-non Sid'-ne), 246 
Sydney Smith, .... 3^^ 

Sylvia iSil'-ve-ah">, . . . 66 

Syra (Sir'-ah), .... 39.1 

Syrans (Sir'-ans), . . . 394 

Syracusans (Sir-a-ku'-zans), . . .50 

Syracuse (Sir-a-kuze'), , 40,50,65,76,80 

Syria (Sir'-e-a), 33, 34, 55, 60, 63. 64, 81, 83, 89, 
99, ioi,,i22, 134, 330, 368 



31,63, 64, : 



Syrian, 

Syrians, 

Szecklers f'Zek'-lers), 

Szigeth (Zig'-eth), 

Szolnok ' Zol'-nok), 

Szonz (Zonts), 



Tabor Hill (Ta'-bor), 
Tabor, Mount, . . 

Taborites (Ta'-borntes) 
Tacitus (Tas'-e-tus), 
Tacubaya (Ta-koo-bi'-ya), . 
Talavera (Tal-a-va'-ra), . 
Tallard (Tal-lar'), . 
Talleyrand (Tal'-le-rand), 
Tallien (Tal-le-ong'), 
Tamasp (Tam-asp'), 
Tamaulipas (Ta-mow'-le-pas), 
Tamerlane (Tam'-er-lane), . 
Tanoy (Taw'-ne), 
Tarentines (Ta-ren'-tins), 
Tarentius Varro (Ta-ren'-she-us 
Tarentum (Ta-ren'-tum), 
Targowicz (Tar-go-vits'), . 
Tarik (Ta'-rik), . 
Tarleton (Tarl'-ton), . 

Tarpeia (Tar-pe'-a), 
Tarpeian Rock, 
Tarquin the Elder (Tar'-quin), 
Tarquin the Proud, . 
Tarquinius Prisons (Tar-quin'-e-us 
kus), .... 

Tarquinius Superbus (Su-per'-bus), 
Tarsus (Tar'-sus), 
Tartar (Tar'-tar), . , 

Tartaric (Tar-tar'-ik), 
Tartars, .... 
Tartary (Tar'-ta-re), 
Tauris (Tau'-ris), 
Taylor, Richard (Ta'-lor), . 
Taylor, Zachary (Zak'-a-re), 495, 497, 



b, 330 

. 64 

381 

. 192 

382 
. 382 



. 231 

330 

. . 170 

los 

• 445 
340 

- 270 

9, 331, 346, 349 

323. 324 

. 215 

• 435, 498 

. 191 

503 

. 75 

Var'-ro), 79 

65. 75, 76, 80 

295, 206 

124 

471, 473 
■ . 66 

• 73 



68, 69 



68, 69 

55,92 

190 

. 189 

129 

57, 123 

29s 

• 517 

98, 500, 

5"i 



Tchernaya (Cher-na'-ya), 
Teba (Te'-ba), . . . .386 

Tecumseh (Te-kum'-sa), . . 484, 4S6 

Tegethoff(Tej'-et-hof), . . 398 

Tehuacan (Ta-wah'-kan), . . . 448 

Tejada, Lerdo de (Lair'-do de Te-ha'-da), 450, 

45' 
Tejas (Te'-jas), . . . iiS 

Tell, William i6j 

Temeswar, (Tem-esh-var'), . 381 383 

Tennessee (Ten-nes-see'), . 480, 490, tgi 493, 
497, 504, 506, 5qS, 509, 510, 515, 516, ;i7, 520, 
^ 523 

Tennesseeans,(Ten-nes-see'-ans), . . 489 

Tennis Court (Ten'-nis), . 313,317 

Teran (Ta-ran'), .... 435 
Ternay (Ter-na'), . . . 47a 



6o8 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



S2, 53, 54 

25 

52, 53, 54 



46, 47, 48 
99 



Terska (Ters'-ka), .... 230 
Teutones (Tu'-tones), ... 85 

Tewksbviry (Tukes'-ber-re), . . . 1S3 

Texan (Tex'-an), . . . 443, 444 

Texans, ..... 444 

Texas (Tex'-as), . 443, 446, 497, 498, 501, 504, 

513) 516 
Thaddeus Kosciuszko (Thad'-de-us.Kos-se- 
_ uz'-ko),_ . . . 295,296,395,465 

Thales (Tha'-leez), ... 44 

Th;imes (Temz), . . . 175, 4S6 

Thapsus (Thap'-sus), ... 90 

Thassilo (Thas-sil'-lo), . . . 128 

1 hatcher (Thatch'-er), . . , 522 

1 hebais (The'-bais), . . .25 

Theban (The'-ban), ... 48 

Thebans, 

Thebes, Egypt (Theebs), 
Thebes, Greece, . 35, 37, 

Theiss (Tice), . . 129, 

Themis tocles (The-mis'-to-kleez), 
Theodore (The'-o-dore), 

Theodoric the Ostrogoth (The-od'-o-rik), iiV, 

117 
Theodosiiis the Great (The-o-do'-she-us), . no 
Theophikis Eaton (The-of'-e-lus E'-ton), 363 
Theresa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Te-re'-sa), 250, 280, 
282, 283, 284, 285, 2S6, 297, 298, 3n 
rhermia (Ther'-me-a), . . . 394 

Thermidor (Ther'-me-dor), . . 323, 324 

Thermopylae (Ther-mop'-e-Ie), . 46,61,358 
Theseus (The'-soos), • • • 37 

Thespians (Thes-pi'-ans), . . .46 

Thessaiians (Thes-sa'-le-ans), . . 53 

Thessaly (Thes'-sa-le), . . 36, 90 

Thibault (Te'-bo), . . .148 

Thiers, Louis Adolphe (Loo-e A'-dolf Te'-a), 370, 

_.. . 3^5,411,414)415,420,430,431 

Thionville (Te-oang-veel'), . 402, 421, 408 

Thomas (Tom'-as), . . . 414 

Thomas, George H., . 50S, 516, 520 

Thomas, John, .... 463 

Thomson, Charles (Tom'-son), . , 459 

Thompson ('i'om'-son), , , . 495 

Thomyris Cl'hom'-e-ris), . . .34 

Thornton (Thorn'-ton), . . 446, 498 

Thrace (Thra'-se) . 40, 45, 60, 109, 112 

Thracian (Thra'-she-an), . . 102 

Thracians, . . . . • n? 

Thrasybulus (Thras-ib'-u-his), . . 51 

Thuringia (Thu-rin'-je-a), . . . 159 

Thuringian, .... i56 

Thiirn, Count von (Toorn), . . . 226 

Thymbra (Thim'-bra), ... 33 

Tiber (Ti'-ber), . .68,69,97,101,102 

Tiberias, Lake (Ti-be'-re-as), . . 137 

Tiberius (Ti-b-^'-re-us), . . 94, 05 

Tiberius Gracchus (Grak'-kus), . 84 

Ticino (Tis'-e-no), . . . 379, 392 

Ticinus (Tis i'-nus), • • • 79 

Ticondeiog? (Ti-kon-der-o'-ga), 290, 305, 307, 

460, 466 
Tien-tsin ^Teen'-tsin), . . . 3S9 

Tigris (Ti -gris), . . .24, 56, 59, 99 

Tilly (Teel'-ye), . . 227, 228, 220, 230 

Tilsit (Til'-sit), . . . .338 

Timour the Lame (Te-moor'), . . 191 

Tinicuni Island (Tin'-e-kum), . . 266 

Tinville, Fouquir (Foo-ke-a' Tang-veel'), 324, 

420 
Tippecanoe (Tip-pe-ka-nooO, . . 484 

Tippoo Saib (Tip'-po Sah'-ib), . . 299 

Tissaphernes (Tis-sa-fer'-nes), . . 52 

Titans (Ti'-tans), ... 36 

Titus (Ti'-tus), . . . 97, 98 

Titus Manlius (Ti'-tus Man'-le-us), . 74 

Titus Gates (Oats), . . . .246 

Titus Talius (Ta'-she-us>, . . 67 

Tohopeka ('I'o-ho-pe'-ka), . . . 487 

Tokay (To-ka'), .... 383 



Tokeli, Emmerick (Em'-er-ik To-ke'-le), 252, 

253 

Tolbiac (Tol'-be-ak), . . . 125 

Tolentino (To-len-te'-no), . 326, 351 

Tolosa (To-lo'-sa), . . . 158, 428 

Tompkins, Daniel D. (Dan'-yel D. Tom'- 

kins !, .... 491, 492 

Tomochichi (To-mo-ke'-ke), . . 267 

Topeka (To-pe'-ka), . . 503 

Torgau (Tor'-gou), . . 291 

Tories (To'-rees), . 246, 272, 297, 400, 432 

Toronto (To-ron'-to), . . 4S5 

Torres (Tor'- res), , . . ^35 

Torres Vedras (Tor'-res Va'-dras), . 341 

Torstenson (Tors'-ten-son), . . 23) 

Tory (To'-re), . . 246, 2c 7, 366 399 

Tostig (Tos'-tig), . . . ■ '72 

Totila (To-ti'-la), . . - iiS 

Toul (Tool), .... 206, 208 
Toulon (Too-lon'), 271, 322, 325, 361, 402 

Toulouse (Too-looz'), 136, 141, 146, 149, 249, 349 
Touraine (Too-raine'), . . . 149 

Tourenne (Too-ren'), . . . 206 

Tournay (Toor-na'j, , . 158, 209 

Tours (Toors), .... 124, 407 
Tourville (Toor'-veel), . . . 255 

Toussaint Louverture (Too-sang' Loo-ver- 

ture'), . . . , .334 

Trafalgar (Traf-al-gar'), . . 336 

Trajan (Tra'-jan)' . . . -99 

Transylvania (Tran-sil-va'-ne-a), 189, 192, 253, 
380, 381, 382, 383 
Transylvanian, .... 192 

Trasimenus (Tras-im'-e-nus), . . 79 

Traun (Troun), .... 284 

Travendal (Trav'-en-dal), , . 274 

Trebia ( Tre'-be-a), . . . 79 

Trent (Trent), . . 207, 208, 398 

Trenton (Tren-ton), . . . 46: 

Trevino (Tra-ve'-no), . . . 451 

Tribonian (Tre-bo'-ne-an), . . 119 

Tribunate (Trib'-u-nat), . . . 332 

Tribune (Trib'-une), ... 84 

Tribunes, . . 70, 71, 72, 89, 142 

Tristany (Tris'-ta-ne), . . 422, 427 

Trjfels (Tre'-fels), . . .138 

Tripoli (Trip-'o-le), . . 192, 481, 482 

Tripolitans (Tre-pol'-e-tans), . . 481 

Tnpolitza (Trip-o-lit'-sa), . . 358 

Triumvirate (Tri-um'-ver-ate), . 88, 92 

Triumvirs (Tri-um'-vers), . . 83, 92 

Trochu (l"ro'-koo), . . 407, 409, 410, 411 

Trojan (Tro'-jan), . . . 38, 65 

Trojans. , . , , .38 

Tromp, Van (Van Tromp), . . 241 

Tronchet (Tron-sha'), . . . 320 

Troppau (Trop'-pou), . . . 356 

Troy, 38 

Troyes (Troy'-e), . 108, 154, 155, 181, 349 
Truxton (Trux'-ton), . . . 480 

Tryon(Try'-on), . . 458,465,469, 470 

Tudela (Too-da'-la), . . . 340 

Tudor (Too'-der), . . .184 185 

Tuilenes (Tweel-ree'), 315, 318, 321, 327, 362, 

37I) 385, 4061 419, 430 
TuIIia fToo'-le-a), , . . .68 

Tullus Hostilius (Tul'-lus Hos-til'-e-us), 76 

Tunes (Too'-nes), ... 77 

Tunis (Too'-nis), . . 140, 150, -q2, 204 

Tupac Amaru (Too'-pawk Am'-a-ru), ^^3, 434 
Turenne (Too-ren') , 231, 250, 251, 252 

Turgot (Tur'-go'), . . . ■ • V-^ 

Turin (Too'-rin), . . .270,357 

Turkestan (Turk-es-tan'), . . 35, 58 

Turkey (Turk'-e), 35,204, 276,278,280,294,29s, 

359) 386, 3S7, 388 
Turkish (Turk'-ish), 136, 191, 192, 205, 206,252, 

276, 294, 360, 388 

Turks, 134, 13s, 136, 191, 192, 206, 215, 252, 277, 

294) 38?) 388 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



609 



. 144, 280 

. . 265 
265 

• 504 
.496,497 

• 179 

38 
99, 172 

'■1, 31. 55, 56 

56 

. 56 

6S 

34I1375, 39S 

341 

. 225 

42 



Tuscany (Tus'-ka-ne), . . 

Tuscarora (Tus-ka-ro'-ra), . 
Tuscaroras, . 

Twiggs, 

Tyler, John (Ti'-ler), 
lyler, Wat (Wot Ti'-ler), . 
Tyndarus (Tin-da'-rus), 
Tyne (Tin), . . . 

Tyre, 

Tyrian (Tir'-e-an), . 

I'yrians, . . . 

Tyrrhenians (Tir-re'-ne-ans), . 
Tyrol (Tir'-ol), . 207,208 

Tyrolese (Tir-ol-ese') . . 

Tyrone (Ty-rone'), . . 

Tyrtxus (Tir-te'-us), . . 

u. 

Uhrich (Oo'-rik), . . . 406, 407 

Ukraine (U'-krane), . . 253, 276, 296 

Ulloa, San Juan de (San Whaun' da Oo-loo'- 

a) 499 

Ulm, ..... 165, 336 
Ulm, New, .... 513 

Ulric (Ool'-reek), . . . .170 

Ulrica, Eleanora (Ool-re'-ka El-e-no'-ra), 278 
Ulric Zwingle (Ool'-reek Zwin'-gle), . 201 

Ultramontane (Ul-tra-mon-tane'), . 363, 431 
Ultramontanes, .... 431 

Ulysses (U-lis'-sees), ... 38 

Umbria (Um'-bre-a), . . . '65 

Umbrians, . , • • 75 

Union City, ..... 517 
United States, 455, 463, 475, 478, 484, 400, 496, 
498, 500, 504, 524 
Unstruth, (Oons'-troot), . .^ . 161 

Unterwalden (Oon'-ter-wol-den),' . 167, 16S 
Upsala (Up-sa'-la), . . . 213 

. . 129 

36 
• 135 
. 167 
• • 3' 

.444,445 
440, 441 
. 503, 532 
. 90 
210 
272, 2S0, 302 



Ural (U'-ral), 
Uranus (U'-ran-us), 
Urban (Ur'-ban), 
Uri (Oo'-re), 
Uriah (U-ri'-ah\ 
Urrea (Oo-ra'-ah), 
Uruguay (Oo'-roo-gwi), 
Utah (U'-tah), . 
Utica (U'-te-ka) 
Utopia (U-to'-pe-a), 
Utrecht (U'-trekt), . 



Vadier (Va-de-a'), 
Valencia (Va-len'-she-a), 



339, 342, - 
424. 425, 



109, 
109, 



407, 410, 



441, 



Valenciennes (Va-long-se-en'), 

Valens (Va'-lens), 

Valentinian I. (Val-en-tin'-e-an), 

Valentinian II., . 

Valentinian III., 

Valer'an (Va-le'-re-an), . 

Valerijn, Fort (Va-lar-re-aing') 

Valladohd (Val-la-do-lid'), . 

Valles (Vals), 

Valley Forge, . . 

Valmy (Val'-me), 

Valparaiso (Val-pa-ri'-so) 

Valois (Val-waw') . 152, 178, 187, 206, 

Van Artveldt(Van Art'-velt), 

Van Buren, Martin (Van Bu'-ren), . 494, 

Vandal (Van'-dal), . . 112, 117, 

Vandalism, .... 

Vandals, . . 104, 112, 117, 

Vandamme (Van-dam'), . 

Van Dorn, Earl, . . 508, 

Vane, Sir Henry, 

Van Home, . . . . . 

Van Olden Barnveldt (Van Ol'-den Barn' 

veldt), ..... 
Van Tromp, . . . . . 

Van TwiUer (Van Twil'-ler), 

39 



466, 468 



Vanvres (Van'-ver), 407, 409, 410, 414, 

Varangian (Va-ran'-je-an), . . 

Varennes (Va-ren'), 
Varennes, Billaud (Beel'-yo Va-ren'), 
Varese (Va-rese'), . . . 

Varna (Var'-na), . , 

Varus O'^a'-rus), . . 

Vasa, Gustavus (Gus-ta'-vus Vas'-a), 
Vasco de Gama (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), 
Vassy (Vas'-se), . 
Vauban (Vo-bong') . 
Vauchamps (Vo-shong'), . 

Vaud(Vo), .... 
Vedas (Ve'-das), . . . 

Veil (Ve'-e-i), 
Velarde (Va-lar'-da), . 
Venables (Ven'-a-bles), 
Vendean (Von-de'-an), . . 

Vendeans, . . . , . 

Vendee, La (La Von'-da), 
Vendemiaire (Vong-de-me-aire'), 
Vendome (Ven-dome'), 270, 271, 272, 

Veneti (Ven'-e-ti), . 

Venetia (Ve-ne'-she-a), . 65, 380, 

Venetian, . . . 143. 

Venetians, . . 13S, 143 

Venezia (Ve-ne'-ze-a), 

Venezuela (Ven-e-zu-e'-Ia), 436, 437, 

Venice (Ven'-is), 112, 138, 141, 143, 
192, 195, 253, 278, 279 
Venus (Ve'-nus), 
Vera Cruz (Va'-rah Krooz), 444, 447, 



Vercellse (Ver-sel'-Ie), ... 86 

Verd, Cape de, .... 193 

Verdun (Ver-dun'), 129, 159, 206, 20S, 319, 403, 

404 
Vergniaud (Varn'-yo), . . 317, 318 

Yermandois (Ver-man-dwaw'), . . 135 

Vermont (Ver-monl'), . 300, 467, 478, 528 

. . 280 

475, 481. 
103, 393 
470 
19s 



416,417, 
4i3 

130, 188 
316 

323, 324 

■ 333 
. 191, 359 

• 94 
186, 213 

■ 193 
. 219 

250 

34':; 

. ?^8 
23 

• 72 
424 

. 242 

335 

. 322- 

322 

325 

410, 414, 

416, 418 

. 143 

393, 399 

144, 327 

, 144, 327 

• 143 
438, 440, 

441 

144, 158, 

327, 380 

• 36 
448, 450, 



Vernon (Ver'-non), 
Vernon, Mount, 
Verona, (Ve-ro'-na), 
Verplanck's Point (Ver-plank's), 
Verrazzani, John (Ver-rat-sah'-ne), 
Versailles (Ver-sails'), . 250, 293, 312, 313, 315, 
407, 409, 411, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418 
Versaillists (Ver-cail'-ists), . 417,418,419,420 
Verus, Lucius (Lu'-she-us Ver'-us), . 100 

Vespasian (Ves-pa'-she-an), . 97, 08 

Vespucci, Amerigo (A-mer-e'-go Ves-poot'. 

she), ..... 194 

Vesta (Ves'-ta), .... 36 

Vesuvius (Ve-su'-ve-iis), . . -74 

Veturia (Ve-tu'-re-a), ... 71 

Vicksburg (Vicks'-burg), . . 512, 514 

Victor Emmanuel I. (Vik'-tor Em-mau'-u- 

el), 357 

Victor Emmanuel II., 379, 392, 393, 394, 400, 

4'3 
Victoria, Alexandra (Al-ex-an'-dra Vik-to'- 

re-a), . . . . .367 

Victoria, General, . . 435, 441 

Vienna (Ve-en'-na), loo, 192, 204, 231, 232, 253, 

336, 340, 341, 350, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383. 393, 
,.. ,„ , 396, 399 

Vigo(Ve'-go) .... ^69 

Villages (Veel' a-goash), . . . 383 

Villars (Vil-yar'), . . 269 271,272 

Villa Franca (Vil'-la Fran'-ka), . 393 

Villaviciosa (Vil-le-ve-se-os'-sa), . . 272 

ViUer Exel (Vil'-ler Ex'-ei), . 410 

Villeroi ( Vil-yer-waw'), . . 268,270 

Villiers, George (Vil-ye-aire'). . . 232 

Vimiera (Vini-e-a'-ra), . . . 340 

Vincennes (Vin-senz'), . 300, 335, 470, 530 
Vindex, Julius (Ju'-le-us Vin'-dex), . 96 



6io 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Vindya (Vind'-ya), . , -23 

Vinoy (Ve-noy'), . . . 415, 420 

Virginia (Vir-jiii'-e-a), 71,72, 255, 256, 257, 264, 
302, 303, 455, 459, 461, 462, 463, 464, 469, 473, 
474. 477, 481, 483. -fSS, 491, 493, 496, 503, 505, 
506,507,512,514,516,517,521 
Virginian, ..... 302 
Virgin'ans, . . 256, 258, 303, 305, 462 

Virgin'us ( Vir-jin'-e-us), . 72,526,527 

ViriatiiLis ;,Vir-e-a'-tlius), . . .S3 

Viridomarus (Vir-e-do-ma'-rus), . . 78 

Visconti (Vis-kon'-te), . . . 143 

Viscount (Vi'-kcunt), . . . 248 

Vishnu (Vish'-nu), . . . .23 

Visigothic (Vis-e-goth'-ik), . . iii, i'i2 

Visigotiis (Vis'-e-gotlis), . . . 124 

Vistula (Vis-tu'-la), 141, 186, iSS, 294, 296, 337 
Vitellius (Vi-tel'-le-us), ... 97 

Vitiges(Vil'-e-jees), .... 118 
Vittoria ( Vit-to'-re-a), . . . 346 

Vitry (Vit'-re), . . . .148 

Vitry la Fraucais (Vit'-re la Fron-sais'), 408 
Vizier (Ve-zeer'), . . . . 253 

Vladimir (Lad'-e-mer), . . . 188 

Vladislaus (Lad-is-la'-us), . . 187 

Voiwode ( Voi'-wode), . . 187, 273 

Volga, (Vol'— ga), . , .109,264 

Volhynia ( Vol-hin'-e-a), . . . 296 

Volscians (Vol'-se-ans), . , . 68, 70, 71 

Volumnia (Vo-lum'-ne-a), . . -7' 

Von Der Tann (Fon Der Tahn'), 407, 408 

Vosges (Voazh), .... 409 

Vulcan (Vul'-kan), . . . .36 

w. 

Wabash (Waw'-bash), . . . 284 

Wadsworth (Wods'-worth), . . . 263 

Wadsworth, General, . , . 518 

Wagner, Fort (Wag'-ner), . . . 515 

Wagram ( Wawg'-ram), . . , 341 

Wahawbees (Wa-haw'-bees), . . 36S 

Waibling (Wl'-bling), . . .162 

Waitzen (Wite'-sen), .... 382 
Wakefield (Wake'-feeld), . . 182 

Waldeinar (Wol'-de-mar), . . . 186 

Wales, .... 120,176,180 

Walker, Fort (W.aw'-ker), . . .508 

W.alker, Sir Hovenden (Ho'-ven-den), 302 

Wallace, Lewis (Loo'-is Wol'-les), . 506, 518 
Wallace, Sir William, . . . 177 

Wallachia (\Vol-lok'-e-a), . 294,357,386 

Wallachs (Wol'-loks) . . . .381 

Wallenstein (Wol'-len-stine), 227, 228, 229, 230, 

23t 

Walpole, Sir Robert (Rob'-ert Wol'-pole) 280 
Walter the Penniless, (Wawl'-ter), . 135, 147 
Walworth, Sir William (Wil'-yam Wol'- 

worth), ..... 179 

Wampanoag (Wawm-pa-no'-ag), . 257, 258 
Warbeck, Perkin (Per'-kin War'-bek), . t8;; 
Ward, Arteraas (Ar'-te-mas Ward), . 47 ; 

Warner, Seth (Seth War'-ner), . . 367 

Warren, Joseph (Jo'-sef VVar'-ren), . 460, 46r 
Warrington (War'-nng-ton), . . 490 

Warsaw (War'-saw), 296, 337,338, 364, 365, 295 
Wartburg (Wart'-burg), . . . 200 

Warwick, (War'-wick), . 182, 183, 262 

Warwickshire (War'-wik-shir), . . 237 

Washington (VVash'-ing-ton„ 481, 489, 496, 505, 
506, 507) 508, 511, 514, 522, 524 
Washington, Fort, . . . 464, 465 

Washington, George, 286, 302, 303, 305, 462, 

463, 464, 465, 466, 468, 472, 474, 475, 476, 478, 
479, 480, 481 
Washington, William A., . . 473 

Wasp, . .... 490 

Waterford (Waw'-ter-ford), . . 302 

Waterloo (Waw'-ter-loo), . . 351, 352 

Watertown (Waw'-ter-town) . . 258 



Wat Tyler (Wot Ti'-ler), . . .17ft 

Waxaw (Wax'-aw), . . . 471 

Wayne, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Wain), 466, 470, 

473 1 474, 479 
Wayne, Fort (Fort Wain), . . .471 

Weathersfield (Weih'-ers-feeld), . 262, 263 

Webb, ... ... 304 

Webster Daniel, (Web'-ster), . . 496 

Weimar (Wi'-mar), .... 231 

Weinsberg (Wines'-berg) . . 162 

Weissenberg (Wi'-sen-berg), . . 227 

Weissenbourg (Wi'-sen-boorg), . . 403 

Weitzel, Godfrey (God'-fra Witze'-el), . 521 
Welden (Wel'-den), . . .382 

Weldon, (Wel'-don), . . . . 1G2 

Wellesley, Sir Arthur (Wel-les'-Ie), 299, 338, 

340, 342 

Wellington, Duke of (Wel'-ling-ton), 300, 342, 

346, 348, 349i 351, 352, 366 

Welsh, .... 176, 180 

Wenceslaus (Wen-ses-la'-us), . i58, 

Wentwonh, General (Went'-worth), 

Wentvvorth, Thomas, 

Werder, General von (Wair'-der), 403, 406, 

Werther, Baron (Wair'-ter,) 

Wessex (,Wes'-sex), . . . 120, 

Westermann ( Wes'-ter-man), 

West Indies (In'-deez), 194, 508, 509, 334, 

474 
Westminister (West-min'-ster) 
Westmoreland (West-more'-land), 
Westphalia (West-fa'-le-a), 217, 231, 338, 

West Point, . ... 

West Virginia, (Vir-jin'-e-a), . . 507 

Wheeler, Sir Hugh (Hu Wheel'er), . 
Wheeling (Wheel'-ing), 
Wheehight, Rev. John (Wheel'-rite), . 
Wl\ig, . . . 246, 366, 399, 

Whigs. . . • . 246, 272, 

White, Colonel, .... 

While, Major, .... 
Whitehall (Whitc'-hawl), . 
Whitemarsh (White'-marsh), . 
White Oak Swamp, . 

White Plains, . . 464, 468 

Whitwortn (Whit'-worth) . . 334 

Wialopolski ! Wi-al-o-pols'-ke), . . 395 

WickliiTe, John (Wik'-lifj, . 169, 181 

Wiesloch, (Wees'-lok), . . . 2V7 

Wight, Isle of (Wite)j . . .239 

V/ilderness, . . . .28, 518 

Wilhelmshohe (Wil'-helms-haa), . 405, 412 
Wilkes, John (Wilks\ . 
Wilkinson, James (Wd'-kin-son), 
William I. of Germany (Wil-yam), 398, 
405, 406, 407, 40'J, 
William III. of England, 247, 248, 254, 



280 

234 

410 

401 

171 

322 

470, 

, 4S8 

• 239 

i8o 

343. 

348 

472 

,516 

390 

■ 507 

258 

, 432 

. 459 

242 

508 

241 

466 

5" 



484, 
402, 
409, 
255, 
268, 
366, 
136, 147, 172, 



297 
487 

404, 
413 

259, 
269 
367 
173 
173 



304, 388 
263 
511 
510 

390 
321 



258, 
487, 
474. 



William IV. of England, 
William the Conqueror, 
Wdliam Rufus (Ru'-fus), 
Williams, .... 
Williams, Roger (Roj'-er), 
Williams, Thomas, . . . 

Williamsburg, .... 
Willoughby (Wil'-lo-bel, 
Wilmington (Wil'-ming-ton), 264, 473 
Wilna (Wil'-na), . . . 343 

Wilson (Wil'-son), . . .39c 

Wilson, Henry, , . 525 

Wilson, J. H., ... 522 

Wilson's Creek, . . . .5^-7 

Wimpfen (Wim'-fen), . . . 227 

WimpU'en (Wim'-fen), . . ■ V^z 

Winchester (Win'-ches-ter), 486, 509, 510, 5iq, 

52r 
Winder (Wine'-der), .... 480 
Windischgratz (Win'-dish-grots^. 376 381, 382 
Windsor (Win'-zer), . . 175 262, 263 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



6ii 



\Vinfried(Win'.freed), . 

Winkelried, Arnold (Ar'-nold Wink'-el- 

reed), . . . . . 

Winnebago (Win-ne-ba'-go), . 
Winslow (Win'-slo), . . . . 

Winslow, John A., 
Winston (Wins'-ton), , . 

Winthrop, John (Win'-throp), . . 

Wliuhrop, Theodore (The'-o-dore), 
Winzingerode (Win'-zin-jer-rode), 
Wisconsin (Wis-kon'-sin), . 5°°, S°3) 

Wise, Henry A., . . . . 

Withiacoochie (With-la-koo'-chee), 
VVitikind (Wit'-e-kind), . . 127, 

Wittelsbach (Wit'-tels-bok), , .163, 

Wittenberg (Wit-ten-berg'), 199, 200, 

Wittgenstein (Wit'-gcn-stine), , 345, 346, 
Woerth (Worth), . 
Wohlgemuth (Wol'-ge-mute), . 
Wola (Wo'-la), 

Wolesley, Sir Garnet (Gar'-net Wol'-es-le), 
Wolfe, James (Woolf), . 290, 305, 

Wolscy, Thomas (Tom'-as Wool'-se), 202, 



49'1 
303 

519 
472 
25S 
506 
348 
531 
507 
495 
128 
164 
2S7 

359 
409 
382 
365 
432 
306 
209, 
210 

Wool, John Ellis (El'-lis Wool), 485, 498, 499, 

510 
465 
243 
. 254 



4^3. 



Wooster (Woos'-ter), 

Worcester (Woos'-ter), . 240, 241, 

Worms (Werms), 162, 165, 166, 171, 200, 
Wouter Van TwiUer (Wou'-ter Van Twil'- 
lerj, ...... 260 

Wrangel (Ran'-gel), . . . 231 

Wrede (Vra'-da), . . . .348 

Wurmser (Werm'-ser), . . . 326 

Wurtemberg (Wir'-tem-berg), 170,348,374, 377, 

399 
Wurtembergers (Wir'-tem-berg -ers), . 409 

Wurzburg (Wurts'-burg), . . 326 

Wyatt, Sir Thomas (Tom'-as Wi'-at), . 256 
Wyoming, INfassacre of (Wy-o'-ming), 469, 470 
Wyoming Territory, .... 532 

X. 

Xantippus (Zan-tip'-pus), . . .77 

Xenophon (Zen'-o-fon), . . . 51, 52 

Xeres dela Frontera (Hi-ras'df la Fron-ta'- 
ra), . . . . . .124 

Xerzes (Zerk'-seez), . . .46, 47 



Y. 

Yamasee (Yam-a-see') 

Yaraasees, 

Yeamans, Sir John (Ye'-mans), 
Yermouk (Yer-mook'), . 
Yesdijird (Yaze'-de-zherd), . 
Ynglians (Ing'-gle-ans), . 
Yorck (Yor'-rik), 

York, 107, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185 

York, New, 244, 259, 260, 261, 263, 300, 
462, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 474 
Yorkinos (York'-e-noes), . 

Yorkists (York'-ists), . 
Yorktown (York'-town), 
Ypsalanti, Alexander (Ip-sa-lan'-ti), 
Yucatan (Yn-ka-tan'), 
Yungay (Yoon'-gi) . . 

z. 

Zabala (Za-bal'-a), . . 

Zacatecas (Zak-a-ta'-kas), 

Zama (Za'-ma), 

Zanagra (Zan'-a-gra), 

Zara (Za'-ra), . 

Zealand (Zee'-land), 

Zedekiah (Zed-e-ki'-ah), 

Zend Avesta (Zend A-ves'-ta), 

Zenger, John Peter (Zeng'-er), 

Zenobia (Ze-no'-be-a), . 

Zenta (Zcn'-ta), 

Zernbbabel (Ze-rub'-ba-bel), 

Ziethen (Tse'-ten), 

Zingis Khan (Zin'-jis Khan), 

Zion, Mount (Mount Zi'-on), 

Ziska, John(Zis'-ka), 

Znaym (Znah'-inr), . 

ZoUicoffer, Felix (Fe'-lix Zol'-le-kof 

Zorilla (Zo-ril'-la), 

Zorndorf (Tsorn'-dorf), 

Zoroaster (Zo-ro-as'-ter), 

Zoutman (Zout'-man), 

Zug (Tsoog'), 

Zuloaga (Zoo-lo'-a-ga), 

Zaiiiga (Zu-ne'-ga), . 

Zurich (Tsu'-reek), . . 167, 

Zwingle, Ulric (Ool'-reek Zwing'-gle), 

Zwinglians (Zwin'-gle-ans), 



. 265 

266 

. 264 

123 
. 122 

18 = 

• 346 
246, 466 

301 . 4561 

475i 516 
441, 442 
. 1S2 
3c3, 474 
357. 358 

• 445 
441 



429 
451 



274 

32.33 

33 

. 261 

104, 105 

• 253 

33 

• 35J 
190, 191 

• 31 
169 

• 34' 
508 
422 

. 289 
35, 120 

• 309 
167 

• 447 
217 

329. 393 
201, 218 

, 2 01 




SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



ASSYRIAN KINGS. 




BABYLONIAN KINGS 




B. C. 




B. C. 


Nimrod 


. 2217 


Nabonassar, . 


747 


Semiramis, .... 


2040 


Asordanus, 


691 


Ninus, .... 


. 2009 


Aramels, . , 


687 


Ninias, .... 


1765 


Esarhaddon, 


. 687 


Arius, .... 


• 1927 


Axerdis, 


670 


Chedorlaomer, 


I9I2 


Soosduchinus, . 


. 668 


Araleus, .... 


. 1897 


Asurukhbal, . 


663 


Baleus I., . . . 


1857 


Chyniladan, . . 


. 648 


Armanites, . 


. 1827 


Nabuchodonosor, . 


648 


Belochus I., . 


1796 


Sarac, . . , 


. 628 


«. Baleus II., 


. 1754 


Nabopolasar, . 


626 


Altades, .... 


1702 


Nebuchadnezzar, 


, . 605 


Maniitus, .... 


. 1670 


Evilmerodach, 


561 


Manchaleus, .... 


1640 


Neridglissar, 


560 


Spherus 


. 1610 


Belshazzar, • . 


555 


Mamilus, .... 


1590 






Sparetus, .... 
Ascatades, .... 


• 1560 






1520 


PHARAOHS OR KINGS 


OF EGYPT 


Amyntas, .... 


. 1480 






Belochus II., 


1435 


Menes, 


. 21S8 


Bellepares, 


I4IO 


The Shepherd Kings, . 


1900 


Lamprides, .... 


1380 


Horus, 


• 1587 


Sosares, .... 


1348 


Rameses Miamum, 


1577 


Panyas, .... 


1298 


Acencheres, 


. 1549 


Sosarmus, .... 


1253 


Achoris, 


1537 


Derceto, .... 


1250 


Cenchres, . . . 


. 1528 


Mithrseiis, . . . . . 


1234 


Cherres, 


1504 


Tentamus, .... 


1207 


Menophis, 


. 1416 


Divanukha, 


1200 


Sethos, 


1376 


Teutaeus, .... 


1 165 


Rameses, . 


, 1321 


Phinceus, .... 


"35 


Menophtah and Sethos II., 


1305 


Mardokempad-Messessimordacus 


1049 


Ammanephthes, 


. 1255 


Eupaples, .... 


1014 


Ammenemes, 


1215 


Laosthenes, .... 


1006 


Sesostris, . 


. 1200 


Adrammelech I., . . . 


1000 


Thuoris, 


1 189 


Pyriatides, .... 


961 


Rhampsinitus, ... 


. 1 1 24 


Anaku-Merodacli, 


960 


Cheops, 


1082 


Ophratceus, .... 


931 


Shishak, .... 


. 978 


Ephecheres, . . . . 


910 


Nephercheres, 


937 


Divanuber, .... 


875 


Amemophthis, . 


. 933 


Adrammelech II., 


840 


Osochor, 


924 


BaJdasi, .... 


800 


Osorthon I., . . . 


. 853 


Sardanapalus, . . . . 


771 


TaccoUothis, 


838 


Tiglath Pileser, 


747 


Petubastes, 


. 825 


Shalmanezar, . . . . 


728 


Osorthon II., 


825 


Sennacherib, .... 


712 


Psammes, .... 


. 791 


Esarhaddon, . , 


. 709 


Bocchoris 


781 



(613) 



6i4 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Senechos, . 

Siephinales, . 

Nechepsos, 

Necho, . 

Apries, 

Amasis, 

r'iammenitus, 



KINGS 
Dejoces, 
Phraortes, 
Cyaxares, . 
Astyages, 



OF 



B. C. 
721 

687 
663 
639 
594 
572 
525 



MEDIA. 



710-656 
656-635 
635-595 
595-559 



KINGS OF PERSIA. 

Cyrus the Great, . . . 559-529 

Cambyses, . . • 529-521 

Smerdis, . . • • 521 

Darius Hystaspes, . . 521-4^5 

Xerxes the Great, . . . 485-464 

Artabanus, . . • 4^4 

Ai-taxerxes Longimanus, . 464-425 

Xerxes II 425-424 

Sogdianus, .... 424-423 

Darius Nothus, . . . 423-404 

Artaxerxes Mnemon, . . 404-35S 

Artaxerxes Ochus, . • SS'^-SS? 

Arses, . . • • • 337-33° 

Darius Codomannus, . . 336-33° 



HEBREW 



KINGS. 



Saul, 
David, . 
Solomon, 



KINGS 



Rehoboam, 

Abijah, 

Asa, 

Jehoshaphat, 

Jehoram, . 

Joash, . 

Amaziah, . 

Uzziah, 

Jotham, 

Ahaz, . 

Hezekiah, 

Manassah, 

Anion, 

Josiah, 

Jehoahaz, . 

Jehoialctn, 

Jehoiachim, 

Zedekiah, 



OF 



1095-1055 

1055-1015 

1015-975 



JUDAH. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL. 



Jeroboam, 



975-958 

958-955 

955-904 

904-8 89 

889-878 

878-839 

839-809 

809-759 

759-742 

742-726 

726-697 

697-642 

642-641 

641-609 

609 

609-598 

598-596 

596-58S 



Nadab, .... 954-953 

Baasha 953-93° 

Elah, .... 930-929 

Zimri, 929 

Omri, .... 929-918 

Ahab, 918-897 

Ahaziah, .... 897-S96 
Jehoram, .... 896-894 
Jehu, . . . . 894-856 

Jehoahez 856--840 

Jehoash, .... 840-825 
Jeroboam II., .. • • 825-784 

An Interregnum, . . 784-772 
Zachariah, .... 772-771 
Shallum, . . . .771 
Menahem, .... 77i-76i 
Pekaiah, .... 76i-759 

Pekah, 759-739 

Hosea, .... 739-721 

KINGS OF ROME. 

Romulus, . . ■ . . 753-715 
Numa Pompilius, . . . 715-672 

Tullus Hostilius, . . 672-640- 
Ancus Martins, . . . 640-616 

Tarquin the Elder, . . 616-578 
Servius TuUius, . . . 578-534 

Tarquin the Proud, . . 534-509 



KINGS OF MACE.DON. 



975-954 



Caranus, . 
Coenus, 
Thurymas, 
Perdiccas L, . 
ArgKus, 
Philip I., 
yEropus, 
Aleetas, 
Amyntas I., 
Alexander I., 
Perdiccas II., 
Archelaus, 
Orestes, 
Pausanius, 
Amyntas II., 
Alexander II., 
Ptolemy, . 

Perdiccas III., 

Philip the Great, 

Alexander the Great, 

Philip Arid-cCUS, 

Cassander, 

Philip IV., . _ . 

Alexander and Antippu! 

Demetrius I., 

Lysimachus of Thrace, 

Ptolemy Ceraunus, 

Meleager, 



795 
1 



360-336 
336- 324 
324 317 
317-298 
298-297 
297-294 
294-288 
288-282 
282-280 
28c 



SOVEJiEIGNS AND RULERS. 



615 



v.. c. 

Sosthenes, . . . 280-27S 

Antigonus Gotiatas, . . 278-242 

Demetrius II., . . . 242-232 

Antigonus Doson, . . 232-220 

Philip v., . , , . 220-178 

Perseus, .... 1 78-1 68 

THE SELEUCID.E OF SYRIA. 

Seleucus Nicator, . . . 301-283 

Antiochus Soter, . . 283-261 

Antioclius Theos, , . . 261-246 

Seleucus Callinicus, . . 246-226 

Seleucus III., . . . 226-223 

Antiochus the Great, . . 223-185 

Seleucus Philopater, . . 185-175 

Antiochus Epiphanes, . 175-162 

Demetrius I., ... 1 62-1 50 

Alexander I., . . . 150-146 

Demetrius II., . . . 146-130 

Antiochus VII., . . 130-127 

Alexander II., . . . 1 27-1 23 

Antiochus VIII., . . 123-112 

Antiochus IX., . . . 112-95 

Antiochus X., . . . 95-9-2 

Antiochus XL, . . . 92-87 

Antiochus XII., . . 87-83 

Tigranes, .... 83-69 

Antiochus XIII., . . 69-65 

THE PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT. 

Ptolemy Lagus, . . 301-284 

Ptolemy Philadelphus, . . 284-246 

Ptolemy Evergetes, . . 246-221 

Ptolemy Philopater, . . 221-204 

Ptolemy Epiphanes, . . 204-180 

Ptolemy Philometer, , . 180-145 

Ptolemy Physcon, . . 145-117 

Ptolemy Lathyrus, . . 11 7-100 

Ptolemy Alexander I., . 100-81 

Cleopatra I., . . . . 81-80 

Ptolemy Alexander II., . So-65 
Ptolemy Auletes, . . -65 

Berenice, .... 65-55 

Ptolemy and Cleopatra II., . 55-45 

Cleopatra II., . . . 45-30 



THE ARSACID^ 
Arsaces, 

Arsaces Artabainis, 
Mithridates I., . 
Orodes, I., 
Phraortes, . 

Phaaticus, , , 
Orodes II., 
Vonones I., . , 
Artabanus III., . 
Tiridatus, 



OF PARTHIA. 

256-217 
. 217-156 

156 
. 58-37 

37-A. D. 13 

A. D. 

. 13-14 

14-15 

15-18 

18-35 

• 35-45 



Vardanus, 
Gotarzes, 
Vologeses L, 
Vonones II., 
Artabanus IV., 
Pacorus, 
Khosroe I., . 
Parthanaspates, 
Vologeses II., 
Vologeses III., 
Artabanus V., 



THE MACCABEES 

Judas Maccabeas, . 

Jonathan Maccabeas, . 

Simon Maccabeas, 

John Hyrcanus I., 

Aristobulus I., 

John Hyrcanus II., . 

Aristobulus II., 

Antigonus, 

Herod the Great, . 

Archelaus, Ethnarch, . 



A. D. 

45 

45-50 

50-60 

60-81 

81-90 

90-106 

106-117 

117-134 

134-189 

1S9-212 

212-223 



OF JUDEA. 

B. C. 

. 165-160 

160-143 

• 143-135 

135-106 

106-70 

70-67 

67-40 

• 40-37 

r>. c. 37-A. D. 2 

A. D. 
2-6 



ROMAN ExMPERORS. 



Augustus, 

Tiberius, 

Caligula, 

Claudius, 

Nero, 

Galba, . 

Otho, 

Vitellius, 

Vespasian, 

Titus, 

Domitian, 



The Casar 



o-A. D. 14 

A. D. 

14-37 

• 37-41 
41-54 

. 54-68 
68-69 

. 69 
69-70 

• 70-79 
79-81 

. 81-96 



Good Emperors. 
96 



96-117 
117-138 
138-161 
161-180 



T/ie Five 
Nerva, 
Trajan, . 
Adrian, 

Titus Antoninus Pius, 
Marcus Aruelius Antoninus^ 

The Period 0/ Military Despotista. 
Commodus, . . . 180-193 
193 
193 

193-212 
2 1 2-2 1 7 
217-21S 
218-222 
222-235 
235-238 



Pertinax, 
Didius Julianus, 
Septimius Severus, 
Caracalla, 
Macrinus, 
Heliogabalus, 
Alexander Severus, 
Maximin, . 



6i6 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 





A. D. 




A. D. 


Pupieniis and Balbinus, . 


. 238 


Sapor I., . 


. 235-272 


Gordian, . 


238-244 


Hormisdas I., 


. 272 


Philip, .... 


. 244-249 


Varan es I., 


272-276 


Decius, 


249-251 


Varanes II., . 


. 276-294 


Gallus, .... 


. 251-254 


Narses, 


294-309 


yEmilianus, 


254 


Sapor II., 


• 309-384 


Valerian, 


. 254-261 


Sapor III., 


. 384-389 


Gallienus, . 


261-268 


Varanes III., 


. 3S9-400 


Flavins Claudius, . 


. 268-270 


Indigertes I., 


400-42C 


Aurelian, . 


270-275 


Varanes IV., 


. 420-441 


Tacitus, , 


. 275-276 


Indigertes II., or Varanes V., 441-482 


Florian, 


276-277 


Obalus, . 


. 482-490 


Probus, .... 


. 277-282 


Cabades, . 


490-532 


Carus, 


282-283 


Chosroes the Great, 


. 532-591 


Carinus and Numerian, . 


. 283-284 


Cliosroes II., 


591-627 


Diocletian and Maximian, 


284-305 


Siroes, . 


627-632 


Constantius and Galerius, 


• 305-306 


Hormisdas II., 


632-641 


Constantino the Great, 


306-336 


Yesdejird, 


. 641-656 


Constantius II., 


• 336-361 






Julian the Apostate, . 


. 361-363 


GREEK EMPERORS. 


Jovian, .... 


• 363-364 








Emperors of Different Races. 


Roman Emperors of 


the West. 


Valens, 


• 364-379 


Valentinian I. , 


. 364-375 


Theodosius the Great 


379-395 


Gratian, 


• 375-383 


Arcadius, 


• 395-408 


Maximinus, . 


. 383 


Theodosius II., 


408-450 


Valentinian II., 


. 383-388 


Marcian, a Thracian, 


• 450-457 


Eugenius, 


. 388-394 


Leo the Thracian, 


457-476 


Theodosius the Great, 


394-395 


Zeno, . 


. 476-491 


Honorius, 


• 395-423 


Anastasius I., 


491-500 


Valentinian III., 


. 423-455 


Justin I., 


. 500-527 


Maximus, 


• 455 


Justinian I., 


527-565 


Avitus, 


• 455-457 


Justin II., 


. . 565-578 


Marjorian, 


. 457-461 


Tiberius, . 


. 578-582 


Severus, 


461-467 


Mauritius, 


. 582-602 


Anthemius, . 


. 467-472 


Phocas, 


602-610 


Olybrius, . 


472-473 


Heraclius I., 


. 610-641 


Glycerus, 


. 473 


Heraclius II., . 


641 


Nepos, 


. 473-475 


Heracleonas, 


. 641-642 


Romulus Augustulus, 


. 475-476 


Constantine IV., 


642-685 






Justinian II., 


. 685-695 


ROMAN GOVERNORS 


OF JUDEA. 


Leontius, . 


695-698 


Copinicus, 


. 6 


Apsimarus Tiberius, 


, 698-711 


Ambivinus, 


, 


Philipicus Bardanes, 


71I-713 


Valerius Flaccus, . 




Anastasius II., 


. 713-715 


Pontius Pilate, . 


^ 


Theodosius III., 


. 715-716 


Herod Agrippa, 


. 37 






Cuspius Padus, . 




Isatiric 


Race. 


Tiberius Alexander, 




Leo the Isarian, 


. 716-741 


Ventidius Cumanus, . 


. ' 


Constantine Copronyn 


lus, . 741-775 


Claudius Felix, 




Leo the Iconoclast, 


. 775-781 


Fortius Festus, . 


. 


Constantine V., . 


781 788 


Albinus, 




Irene, Empress, 


. 788-802 


Gessius Florus, . 


. 


Nicephorus, 


S02-811 






Michael Curopalates, 


, 811-813 


THE SASSANID^ 


F PERSIA. 


Leo the Armenian, 


813-820 


Artaxerxes, 


223-226 


Michael the Stammer 


er, , 820-829 


Sassan, , . , . 


. 226-235 


Theophilus I., . 


829-843 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



617 



Michael the Drunkard, . 
Basil I., . 

Macedonian Race. 
Leo the Philosopher, . 
Constantine VI., and Alexan 

der, .... 
Romanusl., . 
Constantine VII. restored, . 
Romaniis II., 
Nicophorus Phocas, . 
John Zenrisces, . . 
Basil II., .... 
Constantine VIII., 
Romanus III., . 
Michael IV., . 
Michael V., . . . 

Constantine IX., . 
Theodora, Empress, . 
Michael VI., 

The Comneni. 



A. D. 

842-S67 



886-911 

911-919 

. 919 942 

942-959 

• 959-963 
963-969 
. 969-976 
976-1025 
1025-1028 
1028-1034 
I 034- I 04 I 
1041-1042 
1042-1054 
1054- 1056 
1056-1057 



Isaac Comnenus, . 
Constantine X., 
Romanus Diogenes, 
Michael VII., . 
Nicephorus III., . 
Alexius I., Comnenus, 
John I., Comnenus, 
Manuel Comnenus, . 
Alexius II., Comnenus, 
Andronicus I., . 
Isaac Angleus, 
Alexius III., 

French or Latin 

Baldwin I., of Flanders, 

Henry, 

Peter de Courtenay, . 

Baldwin II., . 



1057-1059 
. 1059-1068 

1068-1071 
. 1071-1078 

1078-1081 
. 1081-1118 

1118-1143 
. 1143-1180 

I180-1183 
. 11S3-1185 

I1S5-1203 
. 1203-1204 

Dynasty. 

.' 1 204-1 206 
1206-1216 

. 1216-1228 
1228-1261 



The Paleologi. 

Michael VIII., Paleologus, 1 261-1282 

Andronicus II., Paleologus, 1282-1328 

Andronicus the Younger, . 1328-1341 

John v., Paleologus, . 1341-1355 

John VI., .... 1355-1391 

Emanuel II., . . 1391-1424 

Johv. VII., . . . 1424-1448 

Constantine XII., Paleologus, 1448-1453 

GOTHIC KINGS OF ITALY. 

Theodoric, .... 493-526 

Athalaric, .... 526-534 

Theodatus, . . ^ . . 534-536 

Vitiges, .... 536-540 

Heldibadus, .... 540-541 

Eraric, .... 541 

Totila, 541-553 



LOMBARD KINGS OF NORTHERN 




ITALY. 


A. D. 


Alboin, 


. 


• 568-573 


Clephes, . 


. 




573-575 


An Interregnum, 




.- 575-584 


Antharis, . 






584-591 


Agil alphas, . 






. 591-615 


Adaloaldus, 






615-625 


Arivoaldus, . 






. 625-636 


Rotharis, . 






636-652 


Rodoaldus, . 






. 652-653 


Aribertus I., 






653-660 


Gundebertus, 






. 660-662 


Grimoaldus, 






662-671 


Pertharit, 




.' 


. 671-686 


Cunifcert, . 






686-701 


Ragimbertus, 






. 701 


Aribertus II., 






701-712 


Ansprandus, . 






. 712 


Luitprandus, 






712-744 


Hiklebrandus, 






• 744 


Rachisius, 






744-749 


Artolphus, 






. 749-756 


Desiderius, 






756-774 



MONARCHS OF THE FRANKS. 
The Me7-ovinzia.ns. 



Pharamond, 


420-428 


Clodian, . . . . 


428-448 


Meroveus,. 


448-458 


Childeric I., . . 


458-486 


Clovis I., . 


4S6-5 1 1 


Childebert, Thierry, Clodomir 




and Clothaire I., 


511-562 


Charibert, Grothan, Chilperic 




I., and Sigebert, 


562-584 


Childebert II. and Clothaire 




II., 


584-628 


Dagobert I., . . . 


628-638 


Clovis II. and Dagobert II., . 


638-665 


Clothaire II., 


665-673 


Thierry II., . . . . 


673-691 


Clovis HI., 


691-711 


Dagobert III., 


711-715 


Chilperic II., 


715-720 


Thierry IV., . . . . 


720-747 


Childeric III., . 


747-751 



The Carlovingians. 

Pepin the Little, . . 751-768 

Charlemagne, or Charles the 

. Great, .... 768-S14 

Louis le Debonnaire, . . 811-840 

THE POPES. 
Gregory the Great, ; . 590-604 
Sabinianus, .... 604-606 



6i8 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



Boniface III., 
Boniface IV., 
Honoiius I., 
Servius, 
Jol-in IV., . 
Theodore, 
Martin I., . 
Eugcnius I., . 
Vital ianus, 
Adeodatus, . 
Donus I., . 
Agatho, 
Benedict II., 
John v.. 
Canon, 
Sergius, 
John VI., 
John VII., . 
Sissinius, ,. 

' Gregory it., . 
Gregory III., 
Zachary, 
Stephen II., 
Paul I., 
Stephen III., 
Adrian I., 
Leo III., . 
Stephen IV., 
Pascal I., . 
Eugenius II., 
Valentine, 
Gregory IV., 
Sergius II,, 
Leo IV., 
Benedict III., 
Nicholas I., . 
Adrian II., 
John VIII., , 
Martin II., 
Adrian III., . 
Stephen VI., 
Formosus, 
Steplien VII., 
John IX., . 
Benedict IV., 
Leo v., 
Sergius III., 
Anastasius III. 
Landon, 
John X., . 
Leo VI., 
Stephen VIII., 
John XL, . 

• Leo VII., . 
Stephen IX., 
Martin III., 
Agapctus II., 
John XII., 
Leo VIIL, . 



60D-607 

607-625 

625-640 

640 

640-642 

642-649 

649-655 

655-657 
657-672 
672-676 
676-678 
678-683 
683-685 
685-686 
686-687 
687-701 
701-705 
705-707 
707-715 
715-731 
731-741 
741-750 
750-757 
757-7*37 
767-772 

772-795 

795-816 

816-817 

817-824 

824-827 

827 

827-844 

844-847 

847-855 
855-858 
858-867 
867-872 
872-882 
882-884 



896-897 

897 

897-903 

903-904 

904-9 1 2 

912-913 

913-914 

914-928 

928-929 

929-931 

931-936 

936-939 

939-942 

942-946 

946-955 
955-964 
964 



Benedict V., 

John XIII., . 

Benedict VI., 

Donus II., 

Benedict VII., 

John XIV., . 

John XV., 

Gregory V., . 

Sylvester II., 

John XVI., , 

John XVII., 

[ohn XVIII., 

John XIX., 

Benedict IX., 

Gregory VI., 

Clement II., 

Benedict X., 

Damascus, 

Leo IX., . 

Victor II., 

Stephen IX., 

Nicholas II., 

Alexander II., 

Gregory VII. (Hildebrancl) 

Victor III., 

Urban II., . 

Pascal II., 

Gelasius II., . 

Calixtus II., 

Honorius II., 

Innocent II., 

Celestine II., 

Lucius II., 

Eugenius III., 

Anastasius IV., 

Adrian IV.*, . 

Alexander III., 

Lucius III., . 

Urban III., 

Gregory VIIL, 

Clement III., 

Celestine III., 

Innocent III., 

Honorius III., 

Gregory IX., 

Celestine IV., 

Innocent IV., 

Alexander IV., 

Urban IV., 

Clement IV,, 

Gregory X., 

Innocent V., 

Adrian V., 

John XX., . 

Nicholas III., 

lilartin IV., . 

Honorius IV., 

Nicholas IV., 

Celestine V., 



A. D. 

964-965 

965-97^ 
972-974 

974-975 
975-983 
983-985 

985-1000 

000 

000- 

003 

003- 

004- 

009- 

033- 
044- 
046- 
047 

047- 
048- 
054- 

057- 
058- 
061- 

073- 
086- 
oSS- 

099- 
118- 
119- 
124- 
130- 
143- 
144- 

145- 

153- 

154- 

159- 

iSo- 

185- 

1S7 

187- 

191- 

194- 

226- 

227- 

241- 

243- 

254- 

261- 

265- 

271- 

276 

276 

276- 

277- 

2S1- 

285- 

288- 

294 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



619 



BonJace VIII., 
Benedict XI., , 
Cleiiient V., . 
John XXII., , 
Benedict XII., 
Clement VI., , 
Innocent VI,, 
Uibaii v., 
Gregory XI., 
Urban VI., 
Boniface IX., 
Innocent VII,, 
Gregory XII., 
Alexander V., 
John XXIII., 
Martin V., 
Eugeniiis IV., 
Nicholas V., . 
Calixlus III., 
Pius II., 
Paul II., . 
Sextus IV., 
Innocent VIII., 
Alexander VI., 
Pius III., . 
Julius II., 
Leo X., . 
Adrian VI., . 
Clement VII., 
Paul III., 
Juhus III., 
Marcellus, 
Paul IV., . 
Pius IV., 
Pius v., . 
Gregory XIII., 
Sextus v., . 
Urban VII., . 
Gregory XIV., 
Innocent IX., . 
Clement VIII., 
Leo XL, 
Paul v., , 
Gregory XV., 
Urban VIII., 
Innocent X., . 
Alexander VII., 
Clement IX., 
Innocent XL, 
Clement X., . 
Alexander VIII, 
Innocent XII., 
Clement XL, 
Innocent XIII., 
Benedict XIIL, 
Clement XII., 
Benedict XIV., , 
Clement XIIL, 





A. D. 




I 294-1 303 




. I 303- I 305 




I305-I316 


. 


. I316-I334 




I334-I342 


. 


• I342-I352 




I352-I362 


. 


. I362-I370 




• 137^1378 




. I378-I389 




. I 389-1 404 




I 404- I 406 




. I 406- I 409 




I409-I4IO 




. I4IO-I417 




I417-I43I 




. 143 1-1447 




. I447-I455 




. I455-I458 




I45S-I464 




. I464-I471 




I47I-I484 




. I484-I492 




I492-I503 




. 1503 




. 1503-I513 




. I513-152I 




I52I-I523 




. I523-I534 




I534-I549 




• I549-1555 




• 1555 




• 1555-1559 




• I559-I565 




. I565-I572 




I572-I585 




• I585-I59O 




1590 




. I59O-I59I 




I59I 




. I59I-1605 




1605 




, 1605-162I 




162I-1623 




. I 623- I 644 




1644-1655 




. 1655-1667 




1667-1676 




. 1676-1679 




1679-16S9 




. 1 689- 1 69 1 




169I-1700 




. 17OO-172I 




I72I-I724 




. I 724-1 730 




1 730-1 740 




. I74O-I758 




. I758-I769 





A. D. 


Clement XIV., . 


• 1769-1775 


Pius VL, 


1775-1800 


Pius VII., . 


. 1S00-1823 


Leo XIL, 


1S23-1829 


Pius VIII. , 


. 1829-1831 


Gregoiy XVI., 


• 1831-1S46 


Pius IX., . 


. 1846 


SARACEN CALIPHS. 


Race of Mohammed. 


Mohammed, 


627-632 


Abubekir, 


. 632-634 


Omar, 


634-644 


Othman, 


• 644-655 


Ali, , 


655-660 


The Ommiyades. 


Moawiyah, 


. 660-679 


Yezid I., . 


. 679-683 


Abdullah, 


683-684 


Merwan L, 


684-689 


Ab-al-Malib, . 


. 689-704 


WalidL, . 


704-714 


Solyman, 


• 714-717 


Omar II., . 


717-719 


Yezid II., 


. 719-723 


Heshman, , 


723-743 


Wall II., 


• 743-744 


Yezid III., 


744 


Merwan II., . 


• 744-75C 


The Abbasides. 


Abul-Abbas, . 


• 750-754 


Al-Mansur, 


754-779 


Al-Modi, 


. 779-784 


Musa'1-Hadi, 


784-785 


Haroun-al-Raschid, 


. 785-807 


Al-Amin, . 


. 807-813 


Al-Mamun-, , 


. ^^i-^iz 


Al-Motasem, 


. S33-841 


Al-Wathek, . 


, 841-846 


Al-Motawakkel, 


846-861 


AI-Montaser, . 


. S61-S62 


Al-Mostaim, , 


S62-S65 


Al-Motaz, 


. S65-868 


AlMohtadi, 


868-869 


Al-Motamed, 


. 869-892 


Al Motaded, 


892-901 


Al-Moktasi, . 


. 901-907 


Al-Moktador, . 


907-932 


Al-Kaher, 


• 932-933 


Al-Radi, . 


933-939 


Al-Moktaki, . 


• 939-943 


Al-Mosktacsi, . 


943-944 


Al-Moti, 


. 944-973 


Al-Tay, . 


• 973 -991 


Al-Kader, 


991-1031 


Al-Kaymen, . . 


. 1031-1055 



620 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



SARACEN CALIPHS OF SPAIN. 



Abderrahman I., 
Hashem I., . 
Abderrahman II., 
Mohammed, . 
Abdalla, , 
Abderrahman III., 
Alhakem, . 
Ilixem I., 
Ilixem II., 
Ilixem III., . . 



A. D. 

755-787 
787-822 
822-852 
852-8S9 
889-912 
912-961 
961-976 
976- 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENG- 
LAND. 
Anglo-Saxon Kings. 

Egbert, 827-838 

Ethelwolf, . . . 838-857 

Ethelbald, . ... . 857-860 
Ethelbert, .... 860-866 
Ethelred I., . . . . 866-871 
Alfred the Great, . . 871-901 
Edward the Elder, . . 901-925 

Athelstan, ,• . . . 925-940 

Edmund I., . . . , 940-946 

Edred, .... 946-955 

Edwy, 955-959 

Edgar, .... 959-975 
Edward the Martyr, . 975-1014 

Danish Kings. 

Sweyn, . . . . 1014-1017 

Canute the Great, . . 1017-1036 

Harold Harefoot, . . 1036-1039 

Hardicanute, . . . 1039-1041 

Saxon Kings. 
Edward the Confessor, . 1041-1066 
Harold, . . . 1066 

Norman Kings, 

William the Conqueror, . 1066-10S7 

William Rufus, , . . 1087-I lOO 

Henry I., . . . IIOO-1135 

Stephen, .... 1135-1154 

The Plantage7iefs . 

Henry II., . . . 1154-11S9 

Richard the Lion-hearted, . 11S9-1199 

John, .... 1199-1216 

Henry HI., . . . 1216-1272 

Edward I., . . . 1272-1307 

Edward II., . . 1307-1327 

Edward III., . . . 1327-1377 

Richard II., . . . 1377-1399 

House of Lancaster. 
Henry P?"., . . . 1399-1413 
Henry v., .... I413-1422 
Henry VI., . , , 1422-1461 



House of York, 






A. D. 


Edward IV., 


I461-I483 


Edward V., . 


1483 


Richard III., 


I483-I485 


House of Titdor. 




Henry VII., . 


I485-1509 


Henry VIII., . 


1 509-1 547 


Edward VI., . 


1547-1553 


Maiy, 


1553- 155-^ 


Elizabeth, 


1558-160,, 


House of Stuart. 




James I., . 


1603- 1625 


Charles I., . 


1625-1649 


The Commonwealth. . 


1649-1660 


Charles II., . 


1660-1685 


James II., .... 


16S5-1689 


William HI., 


16S9-1702 


Anne, .... 


1702-1 7 14 


House of Brunswick. 


George I., 


1714-1727 


George II., . 


1 727-1 760 


George HI., 


1760-1S20 


George IV., . 


1820-1830 


William IV., . 


1S30-1837 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF SCOT- 
LAND. 

House of Kenneth. 
Kenneth TL, .... 843-859 

Donald V., . . . ' 859-865 

Constanline II., . . . 865-878 

Ethus 878-880 

Gregory the Great, . . 880-892 

Donald VI., . . . 892-903 

Constantine HI., . . . 903-943 

Malcolm I., . . . 943-958 

Indulf, 958-968 

Duff, .... 968-972 
Culen, ..... 972-977 

Kenneth HI., . . . 977-1003 

Constantine IV., . . 1003 

Kenneth the Grim, . . 1003- 1004 

Malcolm II., . . 1004-1034 

Duncan I., ... 1034-1040 

Macbeth, . . . 1040-1057 

Malcolm HI., . . . 1057-1093 

Donald the Bane, . . 1093-1 108 

Edgar, . . . ' . 1108-1117 

Alexander I., . . 11 17- 11 24 

David the Saint, . . I124-1153 

Malcolm IV., . . 1153-1165 

William the Lion, . . 1165-1214 

Alexander II., . . 1214-1249 

Alexander III., . . 1249-1285 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



621 



Houses of Baliol and Bruce. 

A. D. 
1285-1306 
1306-1329 
1329-1332 
1332-1342 
1342-1370 



John Baliol, 
Robert Bruce, 
David Bruce, . 
Edward Baliol, 
David Bruce restored. 



House of Stuart. 



Robert II., 
Robert III., . 
An Interregnum, 
James I., 
James II., , 

James III., . 
James IV., 
James V., 
Mary, 
James VI., . 



1370-1390 
I 3 90- I 406 
I 406- I 424 
1424-1437 
1437-1460 
1460-1487 
1487-1513 
1513-1542 
1542-1567 
I 567-1 603 



KINGS AND EMPERORS OF 
FRANCE. 

Carlovingian Kings. 

Charles the Bald, , . . 843-877 

Louis II., .... 877-879 

Louis III. and Carloman, . 879-884 

Charles the Fat, . . 884-888 

Count Eudes, . . . 888-898 

Charles the Simple, . . 898-922 

Raoul, ..... 922-936 

Louis IV., . . . 936-954 

Lothaire, .... 954-986 

Louis v., .... 986-987 

House of Capet. 

Hugh Capet, . . . 987-996 

Robert, . . . 996-1031 
Henry I , .... 1031-1060 

Philip I., . . . 1060-1108 

Louis the Fat, . . . 1108-1137 

Louis VII., . . . 1137-11S0 

Philip Augustus, . . 1 180-1223 

Louis VIII., . . 1223-1226 

Louis IX. or St. Louis, . 1 226-1 270 

Philip the Bald, . . 1270-1285 

Philip the Fair, . . . 1285-1314 

Louis X., . . . 1314-1316 

Philip the Hardy, . . 1316-1321 

Charles tlie Fair, . . 1 321-1328 

House of Valois. 

Philip of Valois, . .. 1328-1350 

John the Good^ . . 1350-1364 

Charles the Wise, . . 1364-13S0 

Charles VI., . . , 1380-1422 

Charles the Victorious, . 1422-1461 

Louis XL, . . . 1461-1483 

Charles VIIL, . . 1483-1498 

Louis XII. . . . 1498-1515 



Francis I., 
Henry II., 
Francis II., 
Charles IX., 
Henry HI., 



A. D. 

I515-1547 
I547-1559 
1559-1560 
1560-1574 
1574-I589 



House of Bourbon. 
Henry IV., . . . 1 589-1 610 

Louis XIII., . , . J610-1643 
Louis XIV., . . . 1643-1715 

Louis XV., . . . 1715-1774 
Louis XVI., . . . 1 774-1 793 
The First French Republic, 

1793-1804 
The First French Empire. 
Napoleon I., . . . 1804-1S14 
House of Bourbon. 

Louis XVIIL, . . 1 814-1824 
Charles X., . . . 1824-183Q 

House of Orleans. 

Louis Philippe, . . 1 830-1848 

The Secojid French Republic, 

1848-1852 
The Second French Empire. 
Napoleon III., . . 1852-1870 
The Third French Republic, 
1870- 

EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
Carlovingian Emperors, 
Louis the German and Loth- 



aire, .... 


843-855 


Louis II., 


. 855-875 


Charles the Fat, 


875-887 


Arnolph, 


. S87-898 


Louis the Child, 


898-911 


House of Franconia. 


Conrad I., . 


. 911-919 


House of Saxony. 




Henry the Fowler, 


919-936 


Otho the Great, . 


• 936-973 


Otho II., .... 


973-983 


Otho III., . 


983-1002 


Henry the Saint, 


1002-1024 


House of Franconia. 


Conrad II., . 


1024- 1039 


Henry III 


1039-1056 


Henry IV., . 


1056-1106 


Henry v.. 


I106-1125 


House of Saxony. 




Lothaire II., . 


II25-II38 



622 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



The Hohenstatiffcns. 



A. D. 
I138-II52 
I152-II90 
II90-II97 

II97-1218 
1218-1250 
1250-1273 



Conrad III., 

Frederic Barbarossa, 

Henry VI., 

Otho IV. and Philip of 

Swabia, 
Frederic II., 
An Interregnum, . . . 

House of Hapsburg. 

Rodolph of Hapsburg, , 1273-1291 

House of Nassau. 
Adolph, . . . 1291-1298 

House of Austria. 
Albert, .... 1298-1308 

House of Luxctiiburg. 
Henry VII., . . . 1308-1313 

House of Bavaria. 
Louis v., . . . . 1313-1347 

House of Ltixcinburg. 

Charles IV 1347-1378 

Wenceslaus, . . . 1 378-1400 

Hotise of the Palatinate. 
Rupert, . . . 1400-1414 

House of Luxembu7-g. 

Sigismund, . . . 1414-1438 

House of Hapsburg. 



Albert II., . 
Frederic III., 
Maximilian I., 
Charles V., 
Ferdinand I., 
Maximilian II., 
Rodolph II., . 
Matthias, . 
Ferdinand II., 
Ferdinand III., 
Leopold I., . 
Joseph I., 
Charles VI., . 



1438-1440 
I 440- I 493 

1493-1519 
1519-1556 
1556-1564 
1564-1576 
1576-1612 
1612-1619 
1619-1637 
1637-1657 
1657-1705 
1705-17 II 
1711-1741 



House of Bavaria. 
Charles VII., . . 1741-1745 

House of Lorraine. 

Francis 1 1745-1765 

Joseph II., . . . 1765-1790 

Leopold II., . . 1790-1792 

Frannis II., . . . 1792-1806 

The Cenfederation of the Rhine, 

1806-1815 



A. D. 

The Germanic Confederation, 

181 5-1866 

The North Ger?Han Confederation, 

1866-1 87 I 
House of Hohenzollern. 
William the Victorious, . 1871- 



KINGS OF POLAND. 



House of Piast. 
Boleslaus I., 
Miceslaus II, , , 
Casimir I., . . 

Boleslaus II., 
Ladislaus the Careless, 
Boleslaus III., 
Ladislaus II., . 
Boleslaus IV., 
Miceslaus III., . 
Casimir the Just, . . 
Lesko I., . 
Conrad of Masovia, 
Boleslaus V., 
Lesko the Black, . 
Przemislaus, 

Wenceslaus of Bohemia, 
Ladislaus IV., . 
Casimir the Great, 
Louis the Great, of Hungary, 
Ladislaus V., 

The JagcUos 
Jagello, 

Ladislaus VI., . 
Casimir IV., 
John Albert, 
Alexander, 
Sigismund the Great, 
Sigismund II., 
An Interregnum, 

House of Valois. 

Plenry of Valois, 

An Interregnum, . 

Stephen, . 

Sigismund III., . , 

Ladislaus VII.,. 

John Casimir, . 

Michael Wisniowiecski, 

John Sobieski, 

Frederic Augustus I., of Sax 

ony, ... 
Stanislaus Leczinski, 
Frederick Augustus I. re 

stored, . 
Frederick Augustus II., 
Stanislaus Augustus Poniat 

owski, , 



1000-1025 
1025-1041 
1041-1058 
105S-1079 
1079-1 102 
I102-1139 
I139-1146 
1146-1173 
I173-1178 
II 78-1 202 
1202-1226 
1226-1227 
1227-1279 
1279-1295 
1295-1300 
1300-1305 
1 305-1333 
1333-1370 
1370-135^6 
13S6-1400 



1400-1434 

I 434- I 447 
1447-1492 
1492-1501 
1501-1506 
1506-1548 
1548-1572 
1572-1573 



1573-1574 
1574-1575 
1575-15^7 
1587-1632 
1632-1648 
164S-1669 
1669-1674 
1674-1697 

1 69 7- 1 704 
1704-1709 

1709-1733 
1733-1764 

1764-1795 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



623 



KINGS AND QUEEN OF DEN- 
MARK. 



Dynasty of Skiold, 



House 
Christian I., . 
John, 

Christian II., 
Frederic I., 
Christian III., 
Frederic II., 
Christian IV., 
Frederic III., 
Christian V., . 
Frederic IV., 
Christian VI., 
Frederic V., 
Christian VII., 
Frederic VI., 
Christian VIII., 
Frederic VII., 
Christian IX., 



Sweyn I., 
Canute the Great, 
Canute III., . 
Magnus the Good, of Nor- 
way, . 
Harold VII., 
Si. Canute, , 
Glaus II., . 
Eric III., 
Nicholas, . 
Eric IV., 
Eric v., . 
Sweyn II., 
Canute V., 
Waldemar the Great, 
Canute VI., 
Waldemar the Conqueror, 
Eric VI., . 
Abel, . 
Christopher I., 
Eric VII., . 
Eric VIII., 
Christopher II., 
Waldemar III., 
Glaus III., , 
Margareta, 
Eric XIII., . 
Christopher III., 



A. D. 
I000-1016 
1016-1036 
1036-1045 



of Oldenburg 



1045-1074 
1074-1076 
1076-1087 
10S7-1095 
1095-1 102 
1102-1135 

"35-"39 

II 39-1 148 

1148 

1148-1157 

1157-1182 

1182-1202 

1202-1224 

1224-1250 

1250-1252 

1252-1259 

1259-1286 

1286-1319 

13 19-1340 

1340-1376 

1376-1387 

1387-1412 

1412-1439 

1439-1448 

144S-14S1 
1481-1513 
1513-1523 
1523-1533 
1533-1559 
1559-1588 
1588-1648 
1648-1670 
1670-1699 
1699-1730 
1730-1746 
1746-1766 
1 7 66- 1 808 
1 80S- 1 839 
1 839-1 848 
I 848- I 863 
1863- 



KINGS GF ARAGGN. 

Ramiriz I., ... 1035-1065 

Sancho Ramiriz, . . 1065- 1094 

Peter I. 1094-1104 

Alphonso the Warrior, . 1104-1124 

Ramiriz the Monk, . . 1124-1137 

Protronilla, . . . 1137-1162 



Alphonso II., . , . 1162- 

Peter II., . . . 1196- 

James I., . . . . 1213- 

Peter III., . . . 1276- 

Alphonso the Beneficent, . 12S5- 

James II., . . , 1291- 

Alphonso the Meek, . . 1327- 

Peter the Ceremonious, . 1336- 

John I., . . . . 1387- 

Martin, . . . 1395- 

Ferdinand I., . . . 1412- 

Alphonso the Magnanimous, 1416- 

John II., .... 1458- 

Ferdinand the Catholic, . , 1467- 

KINGS AND QUEEN GF CAST 

Ferdinand I., . . 1035- 

Alphonso VII., . . . 1072- 

Urraca, . . . iiog- 

Alphonso VIII., . . 1126- 

Sancho II., . . . 1157- 

Alphonso IX., . . .1158- 

Henry I., . , . 1214- 

Ferdinand the Saint, . . 1217- 

Alphonso the Wise, . 1252- 

.Sancho the Brave, . . 1284- 

Ferdinand IV., . . 1295- 

Alphonso XL, . . . 1312- 

Peter the Cruel, . . 1350- 

Henry of Trastamara, . 1368- 

John I., . . . . 1379- 

Henry the Sickly, . 1390- 
John II., .... 1406- 

Henry IV., . . . 1454- 
Isabella, .... 1464- 

KINGS AND QUEENS GF 
PORTUGAL. 

House of Burgundy, 
Henry I., . 
Sancho II., . 
Alphonso II., 
Sancho III., . 
Alphonso III., 
Dennis, 
Alphonso IV., 
Pedro the Cruel 
Ferdinand, 
John the Great, 
Edward, . 
Alphonso v., 
John the Perfect, 
Emmanuel the Great, 
John III., . 
Sebastian, 
Henry II., 

United with Spain, 



196 
213 
276 
285 
291 

327 

387 
395 
412 
416 

458 
467 
492 

LE. 
072 
109 
126 
157 
158 
214 
217 
252 
284 

295 
312 

350 
368 

379 
390 
406 

454 
464 
492 



1139-1185 
1 185-1202 
1202-1233 
1233-1247 
1247-1272 
1272-1325 
1325-1357 
1357-1367 
I 367- I 385 
13S5-1433 
1433-1438 
1438-1481 
1481-1485 
1485-1521 
1521-1557 
i557-'5?S 
157S-1580 

1580-1640 



624 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



House of Braganza. 



John IV., . 

Alphonso VI., 

Pedro XL, . 

John v., 

Joseph Emmanuel, 

Pedro III. and Maria 

Maria I., . 

John VI., . 

Pedro IV., 

Maria II., 

Pedro v., . 

Louis II., 



I., 



A. D. 

164O-1656 
I 656-1 683 
1683-I706 
1 706-1 750 

I750-I777 

I777-17S6 

I786-1816 

1816-1S26 

1826 

1826-1853 

1853-1861 

1861 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF 
SWEDEN. 

. 1212-1250 

1250-1279 

. 1279-1290 

I 290-1 320 

1320-1363 

97 



Adolphus, . . . 

Waldemar, 

Magnus 11^, 

Berger II., . 

Magnus III., 

Albert of Mecklenburg, . 136. 

United with Den7nark, 

1397-1523 
House of Vasa. 
Gustavus Vasa, . 



Eric XIV., 
John III., 
Sigismund, . 
Charles IX., 
Gustavus Adolphus, 
Christina, , 
Charles X., . 
Charles XI., . 
Charles XII., 
Ulrica Eleanora, 
Frederic I., . 
Adolphus Frederic, 
Gustavus III., 
Gustavus IV., . 
Charles XIII.. 



1523-1556 

1556-1569 
1569-1592 
I 592-1 600 
i6oo-f6ii 
1611-1632 
1632-1654 
1 654-1 660 
I 660-1 697 
1697-1718 
1718-1721 
1721-1751 
1751-1771 
1771-1792 
I 792-1 809 
1809-1818 



House of Bernadoite. 
Charles XIV., . . 1818-1844 

Oscar I., .... 1844-1859 
Charles XV., . . 1 859-1872 

Oscar II., .... 1872- 

DUKES OF BURGUNDY. 

Philip the Bold, . . 1363-1404 

fohii the Fearless, . . 1404-1419 
Philip the Good, . . 1419-1467 

Charles the Bold, . . 1467-1477 

• SULTANS OF TURKEY. 
Othman I., , . . 1299-1326 
Orchan, . . . 13 26- 13 60 



Amurath I., 
Bajazet I., 
Mohammed I., . 
Amurath II., 
Mohammed II., 
Bajazet II., . 
Selim I., . 
Solyman the Magnificent, 
Selim II., . 
Amurath III., 
Mohammed IIL, 
Achmet I., . 
Mustapha I., 
Othman II., . 
Mustapha I. restored, 
Amurath IV., 
Ibrahim, . 
Mohammed IV., . 
Solyman II., 
Achmet II., , 
Mustapha II., . 
Achmet III., 
Mohammed V., 
Othman III., 
Mustapha III., . 
Achmet IV., 
Selim III., 
Mustapha IV., 
Mohmoud II., . 
Abdul Medjid, 
Abdul Aziz, 
Murad Effendi, 



SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA. 



House of Ruric. 

Ivan the Great, 
Vasily IV., . 
Ivan the Terrible, 
Feodor I., 
Boris Godonoff, 
Demetrius, 
Zuiski, 
An Interregnum, . 



1360- 
1589- 
1412- 
1421- 

1451- 
1481- 
1512- 

1520- 

1566- 

1574- 

1595- 

1603 

1617 

1618 

1622 

1623 

1640- 

1649- 

1687- 

1691- 

1695- 

1703- 

1730- 

1754 

1757- 

1774- 

1789 

1807- 

1S08 

1839- 
i8bi- 
1876 



A. D. 

1389 
1412 
I42I 

145 1 

148 1 

1512 

152CP 

1566 

1574 

1595 

1603 

1617 

1618 

1622 

1623 

1640 

1649 

1687 

1691 

1695 

1703 

1730 

1754 

1757 

1774 

1789 

1807 

1808 

1839 

1861 

1876 



I462-1505 

1505-1533 
1 533-1588 
158S-1600 
I 600- I 604 
I 604- I 606 
1606 
1606-1613 



House of Ro?nanoff. 



Michael Romanoff, 
Ale.xis, 

Feodor II., . 
Ivan V. and Peter, 
Peter the Great, 
Catharine I., 
Peter II., 
Anna, 
Ivan VI., 
Elizabeth, 
Peter III., . 
Catharine II., . 
Paul, . 



1613-1645 

1645-1676 

1676-1682 

1682-1689 

1 689-1 725 

1725-1727 

1727-1730 

1730-1740 

I 740-1 741 

1741-1762 

1762 

1762-1796 

1796-1801 



SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 



625 



Alexander I., 
Nicholas, 
Alexander II., 



A. D. 

1S0I-1825 
1825-1855 
1855- 



KINGS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN. 

House of Trastamara. 
Ferdinand V. and Isabella I., 1479-1517 

House of Hapsburg. 
Charles I., . . . 15 17-1556 

Philip II., . . . 1 556-1598 

Philip III., . . . 1598-1621 

Philip IV., . . . 1621-1666 

Charles II., . . . 1666-1700 

House of Bourbon. 
Philip v., of Anjou, , 1700-1745 

P'erdinand VI., . . . 1 745-1 759 
Charles III., . , . 1759-1788 

Charles IV., . . . 1788-1808 

House of Bonaparte. 
Joseph Bonaparte, . . 180S-1813 

House of Bourbon. 
Ferdinand VII., , . 1813-1833 

Isabella 11., . , . 1833-1 868 
An Interregnum, . . 186S-1871 

House of Sa7ioy. 
Amadeo, .... 1871-1873 

The Spattisk Republic, 

1S73-1S75 
House of Bourbon. 
Alphonso XII., . . 1875- 

SHAHS OF PERSIA. 
Suffeean Dynasty, 
Ismael, . . . 1501-1519 

Tamasp, . . . . 15 19-1577 

Mohammed the Pious, . 1 577-1 586 
Shah Abbas the Great, . . 15S6-1643 
Abbas II., . . . 1643-1666 
Solyman, .... 1 666-1 694 
Hussien, . . . 1694-1722 
Mahmoud, , . . 1 722-1 725 

Asharf, . . . 1 725-1 732 

Abbas III., . . . 1732-1736 

Nadir Shah, . . . 1 736-1 747 

Anarchy, 

1747-1800 
Kadjar Dynasty. 

Futteh All Shah, . . 1800-1835 
Mohammed Shah, . 1835-1848 

Nasr-ul-Deen, . . . 1848- 

MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA. 

Baber, .... 1 525-1 530 

Humayan, . . . 1530-1556 

Akbar, .... 1556-1605 

40 



Jehanghir, 
Shah Jehan I., . 
Aurungzehe, . 
Bahadur Shah, , 
Farokhsir, 
Mohammed Shah, 
Ahmed Shah, 
Alamijir, . 
Shah Jehan II., 
Shah Alum, 



A. D. 

1605-1627 
1627-1659 
1659-1707 
1707-1712 
1712-I719 
I719-I74S 
1748-1754 
1754-1756 
1756-I761 
I761 



MANTCHOO EMPERORS OF 
CHINA. 

Shun-che, . . .^ 16.44-1662 

Kang-hy, . . . ' . 1662-1722 

Yong-tching, . . 1722-1735 

Kien-long, . . . 1 735-1 795 

Kea-king, . . . 1795-1820 

Taou-kwang, . . . 1820-1S50 

Ilien-fung, . . . 1850-1862 

Tsai-chun, . . . 1S62-1875 

New Emperor (name not 

known), . . . 1875- 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
House of HohenzoUern. 

Frederic I., . . . 1701-1713 

PVederic \Villiam I., . . 1713-1740 

Frederic the Great, . 1 740-1786 

Frederic William II., . 17S6-1797 

Frederic William III., . 1797-1840 

Frederic William IV., . 1840-1S61 

William I., . . . 1861- 

BRITISH GOVERNORS OF INDTA. 

Warren Ha.stings, . . 1773-1786 

Lord Cornwallis, . . 1786-1792 

Sir John Shore, . . 1792-1797 

Marquis We41esley, . . 1797-1S04 

Lord Cornwallis, . . 1S04-1805 

Lord Minto, , . . 1805-1S13 

Marquis of Hastings, . 1813-1823 

Lord Amherst, . , . 1823-1827 

Lord William Bentnick, 1827-1835 

I>ord Auckland, . . 1835-1842 

Lord Ellenborongh, . 1842-1843 

Sir Heni-y Hardinge, , . 1843-1847 

Lord Dalhousie, . . 1847-1856 

Lord Canning, . . . 1856-1858 

Lord Elgin, , . . 1858-1863 

Lord Mayo, . . . 1863-1872 

Lord Northbrook, . . 1872-1876 

Lord Lytton, . . . 1876- 

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 

George Washington, . 17^9-1797 

John Adams, . . 1797-1801 



626 



SOVEREIGA'S AND RULERS. 



Thomas Jefferson, 
James Madison, 
James Monroe, . 
John Quincy Adams, 
Andrew Jackson, 
Martin Van Buren, 
William Menry Harrison, 
John Tyler, . 
James Knox Polk, 
Zachary Taylor, 
Millard Fillmore, 
franklin Pierce, 
James Buchanan, 
Abraham Lincoln, 
Andrew Johnson, 
Ulysses S. Grant, 



A. D. 
1801-1S09 
1809-1817 
1817-1S25 
1825-1S29 
1829-1S37 
1837-1841 
1841 

I 841 -I 845 
1 845-1 849 
1S49-1S50 
■1850-1S53 

1853-1S57 
iSi;7-iS6i 
1S61-1865 
1865-1869 



PACHAS OF EGYPT. 



Mehemet Ali, 
Ibrahim Pacha, 
Abbas Pacha, 



1805-1848 
184S-1849 
1849- 



EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 

Hotise 0/ Lorraine- Hapsburg. 

Francis I., . . . 1 806-1 835 

Ferdinand, 

Francis Joseph, 



1835-I' 
184S- 



KINGS OF HOLLAND. 
House of Nassau. 



William L, 
William H., . 
William HI., 



1814-1S40 
I 840-1 649 
1849- 



EMPERORS AND PRESIDENTS 
OF MEXICO. 

Emperor. • 

Don Augustin Iturbide, . 1 822-1 823 

Presidents. 



Guadalupe Victoria, 
Guerrera, . 
Bustamente, . 



1S25-1823 
I 829-1 830 
1830-1832 



Pedraza, . 
Antonio Lopez 

Anna, 
Bustamente, 
Santa Anna, 
Herrera, . 
Paredes, 
Santa Anna, 
Herrera, 
Arista, 
Santa Anna, 
Alvarez, 
Comonfort, 
Zuloaga, 
Benito Juarez 



de Santa 



. A. n. 
1 832-1 833 

1S33-1837 

1837-1841 

1841-1845 

1841,-1846 

1846 

J846-1S4S 

1 848- 1 85 1 

1851-1853 

1853-1854 

1854-1S56 

1S56-1S58 

1858-1S60 

1860-1864 



Emperor and Presidents. 

Maximilian of Austria, Em- 
peror, , . . 1 864- 1 867 
Benito Juarez, President, . 1864-1872 
Lerdo de Tejada, . . 1872- 

EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 

House of Braganza. 

Don Pedro I., . . 1822-1831 



Don Pedro II., 



1831- 



KINGS OF BELGIUM. 

House of Saxe-Coburg. 

Leopold I., . . . 1830-1864 
Leopold II., . . . 1864- 

KINGS OF GREECE. 
Idouse of Bavaria. 

Otho 1 833- 1 863 

Idouse of Denmark. 
George, . . . 1863- 

KING OF ITALY. 
House of Savoy. 
Victor Emmanuel, . . 1861- 



APPENDIX. 



BRITISH AFFAIRS. 
Queen Victoria, " Empress of India." — Disraeli, Earl of Beacons- 
field. — In the fall of 1S75, the Prince of Wales paid a visit to India. The ex- 
penses of this visit, which were paid by the British Government, were enormous. 
A.t the same time British influence was increased in Egypt, by the purchase by the 
British Government of the Suez Canal shares of the "Viceroy of Egypt. In April, 
1876, the British Parliament passed an act conferring upon Queen Victoria the title 
of " Empress of India." The new title was very unpopular with the British press 
and people. In August, 187.6, Mr. Disraeli, who was still Prime Minister, was 
raised to the House of Lords, with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield. On the ist 
of January, 1S77, Queen Victoria was proclaimed with great pomp, at Delhi, 
" Empress of India." The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the 
Governor-General, I.ord Lytton, in the presence of a vast concourse of people from 
various parts of India. 

THE EASTERN QUESTION. 

Rebellion in Herzegovina and Bosnia Against the Turks. — In July, 1875, 
the peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the west of European Turkey, 
rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government to resist the collection of taxes 
Dy the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears 
were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the 
Great European Powers met at Mostar, in September, 1875, ^^^ endeavored to 
bring about a paciiication by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and rea- 
sonable concessions to the Herzegovinians and Bosnians ; while, at the same time, 
they tried to induce the insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of 
an unimportant character occurred during the summer and autumn of 1875, and 
the following winter and spring, but no advantage was gained by either party. 
Cettinge, Trebinge, and Nicsic were the scenes of stubborn conflicts and close 
sieges by the insurgents, but the result of the struggle continued indecisive. Tre- 
binge and Nicsic were both relieved by the Turks, the former in January and the 
latter in March, 1876. The Bosnian insurgents committed frightful atrocities, and 
bloody actions were fought between them and the Turks. 

The Andrassy Note. — Its Rejection by the Insurgents. — Count An- 
Jiissy, the Austro Hungarian Prime-Minister, drew up a note relative to reforms 
in Turkey, which received the approval of Russia, and was dispatched to the guar- 
anteeing Powers. This note proposed the equality of all religious denominations, 
and the introduction of provisional and communal self-government, and that the 
first result of these changes in the insurgent provinces should be the imposition of 
taxation by the provinces themselves .and the abolition of serfdom. The Austro- 

(627) 



628 AIPEKDIX. 

Hungarian Ambassador at Constantinople communicated Count Andrassy's note to 
the Grand Vizier, who, in reply, rejected the idea of foreign mediation, and said that 
the Sublime Porte would give the people of the Turkish provinces all necessary 
guarantees for reform. Italy, France, Germany, and England, with certain reser- 
vations, supported the Andrassy note concerning reforms in Turkey. The Grand 
Vizier at length intimated to the ambassadors of the Great European Powers that 
the Sultan was willing to accept Count Andrassy's recommendations, but not to 
permit any foreign interference or control in the execution of the reforms. On the 
31st of Januar)', 1876, the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German Ambassadors 
communicated Count Andrassy's note verbally to the Porte. The ambassadors of 
the other Powers supported the note. The Porte, in reply to the note, promised to 
apply in the insurgent districts five leading points of Andrassy's scheme — religious 
libertj', the modification of the system of collecting tithes, the granting of facilities 
to agriculturists, the application of a portion of the revenues of the insurgent pro- 
vinces to local improvements, and the appointment of a mixed commission of Mus- 
sulmans and Christians to watch the execution of these reforms. The Porte also 
took note of the promise of the Great Powers to lend their moral support to the 
pacification of the revolted districts. The Sultan then ordered the execution of 
the reforms. The insurgents, however, rejected the reforms, because they were not 
consulted in the arrangement. Toward the close of March, 1876, an armistice was 
concluded between the contending parties. 

Riot at Salonica. — Murder of the French and German Consuls. — On 
the 6th of May, 1876, a serious riot occurred at Salonica, in European Turkey, be- 
tween the Christians and the Mohammedans. The trouble arose from the fact that 
a Christian girl wished to become a Mohammedan. She was forcibly taken from 
her Turkish friends by the Greeks. Fighting between the Christians and the 
Turks ensued. During the riot, the •French and German Consuls went to the 
Mosque, and were assassinated by the exasperated. Moslem populace, but the mob 
was dispersed. As soon as intelligence of the outrage reached Constantinople, the 
French and German ambassadors to Turkey demanded redress, and were promised 
satisfaction by the Porte. French and German war vessels immediately proceeded to 
Salonica to protect the lives and interests of French and German citizens. The two 
Powers jointly demanded the execution of the murderers, indemnification of the 
families of the victims, a solemn salute to the French and German flags by the 
Turkish authorities, and guarantees against similar atrocities in the future. The 
Ottoman Government acceded to these demands, and the murderers of the Consuls 
were executed. The funeral of the murdered Consuls took place on the 19th of 
May, at Salonica, with great ceremonies. 

The Berlin Conference and the Gortschakoff Memorandum, — On the 
nth of May, 1876, a conference of the three Imperial Chancellors, — Prince Gort- 
schakoff" of Russia, Prince Bismarck of Germany, and Count Andrassy of Austro- 
Hungary, — was opened at the residence of Prince Bismarck in Berlin. Count 
Andrassy's note formed the basis of their conference. The three Chancellors 
agreed to abstain from all military intervention in the Turkish troubles. Ti e 
memorandum agreed to by the three Chancellors was communicated to the guar- 
anteeing Powers. While maintaining Count Andrassy's note as a basis, the memo- 
randum drawn up by Prince Gortschakoff conceded the consideration of the 
reforms demanded by the insurgent leaders. The French alnd Italian ambassr.dors 



APPENDIX. 629 

at Berlin gave their official notification of the complete concuiTence of their respec- 
tive governments in the results of the conference; but England raised a succession 
of objections to the measures of the conference, and the text of her reply declin- 
ing to agree to the programme of the Russian, German, and Auslro- Hungarian 
Chancellors, was communicated to the foreign ambassadors in London. The point 
to which Great Britain objected Vi^as the decision of the three Imperial Powers that 
in case their friendly intervention should fail to effect a pacification, the six Great 
Powers should take joint action and adopt more efficient measures. The British 
Cabinet regarded this as a threat of armed intervention and a menace to the inde- 
pendence of Turkey. The Herzegovmians and Bosnians rejected the proposition 
of the Berlin Conference, and were satisfied with nothing less than complete inde- 
pendence of Turkish rule ; and the Porte asked for a modification of the Berlin 
memorandum, before giving its acceptance to the measures therfein proposed. 
Thus the plan of the three Imperial Chancellors failed in its objects, and the 
memorandum was withdrawn. 

Dethronement and Suicide of Sultan Abdul Aziz. — On the 29Lh of May, 
1876, the Turkish Ministiy assembled at the residence of the Grand Vizier, and 
discussed the state of public affairs. They concluded that unless some radical 
measures were adopted, geneial rebellion and the downfall of the Ottoman Em- 
pire would soon follow. A resolution was accordingly passed embodying these 
views, and a petition to the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, was drawn up entreating him to 
abdicate his throne in order to save the country from utter ruin. The Sultan re- 
ceived the petition with seeming composure, saying he would consider the matter. 
The Ministers were sustained by a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, the spiritual head 
of the Mohammedan Church. On the following day there was an immense popu- 
lar demonstration in the streets of Constantinople. The trade guilds, headed by 
the Softas, marched lo the Seraglio, the Sultan's palace, unopposed by the mili- 
tary, who were apparently disaffected. The multitude cheered for Amurath, the 
Sultan's nephew, and demanded the overthrow of Abdul Aziz. In the mean- 
time, Amurath having been released from his own house, to which he had been 
confined by the Sultan, was conducted to the mosque, and proclaimed Sultan with 
the title of Amurath V. Soon after this, Sulieman Pacha, accompanied by officei^s 
and soldiers, informed Abdul Aziz that the people had dethroned him, and that he 
should surrender the palace to his successor. Perceiving that resistance was use- 
less, Abdul Aziz complied ; and accordingly, he, with his family, household, and 
fifty-three boats filled with women, left the building, and were conveyed under 
escort to the Tcheragan Palace. After his deposition, Abdul Aziz had several 
violent fits of insanity, and on the 4th of June (1876), he committed suicide by 
opening the veins and arteries of his arms with scissors, and bleeding to death. 
His funeral was honored with great pomp, and all the ministers and high officials, 
civil and military, were present ; and his remains were placed in the mausoleum 
of Sultan Mahmoud. 

Assassination of Turkish Ministers. — On the 15th of June, 1S76, Hassan 
Bey, a t'ircassian officer of the rank of adjutant-major in the Turkish service, who 
had been assigned to duty at Bagdad, and imprisoned for his refusal to leave Con- 
stantinople, and who was just released on his promise to obey orders, proceeded 
to the residence of Midhat Pacha, the Grand Vizier, who was in council with his 
Min-'sters, and being admitted into the council chamber by mistake, d ew a revolver 



630 



APPENDIX. 



and instantly shot and killed Hussein Avni Pacha, Minister of War. In endeavoring 
to escape arrest, he shot and killed Reshid Pacha, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and 
seriously wounded the Minister of Marine. A soldier and a servant were also 
killed, and another wounded. The assassin was hanged on the 20th (June, 1876) 
and the vacant offices were immediately filled. 

The Turko-Servian War — Alliance of Servia and Montenegro. — from 
the time of the outbreak of the Herzegovinian insurrection, the Principality of Ser- 
vi.i, a state in the north of European Turkey, tributary to the Porte, had main- 
tained a warlike attitude toward the Ottoman Government, and shown a disposition 
to espouse the cause of the insurgents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turkish 
Government had in the meantime anticipated the warlike designs of Servia by 
sending troops to the Servian frontier ; and both parties were ready for hostilities. 
At the beginning of July, 1876, Prince Milan, of Servia, declared war against the 
Turkish Government, alleging as his reason the threatening attitude of the Porte 
toward Servia, and its failure to satisfy the demands of Bosnia. At the same time, 
Prince Nicholas, of Montenegro, a small tributary state in the west of European 
Turkey, entered the field against the Porte, in support of the cause of Herzegovina, 
There were now four Turkish provinces in open rebellion against the Porte — 
Herzegovina, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Servia. The war which now opened was 
most sanguinary in its character. During the whole of July, August, and Septem- 
ber, 1876, the struggle raged fiercely; and battles between the Turks and the 
Servians were of almost daily occurrence. The valleys of the Drina, the Morava, 
and the Timok, were drenched with blood ; and Izvor, Derbent, Saitschar, Gur- 
gosovatz, Paratchin, Pandirola, Podgoritza, Alexinatz, and Deligrad were repeat- 
edly the scenes of sanguinary conflicts. The Servian armies, commanded by 
Generals Tchernayeff, Leschjanin, Antitch, Olympics, Horvatovich, Paulovich, 
and others, resisted with great bravery ; but the Turkish for,ces, under the com- 
mand of Osman Pacha, Dervish Pacha, Hafiz Pacha, Suleiman Pacha, Kerim 
Pacha, Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, were successful in nearly every encounter ; 
but in Montenegro and Herzegovina, the Ottoman troops, under Mukhtar Pacha 
and Selim Pacha, suffered a series of calamitous defeats. Finally in September 
(1876), the Servians were reduced to such straits that the Servian Government 
became anxious for peace. 

Turkish Atrocities in Bulgaria. — Indignation in England. — A rebellion 
having broke out in Bulgaria in May (1876), the Porte sent Circassians and Bashi- 
Bazouks, irregular troops, to subdue the revolt. These troops committed the most 
fiendish atrocities upon the Bulgarians after the suppression of the insurrection, 
massacring, without discrimination, men, women, and children, in the most cruel 
manner. According to the reports of English newspaper correspondents, and the 
American Consul, Mr. Schuyler, 12,000 Bulgarians fell victims to the savage fury 
of the Circassians and Bashi-Bazouks, and sixty villages were reduced to ashes. 
These atrocities aroused the most intense indignation in England. Immense public 
meetmgs were held in every part of the kingdom to denounce the outrages, and in 
London several monster demonstrations were held. The British press loudly 
called for the interference of the Government to compel the Turks to respect the 
usages of civilized warfare; and the British Government, under the pressure of public 
sentiment, instituted measures to secure an investigation of the Bulgarian outrages. 
An animated debate occurred in the British House of Commons, and the Ministi7 



APPENDIX. 6^1 

was severely condemned for its indifference. Mr. Baring, the Secretary of the 
British Embassy at Constantinople, in his report', estimated the numl^er massacred 
in and around Philippopolis at 12,000. The British Government called upon the 
Porte to punish the perpetrators of the outrages, and received promises that justice 
should be done, but the Ottoman Government was slow in fulfilling its promises. 

Dethronement of Sultan Amurath Vo and Accession of Abdul Hamid, 
— From the time of his accession to the throne of Turkey, Sultan Amurath V. was 
an imbecile, and preparations were made for his dethronement. Finally, on the 
31st of August, 1876, a Council of Ministers and great dignitaries of the Ottoman 
Empire, in conformity with a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, proclaimed the deposi- 
tion of Amurath V., and declared his brother Abdul Hamid Sultan of Turkey. 

Prince Milan Proclainied King of Servia. — On the 15th of September, 
1876, General Tchernayeft" 's army proclaimed Prince Milan King' of Servia, and 
conferred upon him dictatorial powers. This act of the Servian army was disap- 
proved by Russia, and Austro- Hungary refused to recognize Milan's title. 

Overtures for Peace. — An Armistice of Eighteen Days. — In consequence 
of the Turkish victories, the Princes of Servia and Montenegro made overtures 
for peace, and their demand was sustained by England. Sir Henry George Elliot, 
the British Ambassador at Constantinople, presented to the Porte a demand for an 
armistice of one month, to be followed by negotiations for peace. Thcdemand of 
England was sustained by the other foreign ambassadors at the Turkish capital. 
The Ottoman Government decidedly refused to grant an armistice, but expressed 
its willingness to treat for peace. This refusal threatened fresh complications in 
the East, as Russia seemed disposed to insist on the demand for an armistice. 
Finally, about the middle of September (1876), both Turkey and Servia agreed 
upon a suspension of hostilities for ten days, afterward prolonged eight days, and 
negotiations for peace were opened ; but the conditions of Turkey were rejected 
by both Servia and Montenegro, and thus the negotiations failed. 

New Peace Negotiations. — Relations of Russia and Turkey. — Terms 
of peace proposed by the Great European Powers were rejected by Turkey; and 
the relations between Russia and Turkey were every day becoming more precaribus. 
The Russian Government was unable to restrain the warlike ardor of its subjects, 
who were in hearty sympathy with the Servians. England was jealous of Russian 
interference in Turkish affairs, and her interests demanded the upholding of the 
Ottoman Empire ; but the English people, whose indignation had been aroused by 
the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, opposed the Eastern policy of the Earls of 
Beaconsfield and Derby. Germany seemed disposed to support Russia's position, but 
Austi-o- Hungary and Italy opposed it. The Powers made continuous efforts for an 
armistice. Servia, as well as Turkey, rejected the peace proposals of the European 
Powers. Russia proposed a joint intervention on the part of the Great Powers in 
Tuikish affairs, but France, England, and Austro-Hungary declined the proposi- 
tion. Russia now seemed disposed t® openly support Servia, and a war between 
Russia and Turkey appeared imminent. The Porte proposed a six months' armis- 
tice, but this was opposed by Russia, which demanded instead a six weeks' armis- 
tice. 

Russia's Menace Against Turkey. — Warlike Preparations.— On the 

I2th of October, 1876, the Ottoman Porte rejected the peace propositions of the 



6^2 APPENDIX. 

Euroijean Powers. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a cir- 
cular note to the other European Powers, opposing the six months' amiistice, and 
demanding instead a six weeks' armistice. Russia threat end to invade Turkey in 
case of a refusal of a short armistice. War between Russia and Turkey appeared 
inevitable, and great uneasiness prevailed in all the great European capitals. War 
risks were required in London, and Lloyds were called upon to have steamers ready 
to transport troops. England was making warlike preparations, and the British fleets 
in the Mediterranean were under sailing orders. Much bitter hatred against Russia 
was manifested in England, the recent excitement against the Turks, on account of the 
Bulgarian atrocities, having died away. Russian troops were concentrating at 
Bender and at Tiflis, preparatory to invading both European and Asiatic Turkey, 
while the Ottoman Porte was concentrating two large armies, one in European and 
the other in Asiatic Turkey, to resist Russian invasion. 

Russia's Ultimatum. — An Armistice. — Proposed Peace Conference. — 
The French and German ambassadors at Constantinople received instructions 
from their respective governments to support the proposal for a six weeks' 
armistice. On the 30th of October, 1876, General Ignatieff, the Russian Am- 
bassador at Constantinople, presented an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding the 
acceptance of a two months' armistice and a suspension of hostilities within forty- 
eight hours, threatening, in case of a refusal, to break off diplomatic relations and 
to leave Constantinople with the whole Russian Embassy. The Porte consented 
to the Russian demands, and the armistice was signed on the 1st of November, 
1876 ; and hostilities between the Turks and Servians were suspended. Montene- 
gro also accepted the armistice. Upon the conclusion of the armistice, the Great 
Powers agreed upon holding a peace conference at Constantinople to settle the 
Eastern question. The conference was summoned on the basis of the integrity 
and independence of the Ottoman Empire. 

The Czar's Speech at Moscow. — Russia's Warlike Demonstrations. — 
On the lotli of November, 1S76, the Czar Alexander II. of Russia delivered an 
important speech at Moscow, in reply to an address from the citizens, declaring 
that he would demand guarantees from the Porte, and threatening, in case 
of a refusal, a declaration of w^ir. The speech was received with enthusi- 
astic cheers. The Czar's speech was everywhere applauded throughout the 
Russian Empire. In the midst of the preparations for the peace conference, 
the most warlike demonstrations were going on in Russia. Great Britain was ex- 
cited by distrust of Russia, and war risks were taken in London. Great activity 
prevailed at the Woolwich arsenal ; and in the dock-yards the iron-clads were pre- 
pared for immediate service, and all soldiers on furlough in Ireland were ordered 
to join their regiments. Russian troops were concentrating in Southwestern Russia, 
and in the Caucasus, ready to invade ^oth European and Asiatic Turkey; while 
the Porte was concentrating two large armies to resist Russian invasion. Tlie 
Czar, in an address to the generals and officers of the Russian army, at a military 
review in St. Petersburg, on November 15th (1876), said, " Gentlemen, let us wish 
the best success to the commanders of our armies." The Czar's words were 
received with enthusiastic cheering. All freight traffic was stopped on the 
railways in Southwestern Russia. A Russian army was rapidly concentrating at 
Odessa. A Russian war loan of 100,000,000 roubles in bank notes was issued by 
the State Bank of St. Petersburg, by authority of an imperial ukase, to be received 




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APPENDIX. 6^„ 

in subscriptions, bearing interest at lo per cent. The Czar, in an interview with 
Lord Loftus, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg on November 2d, 1876, 
gave assurances that Russia would not seize Constantinople, or attempt to ci nquer 
India. 

New Turkish Constitution. — In the meantime, the Turkish Government had 
appointed a commission to frame a constitution for the Ottoman Empire. The 
commission concluded its labors in the latter part of November, 1876, and a draft 
of the document was sent to the Grand Vizier. The text of the constitution was 
communicated to the Great European Powers. The new constitution was officially 
promulgated with great solemnity on the 23d of December, 1876. The constitu- 
tion declared the Ottoman Empire to be one and indivisible, and provided for a 
legislative assembly comprising two branches, a Senate and a Cha,mber of Deputies. 
The principle of ministerial responsibility was established. On November 23d, 
1876, the Sultan issued a decree abolishing slavery within the Turkish dominions. 

The Peace Conference at Constantinople. — Unanimity of the Great 
Powers. — In the meantime, while Turkey and Russia were making warlike dem- 
onstrations, preparations for the peace conference at Constantinople were being 
rapidly pushed. The British plenipotentiary, Lord Salisbury, while on his way to 
Constantinople, had an interview with Prince Bismarck at Bf rlin. Lord Salisbury 
also stopped at Vienna. Popular sentiment in England had compelled Lord 
Beacoiisfield to reverse his policy on the Eastern question, and England was now 
in full accord with Russia on the guarantees to be required of the Ottoman Porte. 
France, Germany, Italy, and Austro-FIungary also supported the Russian de- 
mands. An interview between Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff showed a 
complete agreement between them on the points to be demanded of the Porte. 
At a preliminary meeting of the Conference on December nth, 1876, under the 
presidency of the Russian Ambassador, the result showed a unanimity among the 
plenipotentiaries of the Great European Powers. General Ignatieff appeared very 
conciliatory, and at his suggestion, the Conference proposed that Belgium or Switzer- 
land might occupy Bulgaria with troops, but both these small states rejected the 
proposition. The Conference began its regular sessions on December 23d, 1876 
The Turkish plenipotentiary,* Safvet Pacha, presided, and in his opening address, 
declared that the Porte was ready to grant reforms to all its subjects. In all the 
proceedings of the Conference, the Great Powers were unanimous. Russia be- 
came more conciliatory and Turkey more defiant. All the proposals of the Euro- 
pean Powers were rejected by the Turkish Government, which met every proposi- 
tion with a counter-proposal. It gradually became apparent that Midhat Pacha, 
the Grand Vizier, had outwitted the diplomatists of Europe. Lord Salisbury, in 
an interview with Midhat Pacha, urged him to accept the European proposals, but 
without success. At a subsequent interviev/ between Lord Salisbui-y and the Sul- 
tan, the latter objected to the European demands, whereupon Lord Salisbuiy 
directed the British fleet to leave Turkish waters, in order to show the '."tirks that 
England would not support them in resisting the united will of Europe On the 
30ih of Decemljer, 1876, the armistice was prolonged to March 1st, 1877. The 
Powers at length agreed to consid'ir the Turkish counter-proposals. Russia re- 
ceded from her original position ; while the Turks appeared more defiant, and 
refused to discuss the European propositions. An angry interview occurred be- 
tween Lord Salisbury and Midiia^ Pncha o" Januaiy 2d, ^1877. The Coiiference, 



634 



APPENDIX. 



on the 6th of January, 1877, i-efused to make any further concessions, while the 
Turks remained inflexible. The English, German, and Russian plenipotentiaries, 
unsuccessfully urged the Grand Vizier to accept the proposals of the European 
Powers. On January 12th, 1877, Baron von Werther, the German plenipotentiary, 
declared that the Great Powers would make no further concessions to Turkey. 
On January 15th (1877), the European Powers relinquished many of the contested 
points, but Lord Salisbury, the British plenipotentiary, and Sir Henry George 
Elliott, the British Ambassador at the Turkish capital, announced that they had 
jrders to leave Constantinople if the Porte rejected the modified demands of the 
Powers. All the other European plenipotentiaries made similar declarations. 
Safvet Pacha, the Turkish plenipotentiary, replied that the conditions of the Pow- 
ers would have to be submitted to the Porte, before a final answer could be given. 
On the 1 8th (January, 1877), the Grand Council of the Turkish Empire, among 
whom were sixty Christians, unanimously rejected the proposals of the European 
Powers, and declared that the Turkish counter-proposals were the only subjecl 
which would further be considered. The Council disregarded Midhat Pacha's 
appeal for peace, and replied with loud shouts of " War rather than foreign inter- 
ference !" " Death before dishonor !" The result of the Turkish Grand Council's 
action was that Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff refused to have anything 
further to do with the negotiations ; and the ambassadors of the six Great Euro- 
pean Powers accordingly withdrew from Constantinople, and thus the Conference 
failed. 

Peace between Turkey, and Servia and Montenegro, — \\\ the latter part 
of January, 1877, "^'^^ Porte opened negotiations for peace with Servia and Mon- 
tenegro. Both Russia and England advised Prince Milan, of Servia, to make 
peace. Midhat Pacha offered conciliatory terms to the Servians, who had for 
some time been anxious for peace^ The negotiations progressed slowly, but were 
successfully completed in the early part of March, 1S77. 

Dismissal and Banishment of Midhat Pacha. — On the 5th of February 
(1877), Midhat Pacha was dismissed from office and banished from Constantino- 
ple by order of the Sultan ; and Edhem Pacha was made Grand Vizier. The 
causes of the fall of Midhat Pacha were his progressive policy and his desire for 
peace, which were very obnoxious to the reactionary party in Turkey. 

P.ince Gortschakoff's Circular. — On the 4th of February (1877), Prince 
Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a circular note to the Russian Am- 
bassadors at the courts of the other Great Powers, declaring the Ottoman Empire 
a menace to Europe and to tlie sentiments of humanity and Christianity, and 
endeavoring to ascertain what course the other Governments of Europe intended 
to piursue in consequence of the Porte's defiant attitude. 

Position of England on the Eastern Question. — Iw the meantime, the 
public mind in England was greatly excited on the Eastern question. Mr. Glad- 
stone made important speeches at Taunton and Frome, denouncing the course of 
Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Derby in not taking vigorous measures to act in con- 
cert with Russia in putting a stop to the horrible atrocities of the Turks toward the 
Christian inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. Parliament opened on the 8th of 
February, 1877, and the Queen's speech alluded in guarded terms to the Eas em 
question, and expressed a hope for a satisfactory solution of the vexed problem. 
On the l6th (February, 1877), Mr. Gladstone and others made speeches criticising 



APPENDIX. 635 

Lord Beaconsfield and his Ministry severely. The Government avowed its 
neutrality on the Eastern question. On the 20th (Februaiy, 1877), an animated 
debate occurred in the House of Lords. The Duke of Argyll attacked the pohcy 
of the Ministry, but the Earl of Derby defended the Government's action. On a 
test vote, the House of Lords sustained the course of Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet. 
General Ignatieff' s Mission.— During March, 1S77, General Ignatieff, the 
Russian Ambassador at Constantinople, visited the capitals of the Great Powers on 
a mission from the Czar. The result of this mission was the signing of a protocol 
consenting to Russia's intervention in Turkish affairs. In the early part of March, 
Lcrd DeAy, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, suggested to Russia the pro- 
prieey of allowing Turkey a year's time to prove her sincerity in the matter of 
reform. Russia did not seem disposed to adopt this plan. 

Warlike Preparations of Russia and Turkey.— In the meantime, both 
Russia and Turkey continued their warlike preparations. Russia was hurrymg 
troops forward to the Pruth, and Turkish troops were moving toward the Danube. 
The Russians were still mobilizing an additional number of army corps on the 
frontiers, and by the close of February (1877) there were 200,000 Russian troops 
ready to enter Turkish territory. The Turks had concentrated an army of about 
75 000 men on the Danube to resist Russian invasion. Both Russia and Turkey 
we're buying arms and munitions of war in the United States. On the 3d of 
March 1877, an imperial ukase was issued at St. Petersburg, directing the organi- 
zation of nine additional army corps. About the middle of March. Russia was 
preparing to put one million of men into the field. 

THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION OF 1876. 
• Beginning of the Revolution.— Late in January, 1S76, a revolutionai7 
movement against President Lerdo de Tejada broke out in the Northern and Cen- 
tral States of Mexico. The leader of the rebellion was General Porfino Diaz. 
General Herrera pronounced for the revolution, and surprised the authorities at 
Pan-as. There was severe fighting at Oaxaca, in JVlarch, 1876. Jalapa was cap- 
tured by the revolutionists, March 1 2th, and Vera Cruz was declared in a state of 
siege on the 13th. On the 2d of April (1876), the revolutionists under Diaz cap- 
tured Matamoras, the Government troops making little resistance. New Laredo 
was captured by the revolutionists, April i ith. General Alatorfe was defeated by 
the rebels in an attempt to retake Oaxaca. The State of Chiapas was declared in a 
state of siege. The Mexican Congress, before adjourning, granted the President 
extraordinary powers to meet the rebellion. Generals Escobedo, Alatorre, and 
others, were operating vigorously against the insurgents. General Porfino Diaz 
issued a manifesto assigning his reasons for opposing President Sebastian Lerdo 
de Tejada. General Escobedo, with 3,000 Government troops, and Generals 
Tuero and Querago with 2,000 men, advanced on Matamoras, of which they took 
possession on the loth of May, the revolutionists under General Gonzalez retinng. 
The rebellion was now rapidly waning, the insurgents having met with reverses 
everywhere. General Alatorre gained a great victory on May 2d, at Oaxaca, over 
the revolutionists, who lost 4,000 men in killed and wounded, and many being 
taken prisoners. The Government army lost 600 men in killed and wounded. 
The Government troops also gained a victory in Tlaxco on the 28th of May. The 
rebels, under Generals Figuerora, Cortina, and Martinez, were completely defeated 



6^6 APPENDIX. 

at Queretaro, on May 31st, with a loss of 500 men. The revolutionary army un 
der Generals Rivas and Palacio was surprised and defeated by Colonel Adolfo 
Valle in the interior of Mexico. On July 15th, General Alatorre defeated and 
captured the revolutionary General Henandez with 600 of his troops near Orizaba. 
The Government troops re-occupied Jalapa. The revolutionary general Trevinc 
was captured in the North of Mexico. In the beginning of August a formidable 
revolt t)roke out in the interior of Mexico. The insurgents defeated 16,000 Gov- 
ernment troops. The revolutionary General Cortina besieged Matamoras in 
September (1S76). 

President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada Re-elecled. — His Overthrow by 
Porfirio Diaz. — In the Presidential election in Mexico, in July, 1876, there were 
five candidates in the field, — namely, President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, Chief 
Justice Iglesias, and General Mejia, by the Government party; and Generals Por- 
firio Diaz and Gomez Palacio by the revolutionary party. Lerdo de Tejada was 
re-elected by an overwhelming majority. The opposition declared the election ille- 
gal on account of prevailing lawlessness in many parts of the country, but the Mex- 
ican Congress sustained the election as valid, whereupon Chief Justice Iglesias pro- 
nounced against Lerdo de Tejada, and declared himself Provisional President, 
establishing himself at Leon, in the State of Guanajuato. On November i6th, 
1876, General Porfirio Diaz annihilated the Government army under Generals 
Alatorre and Gonzalez, near Huamantla, about 100 miles from the city of Mexico, 
Lerdo de Tejada fled from the capital on November 21st (1876), with his cabinet, 
accompanied by about 1,000 men, the greater part of whom afterward deserted. 
Diaz entered the capital amid the gi-eatcst demonstrations. Puebla, Vera Cruz, 
and other cities, declared for Diaz, who proclaimed himself Provisional President, 
Novfmber 30th, 1876. The Presidential succession was now disputed between 
Diaz and Iglesias, but the followers of Iglesias deserted to Diaz, who soon had 
50,000 men under arms. Both Lerdo de Tejada and Iglesias escaped to the 
United States. In February, 1877, under an order from Diaz, a new election was 
held in Mexico, and Diaz was ejected President by an overwhelming majority. 

THE UNITED STATES IN 1876, '77. 

Visit of Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil. — In April, 1876, Dom Pedro 
II., Emperor of Brazil, arrived in New York, on a visit to the United States. 
During a period of three months, Dom Pedro visited many portions of the countr)', 
crossing the continent to California, and endeavoring to learn something of the in- 
dustries and resources of our people. He was present at the opening ceremonies of 
the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia on the loth of May, and also at the cere- 
monies in Independence Square on the 4th of July. In July, he set sail for Europe. 

The Centennial Fourth of July. — The 4th of July, 1876, the looth anniver- 
•^wy of American Independence, was observed throughout the United States with 
fitting and impressive ceremonies. The most magnificent celebration was held in 
Philadelphia, the birth-place of the nation. Several hundred thousand people 
spent the day in this city, so classic in Revolutionary histor}'. On the night of Hie 
3d, and the morning of the 4th, a magnificent procession, nearly seven miles in 
length, paraded on Broad and Chestnut streets, and was witnessed by hundreds of 
thousands of spectators. In this procession were Governors of States, army anff 
navy officers, the Emperor of Brazil, Prince Oscar of Sweden, the Count de 



APPENDIX. 637 

Rochambeau, grandson of the Count de Rochambeau who aidid Washington in 
the siege of Yorktown, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, 
the various foreign commissions at the Exhibition, and the various trades and clubs 
of the city. On the approach of the procession to Independence Hall at 12 o'clock 
at night, the new liberty bell in the spire of Independence Hall opened the clang- 
ing chorus, which was taken up by steeple after steeple throughout the city. Amid 
the brazen din came the shrieks of steam whistles, report of artillery and small 
arms, and the racket of fire-crackers let off by impatient Young America, who 
could not wait until daylight to begin his share of the celebration. On the morn- 
ing of the 4th there was a grand military parade on Broad and Chestnut streets, in 
which the « Centennial Legion," composed of select companies from the " Old 
Thirteen States," made an imposing appearance. At 10:30 a. in., the ceremonies 
began on Independence Square in the presence of about 15,000 people. 
Addresses were made by General Hawley, President of the Centennial Commis- 
sion, and United States Senator Ferry, of Michigan, acting Vice-President of the 
United States ; after which the Declaration of Independence was read from the 
original document by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, grandson of the Richard 
Henry Lee who offered the resolution of Independence in the Continental Con- 
gress in 1776. An inspiring poem, composed by Bayard Taylor, was recited by 
its author, and a grand oration was delivered by the Hon. William Maxwell 
Evarts, of New York, a grandson of Roger Sherman. A hymn appropriate to the 
occasion, composed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, was perfonned by the orchestra 
and chorus. The ceremonies closed amidst the wildest enthusiasm, at 1:30 p. m. 
Among the distinguished guests present on the occasion were the Emperor of 
Brazil, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, Generals Sher- 
man, Sheridan, Hooker, and McDowell, and a number of Governors of States. 
In the evening there was a brilliant display of fireworks in East Park, at which 
about 50,000 persons were present. The day was also appropriately celebrated in 
every portion of the country. 

Admission of Colorado.— On the 4th of March, 1875, Congress passed an 
act for the admission of Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth State. Col- 
orado having at length complied with the enabling act of Congress, and formed a 
State Constitution, President Grant issued a proclamation in July, 1876, declanng 
Colorado a State of the American Union. 

War with the Sioux Indians in Montana.— In the summer of 1873 gold 
seekers flocked to the Black Hills, in the territory of Montana, but the United 
States Government interfered to prevent this intrusion on the lands which had been 
assigned to the Sioux Indians by treaty in 1868. The continual intrusion of the 
wnites on the Indian domains led to serious troubles with the Sioux, the Chey- 
ennes, and other Indian tribes; and in the summer of 1875, a number of chiefs 
visited Washington to arrange a treaty w.ith the United States Government for the 
disposition of their lands. The Government offered them $25,000 ; but the Indians 
demanded $150,000, and having failed in their demand, they returned to their vari- 
ous tribes dissatisfied. Repeated troubles occurred with the Sioux thereafter; 
and under their chiefs. Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Red Fox, Red Dog, Rocky 
Bear, Living Bear, Bearskin, Bear-Stand-Up, and Black Moon, they determined 
to defend their lands. In 1872, Sitting Bull was repulsed in two attacks upon 
United States troops under General Custer. In 1873, Sitting Bull made a nighl 



638 



APPENDIX. 



attack upon Colonel Baker, but was repulsed and pursued. In 1874, he drove the 
Crow Indians from their reservation and agency, and made war on all peaceable 
Indians. In June, 1876, an expedition under Generals Crook and Custer took 
•the field against the Sioux. Crook defeated the Sioux on the Rosebud river on 
the 17th of June. On the 25th of June, General Custer fell into an ambush of the 
Sioux on the Little Big Horn river. The Indians led by Sitting Bull numbered 
4,000, while Custer's men only numbered 307. General Custer and his entire 
command were killed. On the same day, Major Reno attacked the Indians, and 
the fight was resumed the next day, on the evening of which General Terry 
arrived, and the Indians retired. During the months of July, August, and Septem- 
ber, Gererals Crook, Terry, and Merritt conducted the war against the Sioux. On 
September" 9th, General Crook captured a Sioux camp, and had a day's skirmish 
with the Indians, which ended in the complete defeat of the savages. This defeat 
brought the Sioux to terms, and on the 22d of September a treaty of peace was 
concluded by which the Indians relinquished a portion of the Black Hills. 

Presidential Campaign of 1876 — A Disputed Election. — On the i6th of 
June, 1876, the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati nominated Gover- 
nor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of the United States, and Hon. 
Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. On the 28th of the same 
month (June, 1876), the Democratic National Convention at St. Louis nominated 
Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for President, and Governor Thomas 
A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The election, which was held on 
the 7th of November (1876), was indecisive, as both parties claimed it. Three 
States — Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina — were in dispute, and prominent 
leaders of both parties went to Louisiana to watch the counting of the votes by the 
State Returning Board. The Returning Boards of the three disputed States de- 
clared their States to have gone for the Republican State and National tickets, but 
the claim was denied by the Democrats. In Florida, a recount of the votes 
resulted in favor of the Democratic State ticket and the Republican Presidential 
ticket. In South Carolina and Louisiana two State Governments were organized. 
In Oregon, where the Republican Electors were chosen, a difficulty arose concern- 
ing the eligibility of one of the Electors, and the Governor gave a certificate of 
election to one of the Democratic Electoral candidates. This action added to the 
embarrassment of the situation. 

Electoral Commission. — Hayes Declared President. — His Inaugura- 
tion. — When Congress assembled in December, 1876, committees were appointed 
by both Houses to proceed to the three disputed States to investigate the affairs of 
the election. In January, 1877, a joint committee of the two Houses of Congress 
agreed upon a bill for counting the Electoral vote. This bill provided for the de- 
cision of the cases of the disputed States by an " Electoral Commission," or Arbi- 
tration Tribunal, composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Supreme 
Court Judges. This bill was speedily passed by overwhelming majorities of both 
Houses of Congress, and received the President's signature on the 30th (January, 
1877). The members of the Commission were immediately chosen, and entered 
upon their duties on the ist of February (1877), when both Houses of Congress 
met in joint conventions to count the Electoral votes. The Commission, which 
was composed of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, decided, by a strict 
party vote, not to take evidence concerning the popular vote in the disputed States. 



APPENDIX. 5 

The Commission alsc decided, by a strict party vote, to give the Electoral votes 
of all the disputed States to Messrs. Hayes and Wheeler. The decisions of the 
Commission caused intense dissatisfaction among the Democrats, and a considera- 
ble number of Democratic Representatives in Congress made desperate effort? tf 
prevent the completion of the count of the Electoral votes by the joint convention 
of the two Houses of Congress. During the last days of February and the 1st of 
March, the House of Representatives was a scene of the greatest excitement and 
disorder ever known in Congress. A large number of Democrats made repeated 
efforts to obstruct the Electoral count by dilatory motions and other methods of 
filibustering; but the remaining Democrats united with the Republicans in voting 
for the completion of the count, and the filibusters were defeated at every point. 
The count was completed at 4 o'clock on the morning of March 2d, 1877, and 
Hayes and Wheeler were declared elected. Governor Hayes was sworn into office 
as Presideht, by Chief-Justice Waite, on the 3d of March, the 4th coming on Sun- 
day. The other inauguration ceremonies were performed on the 5th, when Mr. 
Wheeler took the oath of office as Vice-President, 

THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 

The Turkish Parliament. — The Turkish Parliament met on the 19th of 
March, 1877, and was opened by Sultan Abdul Hamid in person. The speech 
from the throne was read by the First Secretary of the Sultan. A considerable 
number of Senators and Deputies were present. The Sultan's speech recapitulated 
the events of the Eastern crisis, and indulged in a profusion of promises. 

The Protocol and its Rejection by the Ottoman Porte. — We have already 
alluded to General Ignatieff's mission to the great European capitals. Austro- 
Hungary, Germany, Italy, and France readily signed the Russian protocol ; while 
England at first refused, but, after much diplomatic negotiation, the efforts of Gen- 
eral Ignatieff and Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, were 
successful; and Great Britain, on the 31st of March, 1877, signified her acceptance 
of the protocol. Russia then presented the protocol to the Ottoman Government 
for its approval, but the Porte rejected its provisions as inconsistent with the dignity 
and independence of the Ottoman Empire. 

The Czar's Manifesto. — Prince Gortschakoff's Circular, — Upon the re- 
jection of the protocol by the Ottoman Porte, the Czar Alexander II. of Russia, 
who arrived at the Russian head-quarters at Kischeneff, on April 22d, issued a man- 
ifesto, reciting the grievances of the Christians in Turkey, arraigning the Turkish 
Government for obstinacy in resisting the European demands, and declaring his 
purpose of espousing the cause of the oppressed Christians in Turkey ; while at 
the same time. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime-Minister, published a cir- 
cular, notifying the Great Powers that, as Turkey had rejected every demand of 
Europe for the amelioration of the Christians in Turkey, Russia was now obliged 
to undertake the amelioration of the Porte's Christian subjects. 

Reply of the Porte. — Russian Invasion of Turkey. — On the 25th of April, 
the Porte replied to the Czar's manifesto, charging Russia with the design of at- 
tacking the independence of Turkey, and calling upon the other Great Powers to 
enforce the stipulations of the Paris Treaty of 1856; while the Sultan issued a 



640 APPENDIX. 

patriotic address to his army, exhorting it to uphold the independence of tlie 
Osmanii, and to defend the land won by their ancestors. Immediately after the 
rejection of the protocol by the Sublime Porte, the Russian armies advanced into 
» Turkish territory, both in Europe and Asia. The Russian Army of the Danube, 
325,000 strong, under the command of the Grand Duke Nicholas, advanced from 
Kischeneff, in Southwestern Russia, into the Turkish Principality of Roumania, 
a semi-independent State, comprising the old Principalities of Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia, which was friendly to Russia. At the same time, the Russian Army of 
the Caucasus, 175,000 strong, under the Grand Duke Michael and General Melikoff, 
advanced from Alexandropol, in Georgia, into the Turkish province of Armenia. 
A large portion of the Armenian population, being Christians, were friendly to 
Russia. 

First Battle of Batoum— Bombardments of Russian Ports.— The first 
battle between the Russians and the Turks in the war of 1877, was fought in Asia- 
atic Turkey. On the 25th of April (1877), the Russians, under the Grand-Duke 
Michael, were defeated by the Turks at Tchurukson, near Batoum, on the south- 
eastern coast of the Black Sea, near the Russian frontier, with the loss of 800 men. 
On the 27th, the Russians were again repulsed at Batoum. The Turkish navy 
bombarded Poti, Chefketil, and Fort Nicholas, in Russian territory, on the 
eastern coast of the Black Sea. 

Attacks on Kars — Capture of Bayazid. — In the meantime, a heavy Russian 
column had advanced against the strongly-fortified town of Kars, to the southeast 
of Batoum. On the 29th of April, 40,000 Russians, under General Melikoff, 
attacked the Turks, under Mukhtar Pacha, at Kars ; and, after desperate fighting, 
the Turks lost several strong positions. On the following day (April 30, 1877), 
60,000 Turks attempted to recover their lost ground, but were repulsed and routed 
with heavy loss. On the ist of May, the Russians captured Bayazid, at the foot 
of Mount Ararat, the Turkish garrison, i ,700 in number, having evacuated the 
fortress on the approach of the Russians. 

Second Battle of Batoum, — On the nth of May (1877), there was a renewal 

of fighting around Batoum. The Russians in large force attacked the Turks, who 
were strongly intrenched on the heights of Batoum. Both sides fought desperately, 
and the Russians, after eight hours' fighting, were repulsed with the loss of 4,000 
men in killed and wounded. The Turkish loss was exceedingly small. The 
Turkish victoiy vi'as won by the extraordinary valor of the Bashi-Bazouks. 

Russian Advance on Erzeroum. — The operations of the Russians in Asiatic 
Turkey were directed against Erzeroum, the capital of Armenia. Erzeroum is a 
strongly-fortified city, surrounded with walls, and containing 50,000 inhabitants. 
The city was strongly garrisoned, and its defense was essential to the safety of Asia 
Minor. A heavy Russian force, under General Melikoff, advanced against Erze- 
roum. Mukhtar Pacha, with a Turkish force of 30,000 men, retreated before 
Melikoff 's advance, for the purpose of defending Erzeroum. 

Capture of Ardahan. — On the 17th of May, the town of Ardahan, its fortifica- 
tions, citadel, sixty guns, immense stores of provisions and ammunition, and the 
Turkish camp, fell into the hands of the Russians, after a fierce bombardment of 
three hours, the Turkish gan-ison having evacuated their positions and fled, leaving 



APPENDIX. 641 

their dead and wuunded beliind them. Ardahan was then abandoned by the 
Russians, and afterwards re-occupied by the Turks. 

Siege of Kais. — On the 8th of May, the Russians twice attacked Kars, but 
met with a disastrous repulse each time. On the 17th (May, 1877), ^^ Turks 
attacked the Russian irregular cavalry at Kars, but were repulsed after a stubborn 
fight. The Russians again bombarded Kars, but the garrison replied briskly, and 
the Russians were obliged to retire. On the 20th (May, 1S77), the Russians 
opened a furious cannonade on the Turkish outworks at Kars, but the Turkish 
batteries replied vigorously, and the Turks made a sortie on the assailants, and, 
after a desperate engagement, the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 300 men. 
On the 22d, the Russians drove the Turks from their positions at Karadrhouran, 
a village near Kars. On the 23d, the Russians again made tw^o unsuccessful as- 
saults on the outworks of Kars. The Russians, at intervals, continued to bombard 
Forts Karadagh and Tahmaz, outworks of Kars, but the Turkish batteries replied 
briskly. On the night of May 31st, 4,000 Circassian cavalry, commanded by 
Mussa Pacha, while proceeding toward Kars, were surprised and slaughtered at the 
village of Bekli-Ahmed. The Circassians fought desperately, and gave no quarter. 
Kars was now completely invested by the Russians. 

Attacks on Batoum. — On the 23d of May, 1S77, the Russians, after receiving 
a reinforcement of 2,000 men, opened a furious cannonade on Batoum, but the 
Turkish batteries replied vigorously. On the 25th, the Russian's attempted to throw 
a bridge over the river Tchuruk, at Batoum, but were fired upon and driven back 
by the Turks. On May 2Sth, the Russians occupied several of the heights near 
Batoum with trifling loss. 

Circassian Revolt against the Russians. — While the Turks and the Rus- 
sians were contending for the mastery in Armenia, the Circassian tribes in the 
Caucasus rose in revolt against the Russians. The Russians were victorious over 
the Circassians near Sukum Kaleh and other points, but the Circassians resisted 
with valor. Sukum Kaleh was attacked by the Turkish fleet and by the Circas- 
sians without any result. On June 5th (1877), 1,000 Circassians were surprised 
and cut to pieces by the Russians. 

Operations on the Danube. — Roumania's Independence. — While the 
war was thus progressing vigorously in Armenia, there was little of importance on 
the Danube. The Roumanians had joined the lN.i;.-.ians, and there were slight 
skirmishes between them and the Turks. There w:is also some skirmishing be- 
tween small bodies of Cossacks and Bashi-Bazouks. The Turks bombarded 
Ihahilov and Kalafat ; slight collisions occurred at Reni, Ghiacet, Turtukai, 01- 
tenitza, and other points on the Danube; Rustchuk and Nicopolis were bombarded 
by the Russians ; and several Turkish monitors were sunk by torpedoes. By the 
close of May, the Russians occupied the north side of the Danube from Kalafat 
on the west to Galatz on the east, but their heaviest force was at Giurgevo, opposite 
Rustchuk. The Turkish forces south of the Danube, numbered 200,000 men, and 
were under the command of Abdul Kerim Pacha. Their main force was at Shumla, 
near the Balkan Mountains, but they occupied the south side of the Danube from 
Widdin, opposite Kalafat, on the west, to Ghiacet, opposite Galatz, on the east; 
and strong Turkish garrisons were placed in the four great fortresses on the south 
41 



642 APPENDIX. 

side of the Danube — Widdin, NicopoHs, Rustchuk, and Silistria; — while the other 
two strong fortresses — Shumla, near the Ball^an Mountains, and Varna, on the 
Black Sea coast of European Turkey — were also strongly garrisoned. From the 
beginning of the struggle, the Principality of Roumania had sided with Russia; 
and, on the 15th of May, the Roumanian Senate and Chamber of Deputies pro- 
claimed Roumania completely independent of Turkey, and declared war against 
the Porte. 

The Turko-Montenegrin War. — While the Russians were struggling with 
the Turks on the Danube and in Armenia, the valiant Montenegrins were still 
heroically resisting the Turks under Suleiman Pacha. During the early part of 
June, 1877, the Montenegrins repulsed the Turks at Maljat, but they were defeated 
by the Turks at the Duga Pass, and Suleiman Pacha's forces were preparing to 
relieve Nicsic, which was closely besieged by the Montenegrins. 

Condition of the Ottoman Empire. — Commotion in Constantinople. — 
The condition of the Ottoman Empire was extremely critical at this period. The 
treasury was exhausted; public credit was destroyed; the armies were wretchedly 
organized and disciplined ; the various Christian provinces were on the verge of 
rebellion; Roumania and Montenegro were at open war with the Porte; the Rus- 
sian armies were in Roumania and Armenia; Servia and Greece were ready to 
join Russia in the war; the Porte was without a single ally; the Moslem popula- 
tion of the capital was turbulent ; and the Turkish Ministry was at variance with 
the Turkish Parliament. A popular outbreak was feared at Constantinople at the 
close of May. The turbulent Softas threatened an insurrection, but the Gov- 
ernment took precautionary measures to prevent it. The Softas were expelled from 
the capital, and the city was declared in a state of siege. A dispute arose between 
the Ministry and Parliament, and neither party seemed disposed to yield. The 
Sheik-ul-Islam proclaimed a" Holy War" against Russia. 

Position of the Great Powers. — Debate in the British Parliament. — 
The other Great European Powers stood aloof from the Eastern war. France, 
Italy, Germany, Austro- Hungary and Great Britain declared their neutrality; but 
the latter two powers were preparing for future contingencies. On the 7th of May, 
Lord Derby^ note in reply to Prince Gortschakoft's circular was published, accusing 
Russia of bad faith in regard to treaties. On the same day, an animated debate 
began in the British House of Commons on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions denying 
Turkey's right to moral or material support. Fiery speeches were made on both 
sides, but, on the 14th of May, the resolutions were rejected by a vote of 354 against 
223. Several large public demonstrations were held in London on the night of 
May 7th, in support of Mr. Gladstone's resolutions. Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet 
was divided on the policy to be pursued by Great Britain on the Eastern question. 
The Government was, however, resolved to defend British interests — to protect 
the Suez Canal, to guard Egypt, and to maintain the freedom of the Bosphorus. 
Military preparations were pushed forward, and an army was ready to embark. 
A great popular anti-Turkish demonstration was held at Birmingham, on May 
31st, and the meeting was addressed by Mr. Gladstone, who denounced the 
Turkish Government for its oppression of its Christian subjects. Business was 
suspended, and 30,000 persons were present. At the close of the speech, a 



APPEND /X. 643 

resolution was passed in favor of a policy to compel Turkey to govern her Chris- 
tian subjects properly. 

Prince Gortscbakcff's Note to Lord Derby. — On the 7th of June, 1877, 
Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, in a note to Lord Derby, the British 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, promised that Russia would not menace British inter- 
ests in the East, and would not therefore seize Egypt, the Suez Canal, Constanti- 
nople, the Bosphorus, or the Persian Gulf. 

Relations of England and Russia. — Count Schouvaloff's Assurances. 
— Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, took with him to St. 
Petersburg a specification of British interests as contained in Mr. Cross's speech in 
the British tiouse of Commons. Count Schouvaloff's instructions, on his return 
to London, empowered him to declare that Russia had no designs against the Suez 
Canal or Egypt. Russia-showed a disposition to respect llje neutrality of the Suez 
Canal and Egypt. Russia promised England not to exercise belligerent rights in 
the Suez Canal ; but Turkey refused to give a similar promise, and returned a 
haughty answer to England's demand not to make the canal a scene of hostilities. 
Count Schouvaloff's assurances were considered perfectly satisfactoiy by the British 
Cabinet. The British Government, however, dispatched a fleet to Besika Bay to 
be ready for eventualities. 

The Turko-Montenegrin War — The Montenegrins Overpowered. — On 
June 6th, the Montenegrins were defeated in an attack on Spuz. On June 12th, 
after fifty-five hours' fighting, near Kistaz, the Montenegrins retired to Banjani. 
The Montenegrins were also routed in an engagement in the Kolaschin district. 
On June i6th, 10,000 Turks were defeated and routed by 3,000 Montenegrins, at 
Rasnoglavika, the Turks leaving 2,000 dead on the field. The Turks were also 
defeated by the Montenegrins at Danilograd, but Mehemet Ali Pacha defeated the 
Montenegrins at Kolaschin, June 15th. On the following day, Mehemet Ali Pacha 
defeated the Montenegrins near Ritchima ; but Mehemet Ali Pacha was defeated 
near the river Jalonka. On June 20th, the Montenegrins defeated the Turks at 
Martinitzi, after a desperate struggle of five hours. The Turks were now enclosing 
Montenegro with three armies, 70,000 strong in the aggregate ; and the position of 
the Montenegrins was becoming extremely critical. On June 25th, a Turkish de- 
tachment was defeated and routed l:)y the Montenegrins near the Moratcha, but 
the Montenegrins were again defeated by the Turks. In consequence of the 
Turkish successes, the Montenegrins were at the mercy of the Porte; and the 
Turkish army, under Suleiman Pacha, left Montenegrin territory, and marched 
toward the Danube, to aid Abdul J!<erim Pacha and Osman Pacha in resisting the 
advance of the Russians in European Turkey. 

The Bosnian Insurrection, — The Turkish Parliament Prorogued. — The 
insurrection against tlie Turks in Bosnia still continued, and the insurgents were 
defeated in several conflicts. The Turkish Parliament was prorogued by the Sul- 
tan, on Jr.ne 28th, 1877, to be reassembled on the ist of October, 1877. 

The Siege of Kars. — The siege of Kars was progressing vigorously throughout 
the month of June, 1877; and the Turks attempted to form counter approaches, 
and were constantly making sorties, but were frustrated in all their attempts by the 
Russian batteries. On June 8th, 9th, loth and nth, there was heavy fighting be- 



644 APPENDIX. 

fore Kars ; but all the attacks of the Russians upon Forts Tahmaz and KaradagK 
were repulsed with heavy loss. On June 8th, the Russians made three attacks 
upon Fort Tahmaz, but were repulsed. On the following day (June 9, 1877), 
the Russians made a desperate effort to take possession of some of the heights, when 
the garrison of Kar? made a sortie in force, with field artillery, and repulsed the 
Russians with heavy loss. On the loth, the Russians again assailed Forts Tahmaz 
and Karadagh, but were disastrously repulsed. On the nth, the Russians renewed 
their attacks, but were again repulsed with great slaughter. The Russians, who 
advanced against Erzeroum, fell back in order to aid in the siege of Kars. The 
artillery engagements between the besiegers and the garrison of Kars continued 
during the middle and latter part of June. 

Battle of Saidachan. — On the 15th of June, 10,000 Turks, under Mehemet 
Pacha, advanced from Delibaba to attack 12,000 Russians, under General Tergu- 
kassoff, at Saidachan, twelve miles from Toprak-Kaleh, and an artillery duel fol- 
lowed, which lasted all day. On the following day (June 16, 1877), the Russian 
infantry advanced, under cover of a heavy artilleiy fire, and a stubborn engagement 
ensued. The Turks fought with great heroism, but their line's were raked by the 
Russian artillery fire ; and after five hours' fighting, the Russians were completely 
victorious, the Turks losing immensely, and Mehemet Pacha being among the 
killed. 

Battles of Delibaba and Zewin. — After their disastrous defeat at Saidachan, 
the Turks fell back on Delibaba, while the Russians seized and fortified Delibaba 
Pass. Mukhtar Pacha, whose head-quarters were at Zewin, advanced with 14,000 
Turks against the Russians, 12,000 in number, in the Delibaba Pass. There were 
several skirmishes on June 20th; and on the morning of the 21st, Mukhtar Pacha 
attacked the Russian position in the pass, and, after a terrible battle which lasted 
until night, the Russians were driven from their positions with heavy loss, by the 
effective artillery fire from the Turks. On the 22d, fighting was renewed, and the 
Russians were routed, after desperate fighting. The whole of this two days' 
fighting lasted thirty-three hours. The Turkish loss was more than 2,000 men, 
and the Russian loss almost 3,000 men. Mukhtar Pacha still had his head-quarters 
at Zewin, On June 29th, the Russians attacked the Turkish position at Zewin, 
but were repulsed, despite repeated assaults, with a loss of 1,000 killed. 

Russian Repulses at Batoum. — Operations at Van and Bayazid. — On 
June 2 1st, the Turks at Batoum repulsed the attacks of the Russians, who lost 
about 1,500 killed and wounded. On June 29th, a Turkish column attacked the 
Russians near Batoum, and compelled them to take refuge behind their old in- 
trenchments. In the meantime, 1,000 Russians were defeated near Van by a 
Turkish detachment. The Russian garrison in Bayazid citadel was relieved by 
General Tergukassoff, who completely defeated the Turkish investing force of 
13,000 men, but the town of Bayazid was destroyed. 

Retreat of the Russians in Armenia.— The Siege of Kars Raised. — 

On June 30th, the Turks made a grand sortie from Kars, and reopened com- 
munication with Mukhtar Pacha's army; and the Russian bombardment materially 
slackened. The disasters to the Russian arms in Armenia caused a retreat of the 
whole Russian line toward the frontier, and the siege of Kars was consequently 



APPENDIX. 



64s 



raised. The Russian left wing was almost annihilated; the Russian centre was 
in full retreat ; and the Russian right at Batoum was completely defeated. The 
Muscovites retreated with such precipitancy that they buried or concealed their 
artillery, and destroyed immense quantities of provisions and baggage; and the 
roads were strewn with Russian dead. The Russians, however, maintained their 
position in a battle at Ipek, July 4th (1877); but the garrison of Kars was rein- 
forced, and a Russian detachment was routed in several engagements near the 
frontier. Thus the first campaign in Asiatic Turkey, in the great war of 1877, 
ended in favor of the Ottoman arms. 

Russians Beaten at Sukum-Kaleh. — Bombardment of Russian Ports. 
— A Turkish force having landed at Tchamdjari, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Cir- 
cassian coast, was defeated, on June 27th (1877), by 15,000 Russians. Both sides 
were subsequently reinforced, and the Turks routed the Muscovites with a loss of 
6,000 killed and wounded ; while the Ottoman loss was comparatively small. 
Early in July, two Turkish frigates bombarded the Russian town of Chefketil, on 
the Eastern coast of the Black Sea, and landed a force which defeated the garri- 
son and compelled them to abandon the town, after which the frigates reembarked 
the Turkish troops. Several days afterward, a Turkish frigate bombarded the 
Russian town of Simferopol, in the Crimea. 

The War on the Danube. — Immense Russian Forces in Roumania. — 
In the meantime, while the war had been thus raging in Asiatic Turkey, and on the 
Black Sea coast of Russia, the Russians opened an active campaign on the Danube, 
after an inactivity of nearly two months. Rustchuk, on the south of the Danube, 
had been bombarded by the Muscovites; while Giurgevo, on the opposite side of 
the river, was bombarded by the Ottoman troops at Rustchuk. About the middle 
of June, the Russians massed their forces at several points, on the Danube, with 
the view of crossing the river, the principal movements being at Galatz, Hirsova, 
Sistova and Nicopolis. There were now over 400,000 Russians in Roumania. 
During the latter part of June, there was heavy cannonading between Rustchuk 
and Giurgevo, and also between Widdin and Kalafat. The Turks flooded the 
Kustendje and Tchernavoda railroad, as a measure of defense. 

Russian Crossing of the Danube at Galatz, — Capture of Matchin. — On 
June 22d, 1877, a Russian detachment of 6.000 men, under General Zimmermann, 
crossed the Danube, from Galatz, into the swampy region of the Dobrudja ; and 
on the same day they gained possession of the heights around Matchin, after an ob- 
stinate engagement with a force of Bashi-Bazouks. On the next day, the Russians 
entered Matchin, which had been abandoned by the Ottoman troops. The Musco- 
vites, 28,000 in number, also crossed the Danube at Brahilov, while the Turks de- 
stroyed the railway between Tchernavoda, and Matchin, and a few days later 
evacuated the Dobrudja. 

Russian Bombardments. — Battles at Turtukai, Sistova, and Fla- 
munda. — Simultaneously with the Russian crossing of the Danube at Galatz, 
there was a general movement along the whole Russian line ; and the various 
towns on the south side of the Danube were bombarded by the Russians. On 
June 25th, 18,000 Russians crossed the Danube at Hirsova, and joined the detach- 
ment at Matchin. On June 26th, the Russians were repulsed in an attack upon 



646 APPE.NDIX. 

the Ottoman troops at Turtukai, on the Danube, above Silistria. On June 27th, 
the Grand-Duke Nicholas, of Russia, crossed the Danube near Sistova, with 
the 8th Russian army corps ; and the Turks were driven from their positions at 
Sistova, after dreadful fighting, and Sistova was occupied by the Muscovites. 
During the bombardment, Nicopolis was partly burned. On June 28th, the Czar 
Alexander II. issued a proclamation to the Bulgarians, promising protection to 
Christians and Mussulmans alike. On June 29th, a Russian division crossed the 
Danube at Flamunda, near Turnu-Maguerelli, after desperate fighting with the 
Turks, the Czar of Russia being present. 

Russian Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Turkish Bombardment of Giur- 
gevo. — During the latter part of June (1877), the bombardment of Rustchuk by 
the Russians at Giurgevo, opposite the river, was terrible ; and the greater part of 
the town was laid in ruins. During the bombardment, Russian shells struck the 
English, French, German, and Austro-Hungarian Consulates ; hundreds of non- 
combatants were killed in the streets ; and many of the inhabitants of the city fled in 
terror to the neighboring villages. At the same tim.e, the Turkish garrison at 
Rustchuk bombarded Guirgevo, and destroyed a great part of that town, a number 
of shells striking the Capitol. 

Advance of the Russians. — Battle of Biela. — Capture of Nicopolis. — 

The Russians also crossed the Danube at Turnu-Maguerelli, and joined the force of 
the Grand-Duke Nicholas, at Sistova. After crossing the Danube, the Russians 
advanced in several detachments southward, through Bulgaria, toward the Balkan 
Mountains. On July 5th (1877), a battle was fought at Biela, lasting twelve 
hours, and ending in the repulse of the Russians with considerable loss, and their 
retirement toward Sistova. On July 1 6th, the Russians captured Nicopolis, with 
its garrison of 6000 Turks. 

Battles at Plevna and Monastir. — The Russians across the Balkans. — 
On July 13th, the Russians were attacked simultaneously at Plevna by Osman 
Pacha, and at Monastir by Ahmed Eyoub Pacha ; and the fighting was renewed 
the next day, the Turks getting the advantage. The advanced guard of the Rus- 
sian army, under General Gourko, crossed the Balkan Mountains, on the evening of 
July 13th, without firing a shot. The next day, General Gourko surprised 30O 
Turkish soldiers, who fled to Kanari. On the 15th, a force of Cossacks and Rus- 
sian dragoons and artillery, under General Gourko, routed the Turks in a slight 
engagement. 

Turkish Preparations. — Russian Capture of Jeni-Saghra, Kazanlik, 
and Shipka Pass. — The bold dash of General Gourko across the Balkans created 
alarm and consternation at Constantinople, and vigorous preparations were made 
to check the Russian advance. Abdul Kerim Pacha was removed from the chief 
command of the Turkish armies ; and Mehemet Ali Pacha, a Prussian by the name 
of Schultz, was appointed in his stead. There were four Turkish armies in Euro- 
|iean Turkey reacy to oppose the Russian invaders ; — namely, the army of Osman 
Pacha, at Widdin, and that of Mehemet Ali Pacha, at Shumla, both north of the 
Balkans ; and the armies under Suleiman Pacha and Raouf Pacha, south of the 
Balkans. The Cossacks burned four villages near Philippopolis, about the middle 
of July. The Russians, after a brilliant victory at Jeni-Saghra, occupied tbat 



APPENDIX. 6^^ 

place. On July 17th, General Gourko occupied Kazanlik, after an obstinate en- 
gagement. On the iSth, Shipka Pass fell into the hands of the Russians. 

First Russian Defeat at Plevna. — On July 19th (1877), a desperate engage- 
ment of ten hours was fought at Plevna, in which the Russians, under General 
Schillder, were utterly defeated and driven from their positions, by the Ottoman 
force under Osman Pacha, with the loss of 2,000 men. The Muscovites fled, 
leaving their dead and wounded behind them. In view of this defeat, the Rus- 
sians removed their headquarters from Tirnova to Biela. 

England's Activity. — Position of Austro-Hungary. — In the meantime, 
England, in view of the Russian advance toward Constantinople, had been taking 
vigorous precautionary measures. The British fleet at Besika Bay was reinforced, 
and British troops were sent to reinforce the garrisons of Gibraltar and Malta. 
The greatest activity prevailed in the dockyards of Great Britain ; and orders were 
received at the Woolwich arsenal to have fleld guns of the reserve class and some 
larger ordnance equipped for service. Public feeling was intensely excited in 
Austro-Hungary, the Hungarians, who sympathized with the Turks, being greatly 
alarmed at the Russian invasian of Bulgaria ; and the Austro-Hungarian Cabinet 
contemplated the mobilization of the Austro-Hungarian army. Russia was 
intensely exasperated at England's course, and the Russian press manifested a hos- 
tile tone toward Great Britain. At the prorogation of the British Parliament. 
on August 14th, 1877, the Queen's speech, in alluding to the Eastern question, 
contained these significant words, "If, in the course of the contest, the rights of my 
empire should be assailed or endangered, I should confidently rely on your he'.[) 
to vindicate and maintain them." 

Russian Naval Victory in the Black Sea. — On July 26th, an old Russian 
merchant ship, the Vesta, had an engagement of five hours with a Turkish moni- 
tor in the Black Sea, off Kustendje, in Bulgaria. The Vesta v\as victorious, the 
Turkish monitor fleeing after the action, much damaged by Russian shells, one of 
which burst in her turret. The Vesta had her rudder injured, and went to Sevas- 
topol for repairs. The Russian loss in killed and wounded was seventeen. 

Fight at Silistria, — Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk. — On July 
24th, there was sharp fighting at Silistria, which the Russians had completely in- 
vested. During the whole of July, Rustchuk was closely invested by the Russians, 
and the siege was prosecuted with vigor. The town was fiercely bombarded, and 
people were daily killed in the streets from its effects. The garrison, however, held 
out heroically. 

Battles of Eski-Saghra, Karabunar, and Jeni-Saghra. — In the mean- 
lime, heavy fighting occurred soutli of the Balkans. On July 26th and 27th, 
(here was severe fighting at Eski-Saghra between the Russians and a Turkish 
force under Raouf Pacha, with results favorable to the Turks, who occupied Eski- 
Saghra. On July 26th, the Turks, under Suleiman Paclia, were defeated at Kara- * 
bunar, and compelled to retreat toward Adrianople. On August 4th, the Rus- 
sians were defeated by the Turks under Suleiman Pacha, at Jeni-Saghra, with 
considerable loss. The Muscovites hastily fled, pursued by the victorious Ottomans. 
Second Russian Defeat at Flevna. — On July 30th and 31st, 1S77, the 
Russians, 40,000 in number, under Prince Schackosky and General Krudener, 



648 APPENDIX. 

attacked 50,000 Turks under Osman Pacha, in a strong position af Plevna. The 
Russians were at first successful, capturing the Turkish positions; but the effective 
fire of the Turkish artillery mowed down the Russians by hundreds, and, at the 
close of the day, the Ottoman troops recaptured all their lost positions, and the 
Muscovites were disastrously defeated. The battle was renewed the next day 
(July 31, 1877), and was equally disastrous to the Russians, who were finally 
routed with immense losses. During these two days, the Russians lost 8,oco 
killed and 16,000 wounded. After the Russians had retired, the Bashi-Bazouks 
took possession of the battle-field, and slew the Russian wounded. The Turkish 
loss was comparatively small. This disastrous Russian defeat put the Russians 
south of the Balkans in a critical position, and the Russian plans were thwarted. 

The War on the Russian Coast. — Herzegovinian Defeat. — On July 
30th, the Turkish frigate Maumaudich bombarded the Russian batteries at Tchamt- 
chira, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Russian coast of the Black Sea, silencing every 
Russian gun. The Maumaudich was considerably damaged, and several of the 
crew were killed and wounded. The 6,000 Turks who had been in a critical po- 
sition at Tchamtchira, were then embarked in the fleet of Hobart Pacha, an Eng- 
lishman in the Turkish service. On August 4th (1S77), a Turkish force of 8,000 
men defeated 4,000 Herzegovinian insurgents, under General Despotovich, with 
gi-eat loss. General Despotovich and 300 of his followers crossed the Austrian 
Irontier, where they were disarmed and interned. 

Battles at Plevna, Lovatz, Jaslar, and Yaillak. — Bulgarian Defeat. — 
On August 6lh, 5,000 Ottoman cavalry attacked the Russians at the village of 
Lascon, near Plevna, but were repulsed without difficulty. On August 7th, tlie 
Muscovites were repulsed by the Turks at Lovatz, after two days' fighting, with 
the loss of 900 killed and wounded. On the same day (August 7, 1877), the 
Russians were repulsed in two attacks on the Turks at Jaslar, south of Rasgrad, 
after sanguinary fighting. On August 9th, a Russian infantry and cavalry force at- 
tacked the Turks at Yaillak, but were repulsed with the loss of 180 men killed and 
wounded. On August nth and 12th, the Turks under Rassam Pacha retook 
Kartova from the Bulgarians and captured Kalofer, the Bulgarians fleeing into the 
Balkans, after losing 500 killed. 

, Atrocities on Both Sides. — Revolt in Crete against the Turks. — In the 
meantime there had Ijeen mutual charges of cruelty on both sides. The Turks 
were charged with the most brutal massacres of defenceless men, women and 
children, among the Christian population of European Turkey. These charges 
were sustained by European newspaper correspondents. On the other hand, the 
Russians and the Bulgarians were accused, by the Turks, of killing women and 
children among the Mohammedan Turks; and the accusations were also partially 
sustained by foreign newspaper correspondents. The excuses of the Bulgarians for 
these brutal massacres of innocent Turkish women and children, were the Turkish 
outrages in Bulgaria in the spring and summer of 1876. The Greeks in the island 
ofCandia, or Crete, maddened by Turkish tyranny and cruelty, rose in revolt, 
compelling the Turks to seek refuge in the fortresses of the island. 

Russian Defeats in Armenia. — Toward the close of July, 1877, operations 
were resumed in Armenia, the Russians having been heavily reinforced. Fighting 



APPENDIX. 



649 



was renewed near Kars; and, on August 4th, a Turkish cavalry force of 1,000 men 
was defeated by a Russian detachment near Ardahan. On August 5th, the Turks 
assuming the offensive in Armenia, skirmishing ensued beween the two armies 01 
the frontier, and the Russian outposts were driven in by Kurds and Bashi-Bazouks ; 
but the Ottoman troops were repulsed in an attack on the Russians at Khalfalut. 
On August 8th, the Muscovites were repulsed in two attacks upon the Turks at 
Kaduklar. On August nth, several hundred Russians were killed in ambuscade 
near Koule. On August 12th, the Russians outposts near Ani were defeated with a 
loss of 100 killed. On August 13th, there was an artillery duel at Batoum. 

Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Turkish Bombardment of Kus- 
tendje. — In the meantime, the siege of Rustchuk had been pressed with vigor by 
the Russians, and the town was fiercely, bombarded ; while the Turks furiously 
bombarded Giurgevo, opposite the river. About the middle of August, the Turks 
bombarded Kustenjde, and compelled the Muscovites to evacuate the town, but Kus- 
tendje was reoccupied by the Russians a few days afterward. On August 13th, the 
Ottomans defeated and routed the Russians at Tokoi, capturing five cannon. On 
August 17th, a Russian reconnoitering party were repulsed near the river Lom. 
On August 20th, detachments of Russian cavalry were repulsed by Ottoman troops, 
at Nereinsk, not far from Plevna. 

The War in Armenia. — Battles of Yanilar, Kiziltepe, and Kurukdara. 
— In the meantime, the Russians had suffered a series of calamitous defeats in Ar- 
menia. On August 18th, 40,000 Russians attacked Mukhtar Pacha's army along 
the whole line, near Yanilar, but were repulsed and routed with the loss of 1,500 
killed, while the Turks lost nearly 500 killed and wounded. On the night of 
August 24th, Mukhtar Pacha's troops carried the heights of Kiziltepe, and re- 
pulsed three attempts of the Russians to retake them. The fighting was continued 
the whole of the next day (August 25, 1877), and, in the evening, the Russians 
were routed along the whole line, with a loss of 4,000 killed and wounded ; but 
the Ottomans were disastrously repulsed in an attempt to retake Kurukdara, losing 
3,000 men, while the Muscovites lost less than 1,000 men. On August 24th, the 
Turks captured a redoubt near Batoum. At the beginning of September (1877), 
General Loris Melikoff was removed from the command of the Russian army in 
Armenia, and succeeded by the Grand-Duke Michael. 

General Gourko's Retreat — Defeats of the Turks at the Shipka 

Pass. — In the first part of August (1S77), General Gourko's army,in consequence 
of its disastrous defeat by the Turks at Eski-Saghra, at the close of July, was obliged 
to retreat northward toward the Balkans, pursued by Suleiman Pacha's army. On 
August 2 1st, Suleiman Pacha's army, 30,000 strong, attacked the Russians under 
General Radetzky, at the Shipka Pass, in the Balkans, for the purpose of forcing 
the pass, but was repulsed v/ith heavy loss. On the following day (August 22, 1877), 
Suleiman Pacha renewed his attacks, but was again repulsed, after desperate fight- 
ing. The terrible struggle was renewed on the 23d, but the Turks were still un- 
able to force the pass; but the Russians evacuated the town of Shipka, which the 
Turks then occupied. On the 24th, the Turks renewed their attacks on the Rus- 
sian position in the Shipka Pass, but were again repulsed with tremendous loss. On 
the 25th, the Ottoman troops made another desperate effort to force the Shipka 



6SO APPENDIX. 

Pass,' but were again unsuccessful. On the 26th and 27th, the Turks were again 
repulsed in all their attempts to force the pass. The fighting on the 28th was as 
disastrous to the Turks as all the previous struggles. There was now a lull in 
the conflict, the Russians remaining in possession of the Shipka Pass. On Sep- 
tember 1st, cannonading was renewed at the Shipka Pass, and continued on the 
2d (September, 1877). 

Turkish Repulses at Tirnova and Selvi.— Battle of Eski-Djuma. — 
On August 22d, the Turks attacked the Muscovites at Tirnova, but were re- 
pulsed. The fighting was renewed the next day, and the Ottoman troops 
were again repulsed. On August 22d, Osman Pacha's troops attacked the Rus- 
sians at Selvi, but were repulsed. On August 22d, the Turkish army under Me- 
hemet Ali Pacha gained a great victory over the Russians near Eski-Djuma, in 
Bulgaria, capturing several cannon, and inflicting great loss upoh the Muscovites ; 
but the Russians retook Jaslar, which the Ottomans had captured ; and, on the fol- 
lowing day, repulsed three attacks of the Turks, but the arrival of Turkish rein- 
forcements compelled the Russians to retire, leaving the Turks in possession of 
the place. 

Battle of Karahassankoi. — On August 30lh, 20,000 Ottomans from Mehemet 
Ali Pacha's army attacked the Muscovites near the village of Karahassankoi ; and 
after desperate fighting, the village being taken and retaken, the Russians were 
defeated, and compelled to retreat in disorder, losing 4,000 killed and wounded, 
and a cannon, and 2,000 stand of small arms. 

Battle of Pelistat. — On the 1st of September, 1877, a portion of Osman 
Pacha's anny made a reconnoissance against the Russian fortified positions at 
Pelistat, five miles east from Plevna; and, after a desperate engagement, in 
which all the attacks of the Ottoman troops were repulsed, the Russians, who 
numbered 20,000, were victorious ; the Turks being compelled to make a hasty 
retreat, with the loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, while the Muscovite loss was 
only 500. 

Battle of Lovatz. — On September 3d, the Turks at Lovatz, alarmed at the 
great increase of the Russian forces before the town, attacked them fiercely, and a 
desperate battle ensued, during which the Russians, 20,000 strong, under the com- 
mand of Prince Meretinsky and General Skobeleff, overcame all opposition, and 
finally drove the Turks into the town, which they entered with them. The strug- 
gle continued in the streets of Lovatz, until the Ottoman troops were driven out 
of the town in great disorder, followed by the Russian cavalry ; and, after twelve 
hours' fighting, Lovatz was in the undisputed possession of the Muscovites. 

Battle of Kadikoi. — Battle of Kazelova. — On September 4th, the Turks, 
under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, occupied Kadikoi, near Rustchuk, but were subse- 
quently driven out with great loss, by a force of Russian infantry and Cossacks. 
On September 5th, the Turks, under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, attacked the Russians 
at Kazelova, near Rustchuk ; and, after a desperate battle of five hours, the Mus- 
covites abandoned their fortified positions near Kazelova, and recrossed the Lorn 
in disorder, with the loss of 3,000 men, the Ottoman loss being about 1,000 men. 

Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Suleiman Pacha's Movements. — On 
September 5th, after an engagement near Rustchuli, the Russians opened a fierce 



APPENDIX. 65 1 

bombardment upon the city from Slobosia, which was replied to by the Turks. 
This continued for several days. In the mean time, after the battles at the Shipka 
Pass, Suleiman Pacha's army was quiet for several weeks, but at length moved to 
the Russian rear. 

Third Russian Defeat at Plevna. — On September 7th, a heavy artillery 
duel began between the two great armies before Plevna, and was continued on the 
8th, on the evening of which the Russians gained possession of the heights south 
of Plevna. The cannonade was continued during the night and the next day 
(September 9, 1877). On September loth, the Russians made some progress, and 
on the I ith they captured the Grivitza redoubt and other positions, after a desperate 
struggle; but on the 12th, the tide of battle was again turning in favor of the 
Turks, who recaptured all their lost redoubts except Grivitza, but only after the Rus- 
sians under General Skobeleff had repulsed six Turkish assaults. The Russians 
continued the bombardment of the Turkish fortifications. The Russian loss dur- 
ing this fighting was about 7,000 men in killed and wounded. 

POLITICAL CRISIS IN FRANCE. (1877.) 

The Ministry of Jules Simon. — In March, 1876, a new Ministry under M. 
' Dufaure came into power in France ; but in December of the same year (1876), 
a Cabinet crisis occurred, and the result was the organization of a Republican Minis- 
try under Jules Simon, one of the Moderate Republican leaders. This produced 
quiet for a time, and affairs seemed to work smoothly until May, 1877, when Pres- 
ident Mac-Mahon, who was in sympathy with the Monarchist faction, determined , 
to check the advancing spirit of Republicanism. 

Resignation of Jules Simon's Cabinet. — On the 8th of May, 1877, the 
P'rench Chamber of Deputies had a tumultuous session. Jules Simon was attacked 
by the Bonapartists, and angry debates ensued. On the 15th (May, 1877), the 
Chamber of Deputies voted to repeal the Press Law of 1875, whereupon President 
MacMahon wrote to Jules Simon, opposing the repeal of the law. In consequence 
of this letter, Jules Simon and his Cabinet tendered their resignations. In a gen- 
eral meeting of the Republican Deputies, in the Grand Hotel in Paris, a resolution 
was passed declaring the Chamber's want of confidence in a Monarchist Cabinet. 
On leaving the meeting, M. Gambetta, the talented young RepubHcan leader, was 
loudly cheered by the populace. He addressed them, recommending calmness and 
moderation, and declaring his confidence in the final triumph of Republicanism. 
The multitude responded with shouts of " Vive Gambetta !" " Vive la Republique!" 
The Republican Union afterward met and confirmed the action of the meeting. 
The first intelligence of the crisis produced dismay throughout Paris, and fears 
were entertained for the peace of the French Republic. In the Chamber of 
Deputies, on the 17th (May, 1877), a resolution declaring the Chamber's lack of 
confidence in a Ministry not governing in accordance with Republican principles, 
was adopted by a vote of 355 against 154. M. Gambetta made a speech expressing 
Frence'swish for a definitive Republic. The speech was loudly cheered, amid the 
greatest excitement. 

The Duke de Broglie's Ministry. — President MacMahon proceeded to the 
formation of a Ministry composed of Monarchists, with the Duke de Broglie at its 



652 APPENDIX. 

head. The new Ministry proceeded to the removal of the Republican Prefects 
from the Departments, and the appointment of Monarchists in their stead. On 
the 8th (May, 1877), President MacMahon sent a message to the Chambers pro- 
roguing both Chambers for one month. There was great excitement and confusion 
in both Chambers. The Republicans of both Chambers issued spirited addresses 
to the French people. The crisis was regarded as a serious one for France. 

Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies. — In the Chamber of Deputies, 
on the l6th of June, 1S77, M. de Fourton, the new French Minister of the In- 
terior, read a declaration announcing that President MacMahon had sent a mes- 
sage to the Senate informing that body of his intention to dissolve the Chamber 
of Deputies, by virtue of the power conferred upon him by the Fifth Article of ' 
the Constitution, and demanding the concurrence of the Senate. A violent dis- 
cussion ensued, and was continued for several days, the Republicans severely cen- 
suring, and the Monarchists sustaining, the President's action. M. Gambetta re- 
marked that the Republican majority in the Chamber v/ill go to the country number- 
ing 363, and return 400 strong, and that the triumph of the Monarchists would lead 
to civil war. At the close of his speech, M. Gambetta fainted. Jules Simon 
made a scathing attack on the Government. The Chamber refused to vote direct 
taxes, but unanimously voted supplementary grants for the conduct of the public 
service. In the Chamber of Deputies, on June 25th, M. Grevy, the President 
of the Chamber, read the decree formally dissolving the Chamber, and intimat- 
ing that the elections would be held within an interval of three months. The 
Republican Senators issued a declaration, saying that the re-election of the 363 
Republicans of the Chamber of Deputies was a duty incumbent upon the country, 
as a solemn affirmation of its intention to maintain Republican principles at home 
and peace abroad. It was decided to hold the elections on September l6lh, and 
to convene the new Chamber on October 8th. 

Persecution of Republicans. — Prosecution of Gambetta. — Death of 
Thiers. — The Ministry endeavored to carry the elections by a wholesale jaer 
secution of Republicans. Republican officials were removed, and the press was 
muzzled. On August 28th, 1877, the Public Prosecutor issued a summons upon 
M. Gambetta, ordering him to appear to answer for certain remarks in a speech 
at Lille; and several weeks afterward he was sentenced to three weeks' im- 
prisonment, and to pay a fine of 2,coo francs. The Republicans now suffered 
an irreparable loss, their trusted leader, M.Thiers, suddenly dying of apoplexy, 
at St. Germain, September 2d, 1877, and being mourned by the friends of liberty 
in France and throughout the world. 

HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 
Settlement of the Domestic Troub)es in Louisiana and South Caro- 
lina.— After the inauguration of Hayes and Wheeler (March 5, 1S77), the question 
which engaged the attention of the new Administration was the settlement of the 
domestic troubles in Louisiana and South Carolina, in each of which two States two 
State Governments had been organized. The question was settled within less than 
two months by President Hayes's action in withdrawing the United States troops 
from the capitals of the two States, whereupon the Republican State Governments 
ceased to exist, and the authority of the Democratic Governors was undisputed. 



APPENDIX. 653 

War with the Nez Perces Indians in Idaho. — About the middle of June, 
1877, the Nez Perces, a powerful Indian tribe in Idaho Territory, led by their 
chief, Joseph, and exasperated at the violation of a treaty by the whites, commenced 
a fierce war against the white settlers on the Salmon River, by a bloody massacre 
of men, women and children, at Mount Idaho. The Indians attacked and de- 
feated the United States troops sent against them, with a loss of twenty-seven 
killed. On July 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th, General Howard's troops had a series of 
battles with the Indians on the Cottonwood, but the Indians finally escaped. On 
July 13th, General Howard defeated the Nez Perces at the mouth of tht Cotton- 
wood, and Chief Joseph's band were shelled from their position and pui. to flight. 
On August 9th, General Gil^bon fought the Nez Perces at the Big Plole River, but 
the Indians escaped, after losing 100 killed and wounded, while 70 of Gibbon's 
troops were killed and wounded. General Howard went in pursuit of Joseph's 
band, and overtook them ; but in an indecisive engagement the Indians seized Gen- 
eral Howard's horses and made a rapid flight. On September 13th and 14th, the 
Nez Perces were defeated, in a running fight of over 100 miles, by General Sturgis. 
On September 30th, the Nez Perces were defeated by General Miles. A few days 
later, Joseph surrendered, and the M'ar ended. 

Great Railroad and Labor Riots. — About the middle of July, 1877, many 
of the employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad resisted a reduction of their 
wages ; and at Martinsburg, West Virginia, the affair assumed such serious dimen- 
sions that the State authorities were unable to deal with it, and the Governor of 
West Virginia was obliged to call upon the National Government for aid in sup- 
pressing domestic violence; whereupon President Hayes issued a proclamation 
calling upon the rioters to disperse, and sent United States troops to restore quiet. 
The employees on all the grand trunk lines in the Northern States resisted the re- 
duction of wages, and allowed no freight trains to move for several weeks; and 
large portions of the laboring classes, sympathizing with the Railroad strikers, in- 
augurated great riots in many of the leading cities of the Northern States. On 
July 20th and 2ist, there was a serious riot in Baltimore, and the 6th Maryland 
regiment and a small body of United States troops were stoned by a furious mob; 
but the disturbance was quelled after a number of lives had been lost, the Presi- 
dent having sent United States troops at the call of the Governor of Maryland. 
On July 2 1st and 22d, the most serious of all the rioting occurred at Pittsburg, 
where an infuriated mob attacked the Philadelphia militia who had been sent to 
preserve order, and were fired upon, many being killed and wounded on each side. 
The round-house, to which the Philadelphia troops had retreated, was besieged 
by the mob, and finally set on fire by burning cars which the mob had pushed 
against the building; and tlic troops were finally dislodged and driven from the 
city. The Pittsburg mob destroyed about 125 locomotives, many of them costing 
$20,000 each, and burned from Soo to 1,000 cars ; and the total loss sustained by 
the Pennsylvania Railroad Company was estimated at seven million dollars. The 
Governors of Pennsylvania and Ohio called upon the President for military aid. 
Bloody riots also occurred at Reading, Buffalo, Columbus, Chicago, St. Louis, 
San Francisco, and other cities; while the peace was only preserved in New York 
and Philadelphia by the vigilance and energy of the civil authorities. 



654 APPENDIX. 

THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877 CONTINUED. 

Second Battle of Biela — Turkish Repulses. — On September 21st (1877), 
the Turks under Mehemet Ali Pacha attacked the Russians under the Czarewitch 
at Biela ; but all the Turkish assaults were repulsed, the loss being heavy on both 
sides ; and Mehemet Ali Pacha afterward retreated to his former positions on the 
Lorn. On September 22d, Hifsi Pacha defeated fifteen Russian battalions near 
Dubnik, and a few days later entered Plevna with fresh supplies of provisions and 
ammunition. On September 2Cth, the Russians under Count Stackelberg dis- 
persed three Turkish squadrons of cavalry near Raschita, but withdrew on the 
approacn of Turkish infantry. On September 2ist, Colonel Totalmin routed a 
Turkish cavalry force, and held in check a Turkish force of ten battalions with 
artillery, and two regiments of cavalry near Temin, by opening an artillery fire 
upon them, but afterward withdrew his troops to a post of observation. 

Montenegrin Successes. — On September 20th, the Montenegrins captured 
the Zlostup and Nosdre forts, and thus became undisputed masters of the Duga 
Pass. On September 26th, Goransko, with its garrison of 300 Turkish regulars, 
and three cannon and 500 rifles, fell into the hands of the Montenegrins. The 
Montenegrins also occupied Piva, captured Fort Cravica, burned Bilek, and sur- 
rounding villages. Early in October (1877), a force of Bashi-Bazouks and 2,000 
Turkish cavalry arrived at Mostar, where 10,000 Turks were concentrating to 
recover the territory conquered by the Montenegrins. On October ist, a force of 
Bashi-Bazouks were repulsed by the Montenegrins after several hours of sanguin- 
ary fighting. 

Destruction of Rustchuk — Change of Turkish Commanders — Hunga- 
rian Raid. By the beginning of October (1877), Rustchuk was in ruins, only a 
few houses remaining, so incessant and destructive had been the Russian bom- 
bardment. Early in October, Raouf Pacha was appointed to the command of the 
Turkish Army of the Balkans, and Suleiman Pacha to the command of the Turk- 
ish Army of the Lorn in place of Mehemet Ali Pacha, who was removed. On 
October 7th, a Turkish force defeated a Russian detachment near Orchanie. On 
October nth, 1,500 Hungarians invaded Roumania, to aid the Turks, but the 
next day they recrossed the frontier. On October 12th, 13th, and 14th, Russian 
batteries bombarded Sulina, at the mouth of the Danube, and destroyed part of 
the town, but were eventually driven off. 

Revolt against the Russians in Daghestan. — In September, 1877, an in- 
surrection broke out against the Russians, in the Russian province of Daghestan, 
on the west side of the Caspian Sea. The insurgents were defeated by Russian 
troops, on September 23d and 24th. On September 30th and October 3d, the 
Russians inflicted crushing defeats upon the insurgents, but the revolt continued 
for several months. 

The War in Armenia — Victory and Defeat of Mukhtar Pacha. — On Oc- 
tober 2d, 1877, the Russians, under General Loris Melikoff, acting under the 
orders of the Grand-Duke Michael, attacked and captured Mukhtar Pacha's posi- 
tion at Great Yanilar, on the Armenian frontier, twelve miles east of Kars; but 
the Russians were repulsed in their assaults on Kizil-Tepe and Little Yanilar. 
The Turks captured Kuruk-Dara, and carried Glade-Dagh by storm, after five 



APPENDIX. 655 

hours' fighting, and routed the Russians, who lost 3,000 killed and wounded, the 
Turkish loss being about the same. The Russian assaults on the following day 
(October 3, 1877), were all repulsed along the whole line by the Turks, who 
remained in possession of the battle-field. On the 4th, fighting was renewed, the 
Ottoman troops having reoccupied Great Yanilar, which the Muscovites had 
evacuated during the night of the 3d ; but, after desperate fighting, all of Mukhtar 
Pacha's assaults were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russians having opened a 
crushing artillery fire on the assailing Turkish columns. The losses on each side 
were about 2,500 in killed and wounded. 

First Battle of Aladja-Dagh. — On the night of October Slh (1S77), in con- 
sequence of the Russian advance, the Turks abandoned Kizil-Tepe, Sarbatan, 
and their other positions, which were then occupied by the Muscovites, the Otto- 
man army retiring to the summit of Aladja-Dagh. On October 9th, a great bat- 
tle was fought at Aladja-Dagh, lasting from noon until night, the losses being 
heavy on both sides, and the Russians being finally repulsed and forced to with- 
draw. 

Mukhtar Pacha's Disastrous Defeat at Aladja-Dagh. — On October 14th 
(1877), a Russian division under General Lazaroff moved south of Aladja-Dagh, 
drove the Turks from Orlok upon Vezinskoi and Kars, and occupied Orlok, thus 
completely turning Mukhtar Pacha's right. On the following morning (October 
15, 1877), a heavy cannonade was directed against Olya-Tepe, the chief of the 
Turkish positions. In the afternoon, General H«ymann, with about 10,000 Rus- 
sian infantry, carried Olya-Tepe by assault, cutting the Turkish army in two. 
The Ottoman centre and left wing, under Mukhtar Pacha himself, retreated upon 
Kars, pursued by General Heymann, and harassed on the flank by General Laza- 
roff. Mukhtar Pacha succeeded in gaining the fortifications of Kars, after a ter- 
rible rout, during which he lost a large number in killed and wounded, several 
thousand prisoners, and four cannon. The Turkish right, comprising three divis- 
ions, numbering 18,000 men, had in the meantime been surrounded and attacked, 
and, after being driven from their fortified camp with heavy loss, were compelled 
to surrender with forty cannon. Moussa Pacha and a son of Schlmyl, the famous 
Circassian chief, were among the killed on the Turkish side. Thus, in a single 
day, all the advantages gained by the Turks during the summer had disappeared. 

Russian March on Erzeroum — Investment and Siege of Kars. — In 

consequence of their brilliant victory over Mukhtar Pacha's army, the Russians 
under General Heymann marched against Erzeroum, the Armenian capital, and 
another Russian force, under General Lazaroff, marched against the Turkish army 
under Ismail Pacha ; while a large Russian detachment invested Kars, which 
now withstood another siege. On October i6th, the Russians attacked Fort 
Ahenz, before Kars, but were repulsed. Kars was again bombarded by the Rus- 
sians, and part of the city was set on fire. Near the close of October, Ismail 
Pacha's force effected a juncture with Mukhtar Pacha's anny. Mukhtar Pacha 
was hastily falling back on Erzeroum, before the advancing Russian army under 
General Heymann. Erzeroum was preparing for a siege. The Russian forces 
under Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff effected a junction near Hassan-Kaleh, 
near which place Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas occupied a strong position. After 



656 APPENDIX. 

occupying Koprikoi on the 2Sth of October, when Mukhtar and Ismail Pacha's 
rear-guard hastily retreated to Hassan-Kaleh, the Russian cavalry continued the 
pursuit, and, two hours after midnight, attacked the Turkish bivouac, cut down a 
hundred men, and compelled the others to take flight. The Russian pursuit con- 
tinued over three miles. 

Siege of Plevna. — In the meantime, the Russians were besieging " Osman 
Pacha's army at Plevna. .Siege operations were in progress during the latter half 
of September, and throughout October and November. The Russian batteries 
fired in concentrated salvos, directed simultaneously at one point. The fire had 
considerable effect on the Turkish positions, the bombardment being carried on 
with great violence. Osman Pacha's army in Plevna numbered 130,000 men. 
On October 19th, the Roumanians captured the second Grivitza redoubt, after be- 
ing twice repulsed, but the redoubt was recaptured by the Turks during the night, 
after a sanguinary struggle. The Turks now constructed a new interior line of 
formidable defenses. Osman Pacha ordered all Circassian irregulars, Bulgarians, 
and non-combatant Mohammedans to quit Plevna. 

Russian Capture of Dubnik. — On October 24th, after a desperate engage- 
ment of ten hours' duration, the Russian detachment under General Gourko, coop- 
erating with the Russian Imperial Guards, captured the Turkish positions at 
Dubnik, near Plevna, with 3,000 Turkish infantry and an entire regiment of 
cavalry, four cannon, and a quantity of ammunition. The Turks lost 4,000 killed 
and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners,.among whom were two Pachas. Cheflcet Pacha 
fled with twelve battalions. The Russian loss was 3,000 killed and wounded. 

Movements on the Lom. — Towards the close of October (1877), the Turk- 
ish Army of the Lom, under Suleiman Pacha, retreated to Rasgrad, and leaving a 
detachment at Kadikoi, intrenched itself so as to cover Rustchuk, and to with- 
stand any attack of the Russian army under the Czarewitch. The Czarewitch 
pushed forward toward Rasgrad, leaving one corps to operate against Rustchuk. 
On October 26th, twelve Russian battalions, with cavalry and artillery, attacked 
the defenses of Rustchuk, The Turks made a sortie, and forced the Russians to 
retire into their intrenchments, with a loss of 450 killed and wounded. Four 
Russian divisions attacked the Turkish line on the Lom, but were repulsed with a 
loss of 800 killed and some prisoners, the Turkish loss being about 200 men. 

Conspiracy at Constantinople — Prominent Bulgarians' Exiled. — Early 
in November (1877), a conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople to depose 
Sultan Abdul Hamid, and restore his deposed brother, Ex-Sultan Amurath V., 
to the Turkish throne ; and forty-eight persons were arrested in consequence, forty 
of whom were strangled. About the same time, four hundred prominent Bulgari- 
ans, including the Messrs. Geshoff", wealthy merchants, were sentenced to exile 
in Asia Minor. They started in chains, under a strong escort, on November 9th. 

Lord Beaconsfield on the War. — At the banquet of the newly-inaugurated 
Lord Mayor of London, at the Guildhall, on November 9th, 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, 
replying to a toast, as Her Majesty's Minister, declared in strong terms that the 
British Government unswervingly adhered to the declaration they made at the 
commencement of the Eastern war, that British neutrality must cease if British 
interests were assailed or menaced. 



APPENDIX. 



657 



Fighting at the Shipka Pass. — Near the end of October (1877), the Turks 
recommenced a vigorous bombardment of the Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, 
and silenced one Russian battery. On November loth, Russian detachments lost 
500 men, in passing within range of the Turks at the Shipka Pass. 

Siege of Plevna. — The Russians established a strong force w^t of Plevna, 
near the close of October, and prepared to submit Plevna to a regular siege. A 
portion of the Russian Imperial Guards crossed the Vid, between Nicopolis and 
Plevna, passing around Osman Pacha's left. General Goui-ko's cavalry crossed the 
Upper Vid, west of Lovatz, swept the Orchanie road, got in communication with. 
the force coming from the north, and made a successful attack on the Turks under 
Hifsi Pacha. Simultaneously with this attack, a heavy cannonade was opened 
along the entire line on the east of Plevna. The Turks had in the meantime con- 
veyed large quantities of provisions into Plevna. The Russian Imperial Guards 
took up positions on the Russian left, thus gradually extending the line of invest- 
ment across the Lovatz road to the Sophia Road. The Russians were continually 
receiving reinforcements. On October 28th, a Russian detachment carried the 
Turkish position at Teliche, west of Plevna, capturing a Pacha, several olificers, 
several companies of Turkish troops, and three cannon. On October 31st, the Turks 
evacuated Gorny Dubnik, which the Russians then occupied without fighting. 
By the early part of November, Plevna was completely invested by the Russian 
army. 

Capture of Dae Tetewen.— Chefket Pacha Routed. — On November i.st 
(1877), the Russians, under General Kanzeff, cajatured Dae Tetewen, northeast of 
Orchanie, where there were seven large and thirty small positions. The Turks 
left upward of 100 dead upon the field. The Russians seized a large quantity of 
provisions, tools for intrenchments, cartridges, and a herd of cattle. The Russians 
were also intrenching in new positions toward Orchanie, and Chefket Pacha retired 
fighting toward Orchanie. On October 31st, the Turks under Chefket Pacha 
advanced to retake Teliche, but were defeated, after several hours' hard fighting, 
by the Russians, at Radomirze, and fled in the greatest disorder. 

The War in Armenia. — Battle of Deve-Boyun. — While the siege of Plevna 
was in progress, the Russians were vigorously prosecuting the war in Armenia, 
the great defeat of Mukhtar Pacha's army at Aladja-Dagh, on October 15th, having 
broken the power of the Turks in Asia. The Russian forces, under Generals 
Heymann and Tergukassoff, were concentrated at Deve-Boyun, near Erzeroum, 
where Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas' united armies were encamped. On November 
5th (1877), the Russians made a severe attack on the Turkish positions at Deve- 
Boyun. There was fighting along the whole line. After an engagement of ten 
hours, the Turkish centre' was driven in, and the Ottoman troops were compelled 
to fall back, abandoning their camp, artillery, arms and provisions. The Turkish 
loss was 2500 killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

Siege of Kara. — On October 28th (1877), Manni Pacha, the Turkish com- 
mandant at Kars, received a summons from General Loris Melikoff to surren- 
der the fortress within twenty-four hours. A council of Turkish officers imme- 
diately rejected the demand for surrender, and resolved to defend the place 
to the last extremity. On November 5th, the Russians under General Loris Meli- 
koff occupied a position in front of the southeastern forts of Kars, for the purpose 
42 



658 APPENDIX. 

of erecting siege batteries. The Turks attacked the Russians, supported by a fire 
from the forts; but the Muscovites beat the Ottomans back in disorder, and pur 
sued them into Fort Hafiz Facha at the point of the bayonet, inflicted great loss, 
spiked the guns, captured ten officers and forty men, and then retired with small 
loss. The Russians were repulsed near Kars, on November 14th, after prolonged 
figbtn-ig. 

Russian Repulses near Erzeroum. — On November 9th (1877), the Russian 
columns under General Meymann attacked the Turkish redoubts southeast of Erze- 
roum, and a battle commenced which lasted eleven hours. The Russians captured 
Fort Azizie, which they were finally compelled to abandon. The Russians were 
eventually repulsed, and compelled to retreat toward Deve-Boyun, pursued by the 
Turks. The Russians rallied, and drove back the Turks ; but the Muscovites were 
again forced to fall back on Deve-Boyun, before a superior Ottoman force. The 
Russians lost over 600 killed and wounded, besides a large quantity of arms and 
ammunition, but they carried oft" 559 prisoners. On November 14th, the Russians 
recaptured Fort Azizie, but were immediately expelled. The inhabitants of Erze- 
roum participated in the conflicts just mentioned. The united Russian armies of 
Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff, now before Erzeroum, numbered about 
25,000 men. 

Siege of Plevna. — On November 4th, the Russians under General Skobelefi 
pushed on to Brestovec, south of Plevna, threw up batteries there, and, after a vio- 
lent cannonade, attacked the Turkish position, but were unsuccessful. A Russian 
detaciHTient captured Vratza, between Plevna and Sophia, on November 9th, with 
several thousand wagons and a large quantity of stores. On November nth and 
1 2th, the Turks attempted to surprise General SkobelefTs positions, but were re- 
pulsed. Osman Pacha's losses were from 200 to 300 men daily, from concen- 
trated salvos of the Russian artillery. Osman Pacha was busily engaged in con- 
structing fresh fortifications. On November 1 6th, the Russians were repulsed in 
attacks on the Turkish positions near Orchanie. On November 17th, a detachment 
of Russian infantry and Cossacks drove the Turks out of Rosalie Pass, by turning 
their fortified positions on Moragai Dagh. The Turkish camp there was captured. 
On the nights of November i6th and 17th, General Skobeleff was wounded by 
fragments of shells. The Russian fire against the Turkish positions was constantly 
maintained. 

The Turko-Montenegrin Campaign. — The Prince of Montenegro ordered 
all Montenegrins to take up arms, on) November 9th. On November loth, the 
Montenegrins opened a heavy bombardment on Podgoritza. On November 12th, 
the Montenegrins captured a fort commanding the town of Antivari, with its garri- 
son, two guns, and a quantity of ammunition and provisions. The Montenegrins 
also took four block-houses near Scutari. A Montenegrin force was vigorously 
bombarding Spuz and its fortifications. On November 19th, the Montenegrins 
stormed the citadel of Spitza. 

The Sultan's desire for Peace. — On November i6th, a council, over which 
the Sultan presided, was held at Constantinople. The general feeling expressed 
by all present, and by none more strongly than by the Sultan himself, was in favor 
of peace. Though great distrust was manifested at Russia's declarations, and al- 



APPENDIX. 



^59 



thoagh a desire was expressed for the tennination of the war, the necessity of prep- 
arations for a vigorous resistance was fully recognized by all the members of the 
council. 

Capture of Kars. — The Russians, under General Loris Melikoff and the 
Grand Duke Michael, carried Kars by storm on Sunday morning, November i8th, 
1877, after a desperate battle of twelve hours. On the evening of the 17th, 35,000 
Russians climbed the steep rocks, ramparts, and walls, and attacked an equal num- 
ber of Turks, who fought desperately. The Kanli-Tabia, the citadel, the three 
towers, and Forts Hafiz Pacha, Kara-Dagh, and Suiwarri, were all carried by as- 
sault in the morning, after a bloody struggle during the whole night. The garri- 
sons of the Arab-Tabia and the Tchamak-Tabia resisted until morning, when they 
evacuated the forts, and fled toward Erzeroum, but were overtaken by Russian 
■dragoons and Cossacks, and brought back as prisoners. The city and fortress of 
Kars, with 300 cannon, stores, and amnmnition, were now in Russian hands. The 
Turks lost 5,000 killed and wounded, 10,000 prisoners, and many flags. The 
Russian loss was about 2,500 men. Among the Russian killed were Count Grabbe, 
General Belinsky, and Lieutenant-Colonel Melikoff". Genera! Loris Melikoff, 
entered the city at eleven o'clock in the morning (Sunday, November i8th, 1877). 
General Loris Melikoff immediately started, with 15,000 men, for Erzeroum, and 
Mukhtar Pacha was summoned to surrender that place, but refused. 

Turkish Success near Rustchuk.— '1 here was heavy fighting on the Loni. 
near Rustchuk, on No\'emijer 19th, b.iween portions of the armies of the Czare- 
vvitch and Meliemet Ali Pacha. A Turkish force, making a reconnoissance, car- 
ried the Russian positions on the Meichka Heights, at Pirgos, near Rustchuk, and 
near Jovanchiftlich, destroying at Pirgos seventy caissons filled with ammunition 
and provisions. The Russians lost 1,400 men. .A. Russian attack on Kadikoi was 
repulsed. 

Capture of Rahova by the Roumanians.— The Roumanians captured Ra- 
hova, a sniall town northwest ot' Plevna, on the morning of November 2ist, after 
a three days' engagement. '! he Turks fled toward Lom-Palanka and Widdin, 
pursued by the Roumanians. Siaiuliineou^ly with the capture of Rahova, a Rou- 
manian division crossed the Danube opposite that town. 

THE FRENCH POLITICAL CRISIS CONTINUED. 

Funeral of Ex-President Thiers. — The remains of Ex President Thiei-s 
were honored with the most magnificent funeral obsequies in Paris, the people 
lining the streets as the funeral procession passed; but the French Government 
caused the streets to be lined with soldiers, to prevent any extensive Republican 
demonstrations in honor of the great statesman and champion of liberty. 

Republican Address to the French People. — Gambetta's Conviction 
Confirmed.— On September 21st, an address was issued to the French people, 
signed by a number of Parisian and Provincial Deputies, representing all shades of 
French Republicanism, and reminding the people of the duty of returning the 363 
Republican Deputies. At the second trial of M. Gambetta, on September 22d, on 
appeal from his previous sentence of three months' imprisonment and 2000 francs 
fine, his counsel argued that the tribunal was incompetent. The court rejected the 
plea, and confirmed the sentence at the first trial. 



66o APPENDIX. 

Violent Measures of the Government. — Elections for Deputies Or-» 
dered. — The Bien Public was seized on October 23d, for reporting M. Gambetta's 
trial. The Official Journal published a circular of the Minister of Justice, giving 
instructions that all electoral addresses be carefully read, in order to prevent out- 
rages against the President, violent measures, or falsehoods. The Official yournal 
also published a decree ordering elections for Deputies on October 14th, and the 
summoning of the extra session of the Chamber of Deputies on November 7th. 

Republican Proceedings. — M. Thiers's Posthumous Address. — The 
Republican committee of the Ninth Arrondissement of Paris, of which Victor Hugo 
was honorary, and M. Gambetta acting president, formally nominated M. Jules 
Grevy to the place filled by M. Thiers, as head of the French Democratic party 
and leader of the 363 Republican Deputies. On October 2d, M. Gambetta for- 
mally lodged an appeal against the sentence passed upon him by the Correctional 
Tribunal. A manifesto to the French nation, found among M. Thiers's papers after 
his death, was published by the Republicans. The Royalists denied the authentic- 
ity of the document, and the Government telegraphed instructions to the Prefects 
of the Departments, interdicting the colportage or placarding of M. Thiers's post- 
humous address. The feeling between the Monarchical and Republican parties in 
the remote provincial districts of France was as bitter as that of two hostile nations 
ready to come to blows. 

The " Official Candidates." — The Government placed in nomination an 
" official list" of candidates for election to the Chamber of Deputies, and placards 
were issued by the Prefects of the De}>artments, for posting in the various arrondisse- 
ments. The placards were headed " Candidate of the Government of Marshal 
MacMahon, President of the Republic." The Government's candidates were 
divided into 131 Legitimists, 83 Orleanists, and 298 Bonapartists, about twenty 
arrondissements being without any " official candidates." 

Gambetta's Manifesto — Second Prosecution of Gambetta. — On Novem- 
ber 7th (1877), M. Gambetta issued a manifesto to the electors of the Twentieth 
Arrondissement qf Paris, in which he enumerated the despotic acts and violent 
measures of the Government to carry the elections in favor of the Monarchical party. 
The manifesto censured the licensed violence of the reactionary press, and the 
muzzling of the Republican press; and advised the utmost discretion on the part 
of the Republicans. M. Gambetta was prosecuted for placarding his manifesto to 
the electors of the Twentieth Arrondissement of Paris, on the streets ; and the 
printer of the manifesto was summoned before the Correctional Tribunal. At a Re- 
publican meeting on October 9th, M. Gambetta made a speech, urging upon the 
French people the necessity of returning the Republican majority in the Chamber 
of Deputies. 

MacMahon's Manifesto. — Republican Counter-Manifesto. — On October 
Jith, President MacMahon issued a manifesto, appealing to the French people to 
support the Government candidates, in the interest of social order, which he rep- 
resented as seriously threatened by the prevalence of radical ideas, and denying 
that the Government contemplated the subversion of the Constitution of the Re- 
public, or that peace with foreign powers was in danger from the success of the 
Government candidates. '\ he President's manifesto concluded as follows : " I an- 



APPENDIX. • 66 1 

swer for order and peace." The Bureau of the Republican Senators issued a 
counter-manifesto, asking the French people to disbelieve those who asserted that 
Republican institutions were not in danger, and that the Government was not 
acting under the influence of the priests. The Republican counter-manifesto de- 
clared the " official candidates '' enemies to the Republic. 

Great Republican Victory in the Elections. — The elections in France for 
Deputies were held on Sunday, October 14th, iS77,and resulted in a great Repub- 
lican victory, though the former Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies 
was considerably reduced. In the former Chamber there were 363 Republicans 
and 170 Monarchists, the Republicans having a majority of 193. The new election 
resulted in the choice of 320 Republicans and 213 Monarchists, leaving a Repub- 
lican majority of 107. The result of the election did not pro'duce quiet, as both 
parties appeared very uncompromising. The Republicans threatened to annul all 
of those elections which resulted in the success of the Government candidates 
through Government pressure, while the Monarchists threatened another dissolution 
in case the Republicans attempted to execute their threat. The Government 
journals declared that the Ministry would neither submit to the popular verdict 
as expressed in the elections, nor resign ; and the Republicans threatened to refuse 
to vote the budget, in case a Republican Cabinet was not appointed. The crisis 
appeared serious, and civil war was threatened. The idea, however, of invali- 
dating the elections of the Government candidates by wholesale was abandoned by 
the Republicans, and it was determined to annul only those elections which were 
palpably vitiated. In a speech at Chateau-Chinon, Department of Nierve, M. 
Gambetta violently denounced the Government electoral maneuvers, declaring that 
but for fraud and robbery, 400 Republicans would have been returned to the 
Chamber of Deputies. He made a bitter. attack on the Bonapartists, and declared 
that the Republicans desired order with progress, but that they had no subversive 
aims. 

The Elections for Councils-General. — In the election for Councils- General, 
on November 4th, 1877, ^''^ Republicans made immense gains ; and when the 
second ballots were completed, the Republicans had the majority in forty-nine, 
and the Monarchists in thirty-seven Departments. In an interview with a delega- 
tion of Monarchical Deputies on November 6th, President MacMahon fully inti- 
mated that he was resolved not to resign. The Duke de Broglie's Ministry several 
times tendered their resignations, but remained at the President's request. 

Meeting of the Chambers. ^ — Debate in the Chamber of Deputies. — 

The French Senate and Chamber of Deputies met on November 7th, 1S77, and M. 
Jules Grevy, the Republican leader, was elected President of the Chamber of Dep- 
uties, by a vot,e of 290 against 170. There was intense excitement in Paris, and 
both parties seemed uncompromising. The Monarchists appeared determined to 
rule, in spite of the expressed will of the French people. The Legitimists and 
Orleanists, alarmed at the increasing strength and boldness of the Bonapartists, 
seemed disposed to break away from the Monarchical coalition. The Bonapartists 
and Legitimists, however, threatened, if their elections were invalidated by whole- 
sale, to resign in a body, and thus furnish the Senate with a pretext for a fresh 
dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies ; but the Orleanist members of the Senate 



662 . APPENDIX. 

refased to sanction another dissolution, and thus the Duke de Broj^lie and M. de 
Fourtou were baffled in their reactionary schemes. In the Chamber of Deputies, 
on November 12th, the Republican Deputy, M. Albert Grevy, brother to M. Jules 
Grevy, the President of the Chamber, introduced a resolution of inquiry mto elec- 
toral abuses. The resolution produced a violent debate, which continued for sev- 
eral days, M. Gambetta and M. Jules Ferry sustaining the motion for inquiry, and 
M. de Fourtou, Minister of the Interior, opposing the motion, and defending the 
course of the Government during the electoral contest. M. Albert Grevy's resolu- 
tion was passed, and a committee of inquiry was appointed. 

Resignadon of the Duke de Broglie's Ministry. — A New Cabinet.— 
The Duke de Broglie's Ministry resigned on November i6th, 1877, the Orl',:nnist 
Senators having refused to sustain it any longer. Thirty Orleaiiist Senators wailed 
upon the President of the Republic on November 15th, and assured him of their 
devotion, but declared they could not support the Cabinet in a policy of resistance 
to the national will. The Orleanist Senators, in a prelimmary meeting of the 
Senate, on November i6th, declared that the salvation of the countiy was at stake, 
and refused to sanction another dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies. President 
MacMahon accepted the resignation of the Duke de BrogHe and his colleagues, 
and set about the formation of a new Cabinet, composed of Legitimists and Bona- 
partists, who, however, promised to govern in accordance with Republican princi- 
ples. 

Debate in the Senate. — In the Senate, on November 19th (1877), M. Arago, 
Republican, moved the previous question in regard to M. de Kerdrel's interpella- 
tion as to how the Ministers had instructed officials to act with regard to the elect- 
oral inquiry voted for by the Chamber of Deputies, on the ground that it was 
unconstitutional and an encroachment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. 
M. Arago's motion was rejected by a vote of 155 to 130. M. de Kerdrel and the 
Duke de Broglie, on the Royalist side, sustained the interpellation, while M. 
Laboulaye and M. Dufaure, on the Republican side opposed it, as an encroach- 
ment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. Despite M. Dufaure's appeal, 
an attempt of the Republicans to shelve the discussion by proposing an order of 
the day pure and simple, was defeated by a vote of 153 to 136, and the order of 
the day proposed by the Monarchists was passed by a vote of 15 1 to 129. 

Gambetta's Course. — In Paris, the Republiqtie Francaise, Gambetta's organ, 
declared that in view of the Senate's pretensions and the President's refusal to 
change his policy, it became the clear duty of the (.Chamber of Deputies to refuse 
to vote the budget. The Budget Committee of the Chamber of Deputies, on 
November 21st, elected M. Gambetta president. In a speech on the occasion, 
M. Gambetta reminded the committee that they were armed with the sanction of 
the national sovereignty, for which it was their duty to secure a triumph. 

Attitude of the Chamber of Deputies. — A Republican Ministry. — The 
refusal of President MacMahon to select a Republican Ministry prolonged the 
political crisis in France. The Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies 
refused to vote the direct taxes so long as the President retained a Ministry in 
which the Chambers had no confidence. The Republican majority, however, con- 
sented to vote the indirect taxes, but only by installments. The Ministry recently 
formed, not possessing the confidence of the country and the Chamber of Deputies, 



APPENDIX. 663 

resigned on December yih; and, after several ineffectual attempts to form a com- 
promise Ministry, M. Dufaure undertook the formation of a Republican Ministry. 

EASTERN WAR OF 1877 CONTINUED. 

Russian Disaster at Nevesich. — Turkish Disasters. — A Russian detach- 
ment consisting of one infantry and one cavalry regiment was annihilated by the 
Turks, at Nevesich, on November 22d, the entire Russian cavalry regiment except 
six men being destroyed, and two pieces of cannon and a number of prisoners 
being taken by the Turks. The Roumanians took the strong position of Provitz, 
on November 23d, after two days' fighting. The Turks evacuated Orchanie on 
November 25th ; and, on the same day, the Russians captured the fortified town 
, of Etropoli, about twenty miles north of the Balkans, the T,urks fleeing in the 
greatest disorder. On November 26th, the Turks attacked the Twelfth Russian 
Army Corps at Terstenik and Metchka ; but, after six hours' fighting, the Ottomans 
were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russian loss being about 300. Simultaneous 
demonstrations by the Turks against Polomarka and Kazelova were repulsed by 
the Russians after insignificant fighting. 

Capture of Elena by the Turks. — Other Turkish Successes. — On De-' 
cember 4th (1877), the Turkish army under Suleiman Pacha attacked the Russians 
under Prince Mirsky, near Elena, a town nineteen miles southwest of Tirnova; 
and, after a stubborn fight, the Russians were defeated, with the loss of 3000 killed 
and wounded. The Turks captured Elena, with eleven cannon, twenty ammuni- 
tion wagons, and 300 prisoners. Fighting was renewed the next day without any 
important result. On December 3d, a Turkish detachment defeated a Russian 
detachment at Armedli, on the road to Tirnova; and a few days later, a Turkish 
division crossed the Lorn and captured Popkoi. 

Great Britain and Russia. — Turkey Anxious for Peace, — On November 
28th (1877), Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, received a depu- 
tation representing several political societies, headed by Lord Stratheden Campbell, 
who presented a memorial urging active intervention in favor of Turkey. Lord 
Derby replied that the British Government saw no reason to depart from its 
neutrality. He did not think Constantinople or the Suez Canal in danger. 
When the British Government, he said, saw a reasonable opportunity, it would do 
what it could to bring about peace. Lord Derby's speech made a good impression 
in Russia. Turkey was now anxious for peace, and endeavored to secure media- 
tion through Austro- Hungary, but without success. The greatest despondency pre- 
vailed at the Turkish capital. Great excitement prevailed at Constantinople, when 
the Porte called out the reserves to maintain order in the provinces and the capital. 

Capture of Plevna. — On Sunday, December 9th, 1877, Osman Pacha made a 
sortie from Plevna, in order to break through the Russian line of investment, in 
the direction of Widdin ; but, after a severe engagement, Osman Pacha, who was 
severely wounded, surrendered unconditionally to the Russians. The numl^er of 
prisoners taken by the Russians at Plevna was estimated at 40,000, exclusive of 
20,000 sick and wounded. The Czar of Russia, after the surrender of Plevna, 
placed his own carriage and escort at the disposal of Osman Pacha. The Russian 
and Roumanian armies made a grand triumphal entry into Plevna at 3:30 in the 
afternoon of the following day (December loth, 1877). 



IRBJL7R 



